Prof Ed 06: Facilitating Learner – Centered Teaching - Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental

operations facilitate creative and critical thinking

Metacognition – “Thinking about Thinking” or “Learning how P-Plan M-Monitoring E-Evaluation
to learn” 6. Context of Learning
- refers to the highest order thinking which involves active - Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged culture, technology and instructional practices
in learning 7. Motivational and Emotional Influenced on Learning
JOHN FLAVELL - What and how much is learned is influenced by the learners’
THREE CATEGORIES: motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
Knowledge of Person Variables individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and
- includes how one views himself as learner and thinker habits of thinking
- knowledge about how human-beings learn and process 8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn
information - The learners’ creativity, higher order thinking , and natural
- individual knowledge of one’s own learning processes curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic
Task Variables motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
- includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
the type of processing methods personal choice and control
- is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished 9.Effects of Motivation on Effort
- gauging its difficulty (weighing) -Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
- knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you extended learner effort and guided practice. Without
Strategy Variables learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
- awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic effort is unlikely without coercion.
- evaluating whether this strategy is effective Developmental and Social Factors
- if strategy is not working, think of various strategies that will 10. Developmental Influences on Learning
help you learn better - As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and
META-ATTENTION- the awareness of specific strategies so constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when
that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or task differential development within and across physical,
at hand intellectual, emotional and social domain is taken into
MET-MEMORY- is your awareness of memory strategies that account.
work best for you 11. Social Influences on Learning
- Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
Learning – Centered Learning- is a system of instruction that relations and communication with others
places the student in its heart and core. Individual Differences Factors
- is the teaching that facilitates active participation and 12. Individual Differences in Learning
independent inquiry and seeks to instill among students the - Learning have different strategies, approaches and
joy of learning both inside and classroom capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
Learner – Centered Teaching: its definition experience and heredity
- learning experiences academic support strategies, 13. Learning and Diversity
educational programs, and instructional approaches - Learning is most effective when differences in learners’
- student voice in the learning space linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds are taken into
- learner- centered instruction focuses on skills and practices account
that enable independent problem – solving 14. Standards and Assessment
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING - Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
1. Learner – centered teaching engages students in the hard, assessing the learner as well as learning progress—including
messy work of learner diagnostic process and outcome assessment – are integral
2. Learner – centered teaching includes explicit skill parts of the learning process
instruction  Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14
3. Learner – centered teaching encourages student to reflect principles and distilled them into five areas:
on what they are learning and how they are learning it a. The knowledge base- existing knowledge serves as the
4. Learner – centered teaching motivates student by giving foundation of all future learning
them some control over learning processes b. Strategic processing and control- learners can develop skills
5. Learner – centered teaching encourages collaboration to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order
to learn more effectively (metacognition)
LEARNER -CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES c. Motivation and affect- intrinsic motivation, reasons for
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning
1. Nature of the Learning Process tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process
The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective d. Development and Individual Differences- learning is a
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning unique journey for each person
from information and experiences e. Situation or context- Learning happens in the context of a
2. Goals of the Learning Process society as well as within an individual
- The successful learner, overtime and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent FORMS OF LEARNER- CENTERED CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION
representations of knowledge PROCEDURES AND PHYSICAL STRUCTURES
3. Construction of Knowledge Room Structuring
The successful learners can ink new information with existing For Individualized Learning
knowledge in meaningful ways 1. Differentiated Learning
4. Strategic Thinking - Differentiation is a type of learning where instruction is
- The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of tailored to meet the learning needs, preferences, and goals of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning individual students.
goals
5. Thinking about Thinking
- Differentiation is an awareness of and active response to - The terms “collaborative learning” and “cooperative
student’s learning styles. It involves exercising flexibility in learning” are often used interchangeably, but a distinction is
assessment and instruction to create the best learning helpful.
experience possible - “Collaborative learning highlights the contributions of
- Differentiation is the “how” individual group members, stresses the sharing of authority,
 How differentiation works? and leads to a dialogue and consensus.”
- A teacher responds to a student’s unique learning - “Cooperative learning is often thought of as a subset of
needs through the learning process, the educational collaborative learning that involves teacher intervention. The
content, or specific learning vehicle and product, based instructor designs the task and a group structure for
on student’s interests, learning profile and readiness accomplishing the task, including the assignment of roles of
2. Individualized Learning group members.
- Instruction calibrated to meet the unique pace of various - Both collaborative and cooperative learning can take place
students with formal and informal groups, however both settings will
- Individualization is the “when” require that the instructor plans carefully how the
- The academic goals, in tis case, remain the same for a group assignment is designed, monitored, and assessed.
of students, but individual students can progress through the Examples of Group Learning Short-term groups (temporary
curriculum as different speeds, based on their own particular groups)
learning needs.  Think-Pair-Share
- This approach serves students who may need to review - Students are given a prompt (a question, problem, visual,
previously covered material, students who don’t need to etc.) and asked to think about prompt individually and jot
waste time covering information they’ve already mastered, or down ideas. Students can then form pairs, talk about their
students who need to proceed through the curriculum more responses, and formulate joint response. Some pairs are
slowly or immerse themselves in certain topic or principle to called to summarize their discussion for the class.
