UNIT - I

Brief Survey of Computer Graphics.

Graphics Systems: Video Display Devices and Types.
Raster – Scan Systems and Random -Scan Systems.
Input Devices.
Hard Copy Devices.
Graphics Software.

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 UNIT- I

INRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS

BREIF SURVEY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

 Computer-aided design(CAD)
 Presentation graphics
 Computer art
 Entertainment
 Visualization
 Image processing
 Graphical user interfaces
 Education and training

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Computer have become a powerful tool for the rapid and economical production of pictures.

There is virtually no area in which graphical displays cannot be used to some advantage, and so
it is not surprising to find the use of computer graphics.
Early applications in engineering and science had to really on expensive and cumbersome
equipment, advances in computer technology have made interactive computer graphics a
practical tool.

Computer graphics used routinely in such diverse area as science, engineering, medicine,
business, industry, government, art, entertainment, advertising, education and training.

COMPUTER - AIDED DESIGN

A major use of computer graphics is in design processes, particularly for engineering and
architectural design systems, but almost all products are new computer, designed.

CAD methods are now used in the design of buildings, automobiles, aircraft, watercraft,
spacecraft, computer textiles, and many other products.

In CAD design applications, object are first displayed in a wireframe outline from that shows
the overall shape and internal features of objects.

Wireframes display the designers to quickly see the effects of interactive adjustments to design
shapes.

PRESENTATION GRAPHICS

Presentation graphics are used to produce reports or to generate 35mm slides or transparencies
for use with projectors.

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it is commonly used to summarize financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific, and economic
data for research reports, managerial reports, consumers information bulletins and other type of
reports.

EX: Bar charts, line graphs, surface graphs, pie charts etc..,

COMPUTER ART

Computer graphics methods are widely used in both fine art and commercial art applications.

Artist use a variety of computer methods, including special purpose hardware artists paintbrush
programs, other paint packages, specially developed software.

Like , CAD packages, desktop publishing software and animation packages that provide
facilities for designing object shapes and specifying object motions.

A paint brush program that allows artist to paint . The picture is usually painted electronically
on a graphics tablets(digitizers) using a stylus, which can simulate different brush strokes ,
brush widths and colors.

A paint brush system, with a wacom cardless, pressure- sensitive stylus, was used to produce
the electronic painting

The stylus translates changing hand pressure into variable line widths, brush sizes, and color
graduation.

ENTERTAINMENT

Computer graphics methods are used in making motion pictures, music videos and television
shows.

The graphic scenes are displayed by themselves, and sometimes graphics objects are combined
with the actors and live scenes.

The planet and spaceship are drawn in wireframe form and shaded with rendering methods to
produce solid surfaces.

Music, videos are used in graphics object can be combined with the action, or graphics and
image processing techniques can be used to produce a transformation of one person or object
into another(morphing).

EDUCATION AND TRANING

Computer generated models of physical, financial and economic systems are often used as
educational aids.

Models of physical systems, physiological systems, population trends or equipments, such as

color-coded diagram can help trainers to understand the operation of the system.

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For some training applications, special systems are designed. Ex: training of ship captains,
aircraft pilots, heavy – equipments operators, and air traffic- control personnel.

VISUALIZATION

Scientists, engineers, medical personnel, business analysts and others often need to analyze
large amounts of information or to study the behaviour of certain processes.

satellite cameras and others sources are amazing large sets of numbers to determine trends and
relationship is a tedious and ineffective process.

Producing graphical representations for scientific, engineering, and medical data sets and
processes is generally referred to as scientific visualization.

And the term business visualization is used in connection with data sets related to commerce ,
industry and others non-scientific areas.

A collection of data can contain scalar values, vectors, higher-order tensors or any

And data sets can be two dimensional or three dimensional. Color coding is one way to
visualize a data set.

Additional techniques includes colour plots , graphs and charts , surface renderings and
visualizations of volume interiors.

Image processing techniques are combined with computer graphics to produced many of the
data visualizations.

IMAGE PROCESSING

In computer graphics a computer is used to create a picture.

Image processing on the other hand applies techniques to modify or interpret existing pictures,
such as photographs and TV scans.

APPLICATION:

 Improving picture quality

 Machine perception of visual information

Both the applications are used in robotics. To apply image processing first digitize a photograph
or other picture into an image file. Then digital methods can be applied to rearrange picture
parts, to enhance color separations or to improve the quality of shading.

Medical application also makes extensive use of image processing techniques for picture
enhancements, in tomography and in simulation of operations.

Tomography is a technique of x-ray photography t hat allows cross sectional views of

physiological systems to be displayed.

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Both computed x-ray tomography(CT) and position emission tomography(PET) use projection
methods to reconstruct cross section from digital data.

Image processing and computer graphics are typically combined in many applications.
Medicine, for example, used these applications techniques to model and study physical
functions, to design artificial limbs, and to plan practice surgery.

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES

A major components of a graphical interface is a window manager that allows a user to display
multiple window areas.

Each window can contain a different process that can contain graphical or non graphical
displays.

To make a particular windows active, we simply click in that window using an interface
pointing device.

interface also display menus and icons for fast sections of processing options or parameter
values.

GRAPHIC SYSTEM:-

VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICE: - TYPES

 Raster scan system

 Random scan system
 Input devices
 Hard copy devices
 Graphics software

VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES:-

The primary output device in a graphic system is a video monitor. The operation of most video
monitor is based on the standard cathode-ray tube (CRT) design.

Refresh cathode ray tubes:-

A beam of electron (cathode ray) emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and
deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified positions on the phosphor-coated
system

One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directly
the electron beam back over the same point.

This type of display is called a refresh CRT. The primary components of an electron gun in a
CRT are the heated metal cathode and a control grid.

Heat is directly supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire, called the
filament. This causes electron to be “boiled off” the hot cathode surface.

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The vacuum inside the CRT envelope, the free, negatively charged electrons are then
accelerated towards the phosphor coating by a high positive voltage.

The accelerating voltage can be generated with a positive charged metal coating on the inside of
the CRT envelope near the phosphor screen.

The focusing system in CRT is needed to force the electron beam to converge into a small spot
as it strikes the phosphor.

Focusing is accomplished with either electric or magnetic fields. Electrostatic focusing is

commonly used in television and computer graphics monitors.

The action of the electrostatic lens focuses the beam at the center of the screen, in same way that
an optical lens focuses a beam of light at a particular focal distance.

Two pairs of coils are used, with the coils in each pair mounted on opposite sides of the neck of
the CRT envelope.

One pair is mounted on the top and bottom of the neck and the other pair is mounted on the
opposite sides of the neck.

The magnetic field produced by each pair of coils results in the transverse deflection force that
is perpendicular both to the direction of the magnetic field and to the direction of travel of the
electron beam.

Fig: Electrostatic deflection of the electron beam in a CRT

Horizontal deflection is accomplished with one pair of coils, and vertical deflection by the other
pair.

RASTER-SCAN DISPLAY:

The most common type of graphic monitor employing a CRT is the raster scan display, based
on television technology.

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The electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top to bottom. As the
electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern
of illuminated scans.

Picture definition is stored in the memory area called the refresh buffer or frame buffer. This
memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points.

Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and pointed on the screen one
row(scan line) at a time.

Each screen points is referred to as a pixel or pel. On a black and white system with one bit per
pixel, the frame buffer is commonly called a bit map.

Fig:- A raster scan system display an objects as a set of discrete points across each scan
line.

Raster scan display is carried out at the rate of 