really “get” it  Think-Pair-Square
- This describes students working through set materials or - Same as the Think-Pair-Share but two pairs (4 students) join
curricula at their own rates together to share and compare the results rather than
- With individualized instruction, learning strategies are based moving to a whole group discussion.
on student readiness, interests and best practices. All of this  Turn-to-Your-Neighbor Discussions
meant to help each student master the skills they need at the - Students “turn to a neighbor” and brainstorm answers to a
speed that they liked question or discuss a solution to a problem. Call on students
3. Personalized Learning for answers. Ask the class for a show of hands of who agrees
- Perhaps the most confusing term of them all is personalized or disagrees with the answer.
learning. some misuse the term, thinking it refers to a  Pair-and-Compare
students choice of “how,” what and where they learn - During a two to three minute break in lecture (time may
according to their references. vary), students may form pairs and compare notes, rewriting
- Others confuse it with individualization, taking it as lessons the notes by adding information or correcting as needed.
that are paced at different rates to accommodate different  Small-Group Homework Check
students. - Have students do their homework individually outside of
-Learning that is tailored to the preferences and interests of class. During the class on the day the assignment is due, have
various learners, as well as instruction that is paced to a students form groups and then compare their answers to the
“student’s unique needs.” assignment. The students in each group must agree on
-Academic goals, curriculum and content, as well as “method answers and turn in a group solution along with their
and pace” can all inconceivable vary in a personalized individual work.
learning environment. Activity-Oriented Classrooms
- Unlike individualized learning, personalized learning involves Defining Activity Based Learning
the student in the creation of the learning activities and relies  Building on the concepts regarding the learner, learning,
more heavily on a student’s “personal interests and curiosity” the things to be learned and the learning environment,
- Personalization, in addition to responding to student’s activity-based learning occurs when:
needs and interests, teaches them to manage their own - Knowledge is mutually constructed with others
learning - Learning is collaborative and co-constructed between the
- It is not something that is done to them but something that learner and his/her social environment.
they participate in doing for themselves. - Motivation results from negotiations/interactions with
For Group Learning  others and from the socio-historical resources available in the
Group Learning physical environment that supports both the collective and
-Two widely principles in learning is “learners construct individual development
knowledge on their own and learning is an inherently social - Activities are authentic and are planned to engage learners
phenomenon’ so that they will work with a variety of material and share
- This supports the use of group learning with others as they develop meaningful ideas and identities
- Working in small groups provides learners with themselves
opportunities to articulate ideas understandings, uncover - Peers (the other learners who are part of the social
assumptions and misconceptions, and negotiate with others environment) contribute to knowledge construction by
to create ideas or reach consensus. sharing definitions as well as identifying the affordances with
-Group activities enables students to discover deeper the tasks-at-hand
meaning in content and improve thinking skills. The most - The teacher is viewed as a mediator, facilitator, coach,
effective use of group work is that which engages students mentor, and actuator who participates with the less
with higher-level content that is thought-provoking, difficult experienced learners co-constructing knowledge
to understand, or has multiple interpretations  What is an Activity-Based Environment?
- According to (Panitz, 1997) “In group learning, group - Understanding activity-based learning is significant for
governance and group processing remain in the hands of the creating the appropriate social environment; however, in
hands of the students” conjunction with this knowledge, the physical environment
must be well-thought-out to support the activities that are - Students should always feel encouraged to ask for help
intended to take place. when they need it. Set a clear system for students to follow
Classroom Routines and Procedures when they need help. These guidelines should help you to
“Routines are the backbone of daily classroom life. They avoid getting off-topic during a lesson and provide students
facilitate teaching and learning… Routines don’t just make with plenty of opportunities for getting help.
your life easier, they save valuable classroom time. And CREATE A SYSTEM FOR RESTROOM USE
what’s most important, efficient routines make it easier for - As a teacher, you will need to put in place a system that
students to learn and achieve more.” (Learning to Teach… not makes bathroom use as undisruptive as possible. This
just for beginners by Linda Shalaway) guarantees that students are not denied the right to essential
How to Established classroom routines bodily functions.
- Establishing effective classroom routines early in the school DETERMINE HOW YOU WILL COLLECT WORK
year helps keep your classroom running smoothly and - Collecting student work should be a streamlined process
ensures that no time is wasted while students wonder what that makes your life easier, not harder. However, if teachers
they should be doing during times of transition. don’t have a practical plan in place, the process of gathering
- Classroom routines can be established for many activities, student work can become an inefficient mess.
including entering the classroom in the morning, transitioning END CLASS AND LESSONS EFFICIENTLY
between activities and preparing to leave the classroom.  Ending a lesson – wrapping up a lesson cements new
- When routines and procedures are carefully taught, information in your student’s brains and checks in with their
modeled, and established in the classroom, children know development. You need to always design a coherent
what’s expected of them and how to do certain things on sequence for a natural conclusion. Always end your lesson
their own. Having these predictable patterns in place allows with a conclusion activity. Exit tickets are great way to find
teachers to spend more time in meaningful instruction. out what your students know.
EXPLAIN THE ROUTINE TO YOUR CLASS - Different forms of exit tickets includes:
- Tell your students why the routine is important and what o KWL charts
you expect them to do as part of the routine. Allow students o Reflection cards
to ask questions about the routine and your expectations. o Short comprehension quizzes
MODEL YOUR EXPECTATIONS END CLASS AND LESSONS EFFICIENTLY
- Act out, in detail, what you expect from students when - Ending the class – end-of-day routine should be like your
completing a routine. Break the routine down and narrate beginning-of-day routines in reverse.
what you are doing. Show each step of the routine and how it - To provide some closure to your students, gather the class
should be properly completed. and have them sit at their desks to discuss the day either
HAVE STUDENTS PRACTICE THE ROUTINE before or after clean-up.
- Select one or two well-behaved students to demonstrate - Finally, just as you greeted your students at the beginning of
the routine first, allowing the class to see how the routine the day, see them out with a warm gesture of goodbye.
should be completed by the student. Once students all The social environment: Fairness, respect, care, and
understand what is expected, have the whole class practice encouraging learning
the routine. - Positive educational environments are necessary to
IMPLEMENT THE ROUTINE IN YOUR DAY facilitate optimally adaptive student outcomes, including
- Once students understand the routine, have them complete learning, motivation, school adjustment, and achievement.
it during the day. As you implement the routine, remind - Schools and classrooms are inherently social places, and
students of proper procedure and your expectations, making students go about their work in the presence of many peers.
your reminders less detailed until they are able to complete - The classroom social environments comprised students’
the task completely on their own. perceptions about how they are encouraged to interact with
REVIEW YOUR ROUTINE AS NECESSARY others, and it encompasses dimensions of teacher support,
- If the class struggles to remember the routine or has trouble promoting mutual respect, promoting student task-related
completing the routine after a break from school, review your interaction, and promoting performance goals.
expectations and have students practice the proper way to Fairness
complete the routine again. - When assessing instructor “fairness,” a student doesn’t
Classroom procedures usually consider the intentions of the instructor, but rather
- A classroom built on procedures and routines is more likely his or her perception of the instructor’s behavior or policies.
to foster positive relationships, experience daily productivity, Typology of perceived fairness:
and enjoy a relaxed environment than an unstructured and o Interactional fairness
unpredictable classroom. o Procedural fairness
BEGIN CLASS INTENTIONALLY o Outcome fairness
- Beginning-of-the-day routines are important for classroom Respect
management and some of the most significant procedures - Students expect an instructor to listen, consider, and
you can set. thoughtfully reply to their ideas, even when they challenge
Three steps to establish a successful procedure for the the instructor's views. An instructor perceived as impatient or
beginning of the day demeaning loses students' respect.
 Greet your students – the school day begins for students Care
the moment the bell rings, so be sure to make their few - Care about your students and their academic performance.
minutes count. Learn and use their names, talk to them before and after
 Start on time – don’t risk losing any instructional time by class, answer questions thoroughly, and invite students who
starting class late, even a few minutes – a few minutes every appear to be having problems with the course to discuss
day adds up. those problems and potential solutions.
 Give bell work – teachers should always provide their Encouraging learning
students with a warm-up task to be completed independently - A sound relationship provides a tension free environment to
at the start of every school day. the student enabling him to learn more and to complete in
ESTABLISH A PROCEDURE FOR ASKING QUESTIONS the class.
CREATING LEARNING MOTIVATING ENVIRONMENT the whole group or class should be clear to the students,
- Considering the range of diversity among today’s students, from which they could identify with those values.
how do we help all students to learn? In addition, they get LEARNER-CENTERED CLASSROOM: ROLES AND
distracted. They get bored. They get tired. And, they change RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEACHERS AND LEARNERS
their minds. Learner-Centered Classroom
- An important part of a motivational teaching practice that - In a learner-centered classroom, students are the focus of
has a considerable empowering effect is to raise student education, while teachers facilitate learning and help
awareness of relevant strategies and to remind them at students reflect and become responsible for their education.
appropriate times of their usefulness. - Student-centered classroom, or student-centered learning
- It is one thing to initially whet the students’ appetite with environment, is one where the focus of instruction is shifted
appropriate motivational techniques, but unless motivation is from the teacher to the student, with the end goal of
actively maintained and protected, the natural tendency to developing students who are autonomous and independent,
lose sight of the goal, to get tired or bored of the activity, and by placing the responsibility of learning in the hands of the
to give way to attractive distractions will result in the initial students.
motivation gradually petering out. Therefore, motivation Learner-Centered Teachers Must:
needs to be actively nurtured.  Act as Facilitators and Guides
The following six areas appear to be particularly relevant for  Provide Anytime, Anywhere and On-Demand Support
classroom application:  Embody Core Values That Support Deeper Learning
1. Making learning stimulating and enjoyable;  Truly Encourage Students Drive Their Own Learning
2. Presenting tasks in a motivating way;  Create Real-World and Authentic Learning Experiences
3. Setting specific learner goals;  Leverage Technology to Personalize Learning
4. Protecting the learners’ self-esteem and increasing their  Commit to Professional and Personal Growth
self-confidence. Roles and Responsibilities of Learners:
5. Creating learner autonomy;  Be aware that they are responsible for constructing their
6. Promoting self-motivating learner strategies. own personal knowledge;
APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION  Taking part as active participants in the learning process.
Generally, there are five approaches to motivation which
teachers can select from when they want the students to get The Classroom Climate
interested or focused on the lessons. (Woolfolk, 2013) - The classroom climate is more a product of the interaction
1. Behavioral Approach between and among teachers and students than that of the
- Student Motivation starts with the teacher doing a careful physical condition of the classroom. The physical condition of
analysis of the incentives and rewards present and available the classroom may exert an influence on the social
in the classroom. A reward is an attractive object or event interaction among the personalities in class but it may not
given as a result of a particular behavior. An incentive is an contribute as much as the classroom social interaction does.
object or event that encourages or discourages behavior. The - The classroom climate that is conducive for learning is one
promise of a high grade is an incentive. Receiving the grade is that is non-threatening yet business-like.
the reward. Giving grades, stars, stickers and other reinforces - It is a classroom where:
for learning, or demerits for misbehavior are ways to  Specific classroom rules and procedures are clear.
motivate students by extrinsic means of incentives, rewards  These classroom rules and procedures are discussed on the
and punishment. first days of class.
2. Humanistic Approach  Students are involved in the design of rules and procedures.
- Proponents of humanistic psychology like Carl Rogers  Techniques to acknowledge and reinforce acceptable
argued that other schools of psychology are not adequate to behavior and provide negative consequences are employed.
explain why people act and behave the way they do. This  Clear limits for unacceptable behavior are established
approach emphasizes intrinsic sources of motivation like need  There is a healthy balance between dominance and
for self-actualization, or the need for self-determination. cooperation.
From the humanistic view, to motivate is to encourage  The teacher is aware of the needs of different types of
people’s inner resources, their sense of competence, self- students
esteem, autonomy and self-actualization. It is thus important  The teacher is fully aware of the happenings in class
for teachers to provide activities or opportunities that will  Students’ responsibility for their own behavior is enhanced.
develop students’ self-confidence and a sense of competence (Marzano, et al, 2003)
inside the classroom.
3. Cognitive Approach
- People are viewed as active and curious, searching for
information, and solving problems. This approach emphasizes
intrinsic motivation, and believes that behavior is
determined. Behavior is initiated and regulated by plans,
expectations and attributions. It is thus important for
teachers to provide activities to students that will challenge
their thinking processes, and encourage problem solving and
independent thinking.
4. Socio-cultural Approach
- Emphasis is on participation in communities of practice.
People engage in activities to maintain their identities and
their interpersonal relations in the community. Thus,
students are motivated to learn if they belong to a classroom
or a group that values learning, and where they believe
learning is important to their lives. Thus, we learn to dress, or
speak in a particular manner as we learn from the other or
more capable members of the community. The values held by
Analysis – breaking ideas into small pieces 1. Understand and explore the problem;
Synthesis – putting all things together to summarize. 2. Find a strategy;
Assessment – does not give immediate result 3. Use the strategy to solve the problem;
Evaluate – it has immediate result ( quizzes, formative & 4. Look back and reflect on the solution.
summative test) Problem based learning (PBL)
Problem Solving = Decision Making & Evaluation - is a teaching strategy during which students are trying solve
- The mathematics curriculum in the K to 12 Basic Education a problem or a set problems unfamiliar to them.
Curriculum has two objectives: critical thinking and problem - PBL is underpinned by a constructivist approach, as such it
solving. promotes active learning
- Mathematics, the science of structure, order, and relation - Activities are carried out with groups of students, typically in
that has evolved from elemental practices of counting, a tutorial or seminar setting.
measuring, and describing the shapes of objects. It deals with Critical thinking
logical reasoning and quantitative calculation, and its - is a key factor in separating those students who can 'do'
development has involved an increasing degree of math from those who truly understand what they're doing.
idealization and abstraction of its subject matter. 1. ARGUMENTATION-Argumentation is the thought process
used to develop and present arguments. It is closely related
The method or methods used in any particular context are to critical thinking and reasoning.
largely determined by the objectives that the relevant 2. CONFLICT RESOLUTION- Conflict, arguments, and change
educational system is trying to achieve. Methods of teaching are natural parts of our lives, as well as the lives of every
mathematics include the following: agency, organization, and nation.
1. Classical education: the teaching of mathematics within the - Conflict resolution is a way for two or more parties to find a
quadrivium, part of the classical education curriculum of the peaceful solution to a disagreement among them..
Middle Ages, which was typically based on Euclid's Elements 3. CONJECTURE REASONS-A conjecture is a mathematical
taught as a paradigm of deductive reasoning. statement that has not yet been rigorously proved.
2. Computer-based math an approach based around the use - Conjectures arise when one notices a pattern that holds true
of mathematical software as the primary tool of computation. for many cases. However, just because a pattern holds true
3. Computer-based mathematics education involving the use for many cases does not mean that the pattern will hold true
of computers to teach mathematics. Mobile applications have for all cases.
also been developed to help students learn mathematics. - Conjectures must be proved for the mathematical
4. Conventional approach: the gradual and systematic guiding observation to be fully accepted. When a conjecture is
through the hierarchy of mathematical notions, ideas and rigorously proved, it becomes a theorem4.
techniques. Starts with arithmetic and is followed by PATTERNING- A pattern is a series or sequence that repeats.
Euclidean geometry and elementary algebra taught - Math patterns are sequences that repeat according to a rule
concurrently. or rules.
5. Discovery math: a constructivist method of teaching - In math, a rule is a set way to calculate or solve a problem.
(discovery learning) mathematics which centres around Inquiry based Learning (IBL)
problem-based or inquiry-based learning, with the use of o Focusing on questions
open-ended questions and manipulative tools. o Student ask (student lead activity)
6. Exercises: the reinforcement of mathematical skills by Characteristics
completing large numbers of exercises of a similar type, such o Process focus
as adding vulgar fractions or solving quadratic equations. o Investigation
7. Mastery: an approach in which most students are expected o Group learning
to achieve a high level of competence before progressing. o Discussion monitoring (role of a teacher, listening to
8. Problem solving: the cultivation of mathematical ingenuity, the group activity)
creativity and heuristic thinking by setting students open-
ended, unusual, and sometimes unsolved problems. Teaching Mathematics Using Constructivist Strategies
9. Recreational mathematics: Mathematical problems that How Constructivism as a Strategy Works in the Teaching of
are fun can motivate students to learn mathematics and can Mathematics
increase enjoyment of mathematics. Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the
10.Standards-based mathematics: a vision for pre-college learner's active role in constructing their own understanding
mathematics education in the US and Canada, focused on based on prior knowledge and experiences. In mathematics
deepening student understanding of mathematical ideas and teaching, constructivism works by:
procedures, and formalized by the National Council of 1. Encouraging Exploration: Students explore problems and
Teachers of Mathematics which created the Principles and discover solutions through guided inquiry rather than
Standards for School Mathematics. memorizing formulas.
11.Relational approach: Uses class topics to solve everyday 2. Building on Prior Knowledge: Teachers connect new math
problems and relates the topic to current events. concepts to what students already know, helping them create
12.Rote learning: the teaching of mathematical results, meaningful links.
definitions and concepts by repetition and memorization 3. Problem-Solving Focus: Real-world problems are used to
typically without meaning or supported by mathematical stimulate thinking and reasoning, encouraging learners to
reasoning. develop their own methods of solution.
Problem solving 4. Collaborative Learning: Group work and discussions help
- is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of learners share diverse perspectives, clarifying and deepening
the problem; identifying, prioritizing, and selecting their understanding.
alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution. 5. Reflection and Explanation: Students are asked to explain
- Problem Solving is a mathematical process. As such it is to their reasoning, which strengthens conceptual
be found in the Strand of Mathematical Processes along with understanding.
Logic and Reasoning, and Communication. Example: Instead of teaching the formula for the area of a
method + answer = solution triangle directly, students might be guided to discover it by
Four Stages of Problem Solving
comparing triangles and rectangles using hands-on materials - It can be both a private process as well as one that you
or drawing software. discuss with colleagues.
How Teaching for Understanding Can Be Used in - Assessment of teaching process and practices
Mathematics Teaching What went well? What went wrong?
Teaching for understanding involves helping students grasp 3 actions
deep, transferable knowledge rather than rote procedures. In 1. Reflection for action
mathematics, this approach can be applied by: - Forward thinking (more on lesson plan)
1. Focusing on Concepts, Not Just Procedures: Emphasize the - Future (before teaching)
"why" behind mathematical operations. 2. Reflection in action
2. Using Multiple Representations: Encourage students to - During the discussion
express ideas using numbers, graphs, words, and symbols. - reflecting while you are in an activity
3. Encouraging Connections: Help students connect 3. Reflection on action
mathematical ideas to each other and to real-life situations. - After the discussion
4. Assessing for Understanding: Use assessments that ask - reflect-on-action once the activity has finished based on
students to explain, justify, and apply their thinking in new what you can remember about it.
contexts. Reflective Journal Techniques
Example: When teaching fractions, instead of just doing 1. Journal
operations, students explore what fractions represent, how 2. Log
they compare, and how they relate to division and ratios. 3. Marginal notes
How Dale’s Cone of Experience Is Applicable in Mathematics Instructional decision making
Teaching and Learning 1. Repeat
Dale’s Cone of Experience illustrates the importance of using 2. Remediate / reinforce
varied and concrete experiences in learning. In math, it is 3. Proceed
applicable in the following ways:
1. Use of Concrete Objects (Real Experiences): Manipulatives Concrete Representational Abstract (CRA)
like base-ten blocks, fraction strips, or algebra tiles help - is a teaching strategy in math that helps learners understand
students understand abstract ideas. concepts step by step, moving from hands-on experience to
2. Active Participation: Activities such as experiments, abstract thinking
modeling, and simulations engage students directly and 1. Concrete
improve retention. - is a teaching strategy in math that helps learners understand
3. Visual and Verbal Tools: Charts, graphs, videos, and concepts step by step, moving from hands-on experience to
diagrams help bridge the gap between experience and abstract thinking.
abstraction. 2. Representational
4. Progression to Abstract Thinking: Start with direct - Students move from actual objects to pictures, drawings, or
experiences, then move toward symbolic and abstract diagrams to represent the problem.
representations. - They no longer need physical items but still rely on visuals.
Application: Before teaching algebraic equations, students 3. Abstract
might first explore patterns with tiles or counters to - Students use numbers, symbols, and equations without
understand variables. needing objects or drawings.
- This is where students apply their understanding in a more
traditional math format.
How Other Constructivism Strategies Can Improve Teaching Integrative Learning
and Enhance Learning in Mathematics - students connect ideas, skills, and knowledge across
Several other constructivist strategies support improved different subjects and real-life experiences.
math teaching, including: 1. Interdisciplinary
Inquiry-Based Learning: Students investigate math - Within the subjects (solving / focus on one subject/ concept)
problems, form hypotheses, test them, and draw conclusions. 2. Multidisciplinary/ Interdisciplinary
Scaffolding: Teachers provide temporary support (e.g., - Between the subjects ( concept related to other concepts of
guiding questions, hints) which is gradually removed as other subjects)
students gain independence. 3.Transdisciplinary
Use of Technology: Tools like graphing calculators, dynamic - Beyond subjects (application)
geometry software, or interactive simulations allow students
to visualize and test mathematical concepts.
Socratic Questioning: Teachers ask open-ended questions
that prompt deeper thinking and justification.
Project-Based Learning: Students apply math skills in
authentic, real-world projects, such as budgeting or designing
structures.
Problem 1: Fencing a Rectangular Garden (Moderate)
Step-by-Step Teaching
Step 1: Activating Prior Knowledge
Step 2: Using Manipulatives or Digital Tools
Step 3: Transition to Generalization: Guide students to form
an equation
Step 4: Encourage Inquiry
Step 5: Group Discussion & Justification

Reflective teaching
- is a personal tool that teachers can use to observe and
evaluate the way they behave in their classroom.
REVIEWER IN PROFED 8 o Proficiency – measure overall ability in a skill (e.g.,
Module 1: Basic Concepts and Principles of Educational language).
Assessment o Achievement – measure learning after instruction.
Educational Assessment Standardized and High-Stakes Testing
Educational assessment – process of gathering information o Standardized Test – uniform conditions & scoring;
about what students have learned in their educational e.g., NAT, BEEA.
environment. o High-Stakes Test – has serious consequences
- Derived from Latin word assidere which means “to sit (promotion, graduation, school ranking).
beside” (Wiggins, 1993). Evaluation
- It involves gathering evidence of learners’ performance over - Comes from “value” → determines worth, appropriateness,
time using tools like journals, portfolios, tests, rubrics, etc. validity.
Purpose of Assessment - Purpose: Make judgments (adopt, reject, revise).
- Collaborative process between teachers and learners. - Covers programs, teachers, students, goals.
- Goal: Improve student learning and provide reliable Types of Evaluation
information to stakeholders about student progress and o Formative Evaluation – during program; focus on
attainment of expected outcomes. process; identify deficiencies for improvement.
- Helps in feedback, instructional decisions, and reflection. o Summative Evaluation – after program; focus on
Guiding Principles of Assessment results; measure effectiveness.
- Assessment should be: Differences
 Relational  Assessment vs. Measurement:
 Equitable and inclusive Assessment – broad process of collecting evidence.
 Clear and transparent Measurement – assigning numbers to attributes.
 Student-centered  Measurement vs. Evaluation:
 Intentional Measurement – quantitative description.
 Flexible Evaluation – judgment about worth/quality based on
 Responsible and reflective data.
Types of Assessment  Testing vs. Evaluation:
According to DO No. 8, s. 2015, there are two main types: Testing – uses tools to measure.
1. Formative Assessment – Assessment for and as learning Evaluation – uses data to decide worth or value.
- Conducted during the learning process. Important Notes
- Purpose: Improve teaching and learning while it’s We measure → height, weight, aptitude.
happening. We test → aptitude (using exams).
- Examples: quizzes, seatwork, observation, discussion. We assess → learning outcomes.
2. Summative Assessment – Assessment of learning We evaluate → results in terms of criteria.
- Conducted after instruction. MODULE 3: Recent Trends and Focus in Education
- Purpose: Measure what students have learned. 1. Key Change in Education
- Examples: final exam, projects, term papers. Traditional view: Education = “pouring in” knowledge,
Users of Educational Assessment teacher as sole source, student as passive.
 Teachers – for instructional decisions and reflections. Modern view: Teacher as facilitator, students access multiple
 Students – to evaluate own learning, identify information sources.
strengths & weaknesses. - Technology shifted learning from teacher-centered to
 Parents and Community – for support, guidance, and student-centered approach.
policy-making. 2. OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION (OBE)
Key Concepts Definition
- Assessment in education is not a one-time act; it is a process - Organizes everything in the education system around what
involving planning, needs assessment, feedback, and students should be able to do at the end of their learning.
reflection. - Focus: What students learn (outcomes), not time spent or
- It facilitates higher-order thinking and 21st-century skills resources used (inputs).
development. - Student-centered and performance-based approach.
- Graphic organizers and Venn diagrams can be used to
represent relationships between formative and summative Characteristics of OBE
assessment. 1. Student-centered – Focus on Student Learning Outcomes
(SLOs).
MODULE 2: TEAM (Test, Evaluation, Assessment, 2. Faculty-driven – Teachers plan, teach, assess, and
Measurement) motivate.
Measurement 3. Meaningful – Provides data for continuous improvement.
- Process of describing attributes in terms of quantity.
- Uses standard measuring devices or procedures. Steps in Implementing OBE
Two types: 1. Identify educational objectives – Broad goals of
o Objective – independent of person (e.g., subject/program.
standardized tests). 2. List learning outcomes – Specific, measurable actions using
o Subjective – depends on perception (e.g., rating Bloom’s taxonomy:
scales). o Cognitive (knowledge) – remembering,
Test understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating,
- A tool or method to measure knowledge or ability. creating.
- Must be valid (measures what it should measure) & reliable o Psychomotor (skills) – observing, imitating,
(consistent results). practicing, innovating.
Types of Tests o Affective (attitude) – receiving, responding, valuing,
o Placement – determine level/placement (e.g., PEPT). organizing, internalizing.
o Diagnostic – identify strengths & weaknesses.
3. Draft outcomes assessment procedures – How to measure o Learning Competencies.
if outcomes are achieved. Key Skills in K to 12
- Critical thinking.
Types of Outcomes - Collaboration.
1. Immediate Outcomes – Skills gained upon completion of a - Communication.
subject/grade/program. - Creativity.
o Examples: writing & speaking ability, math problem-
solving, research skill, promotion to higher grade, ✔ OBE = student-centered, focuses on outcomes.
passing licensure exam. ✔ SBE = uses clear standards to guide teaching and
2. Deferred Outcomes – Long-term application of skills years assessment.
after graduation. ✔ K to 12 = combination of OBE & SBE principles,
o Examples: success in career, promotions, awards, competency-based learning.
personal development.
MODULE 4: Standards-based Assessment
Levels of Outcomes 1. Definition of Standards-Based Assessment (Dorothy
1. Institutional – What graduates can do beyond graduation. Strater, 2006)
2. Program – What graduates of a degree program can do - It evaluates student understanding based on agreed-upon
upon graduation. standards (outcomes).
3. Course – What students can do after completing a subject. - Standards set the criteria for successful demonstration of
4. Learning/Instructional – What students can do after a concepts or skills.
lesson. - Students can demonstrate understanding in diverse ways:
o Selected Response (e.g., multiple choice)
3. STANDARDS-BASED EDUCATION (SBE) o Physical constructions
Definition o Written responses
- Uses pre-determined standards to plan instruction, o Performances
activities, and assessments. - Purpose: Connect evidence of learning to learning
- Standards = clear descriptions of what students must know outcomes.
or do at a specific time. - Benefits:
o Clear standards → awareness of achievement
Pros of SBE o Teachers give meaningful feedback
✔ Students clearly know expectations. o Students develop self-regulation & metacognition
✔ Teachers plan instruction aligned with standards. 2. Main Learning Outcome
✔ Focused learning → limited number of skills per grade - Formulate appropriate learning objectives and outcomes
level. constructively aligned with national standards.
✔ Enables accountability for teachers and students. Sub-Tasks:
✔ Students can track their own progress. 1. Explain standards-based assessment
2. Check if an assessment task is aligned to a learning
Cons of SBE outcome
✖ Who sets the standards? Risk of unrealistic expectations. 3. Explain K-12 Assessment Guidelines
✖ Overemphasis on rigid goals → loss of learning motivation. 3. Constructive Alignment (Biggs, 2007)
✖ Standardized tests may not reflect deep understanding. - Definition: Teaching-learning activities and assessment tasks
✖ “Mile-wide, inch-deep” curriculum → too broad but must align with the intended learning outcome.
shallow learning. - Example: If the outcome is to drive a car, teach driving and
assess by actual driving, not by explaining how to drive.
Jenny Froehle’s Criticism - Common mistake: Teaching one thing but assessing another.
- NCLB (No Child Left Behind) led to unreasonable - Based on Constructivist Theory: Learners construct their
assessments. own knowledge through activity.
- Suggests meaningful teaching → focus on: 4. Assessment Methods
1. Most important ideas and why. Two main types:
2. How to communicate ideas. 1. Traditional Assessment (Paper-and-pencil tests) →
3. How to solve real-world problems. measures cognitive domain / declarative knowledge
- Examples:
4. K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAM o Alternate Response (True/False)
Purpose o Matching Type
- Respond to national and global needs. o Multiple Choice
Mission: o Completion
- Strengthen Filipino values & nationalism. o Short Answer
- Develop productive, responsible citizens.
o Essay
- Promote environmental sustainability.
o Problem Solving
- Build global partnerships.
2. Authentic Assessment (Non-paper-and-pencil) → measures
procedural & psychomotor learning
Features of Curriculum
- Examples:
1. Conceptual Framework – goals, content areas, skills,
o Product: Reports, research projects, visual works,
values.
journals
2. Learning Standards:
o Performance: Experiments, oral presentations,
- Learning Area Standards.
- Key Stage Standards. dramatizations
- Grade Level Standards: 5. Portfolio Types
o Content Standards. Working Portfolio – “In progress”, shows growth &
development over time.
o Performance Standards.
Display Portfolio – Best works, highest achievement level.
Assessment Portfolio – Documents learning based on o Bloom’s levels: Remember → Understand → Apply
standards & competencies, includes reflective comments. → Analyze → Evaluate → Create
6. Rubrics - Affective: Attitude, values, emotions
- Purpose: Assess processes & products fairly; more reliable o Receiving → Responding → Valuing → Organizing →
than single scores. Internalizing
- Parts: - Psychomotor: Physical skills
o Coherent set of criteria o Observing → Imitating → Practicing → Adapting
o Performance level descriptions 6. Importance of Taxonomies
- Types: - Bloom’s Taxonomy & others guide teachers on the order of
o Analytic Rubric: Each criterion evaluated separately teaching for higher-level thinking.
(good for formative, can adapt to summative). - Helps create objectives and outcomes that progress from
o Holistic Rubric: All criteria evaluated together (faster, simple to complex.
good for summative). 7. True Learning Outcomes
7. Assessment & Multiple Intelligences - Written to be measurable
- Learners have different intelligences & learning styles. - Focus on what students can do at the end of a course or
- Teachers must use varied assessment methods aligned with program
these differences. - Serve as basis for assessment programs
8. Key K to 12 Principle Sample Activity from Module
- Assessment must be based on standards and competencies, - Write learning objectives for each domain:
not just content. o Cognitive (Investigative Project in Biological Science)
- There must be alignment between assessment tools, o Psychomotor (Table Setting)
standards, and competencies. o Affective (Developing Honesty)
- Employ formative & summative assessment, individually and
collaboratively. MODULE 6: Unpacking Learning Competencies
Unpacking learning competencies means specify learning
MODULE 5: Appropriate Targets targets for effective instruction.
1. Learning Targets “Unpacking” is a technique teacher can use to make sense of
- Definition: standards, and then create focused learning targets to make
A statement of intended learning for students based on them actionable.
standards. Also called “deconstructing” or “unwrapping”
o Specifies and unpacks the objective
o Written in student-friendly language Steps in unpacking:
o Directly connected to assessment STEP 1: IDENTIFY KEY CONCEPTS & SKILLS
- Purpose: STEP 2: IDENTIFY LEARNING TARGET TYPES.
o Clarifies what success looks like STEP 3: DETERMINE BIG IDEAS moments). STEP 4: WRITE
o Guides students on what they should learn during ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS
and after the lesson
2. Competency, Objective, and Outcome A. B. C. D. method (Heinich, et al., 1996).
- Competency This method considers:
General statement describing desired knowledge, skills, and 1. Audience: Who are your learners (who will be doing the
behaviors (broad). performance)?
o Defines applied skills & knowledge for success in life 2. Behavior: Describe the task or behavior using action verbs
contexts -- be sure it is something that can be heard or something that
- Learning Objective: is observable.
What the learner must be able to do after the lesson. 3. Conditions: Under what conditions (what tools, aids or
o Describes knowledge, skills, attitude to be gained reference materials can the learner use? Are there things that
o Must be measurable they won't be able to use?)
- Learning Outcome: 4. Degree: To what degree of mastery -- how well must it be
Very specific statement, measurable, describes what a done (speed, accuracy, quality, etc.)?
student will do at the end. Example:
o One competency may have multiple outcomes Students will explain the social responsibility to ensure that
3. SMART Learning Objectives adequate legal services are provided to those who cannot
- To be useful, objectives must be: afford to pay for them in three paragraphs.
o Specific
o Measurable
o Attainable
o Results-focused
o Time-bound
Steps to write objectives:
- What do you want to accomplish?
- How will you accomplish it? (conditions & activities)
- How will you measure it? (evidence & criteria)
4. Characteristics of Objectives
o Clear
o Measurable
o Observable
o Aligned with standards and competencies
5. Three Learning Domains
- Cognitive: Thinking skills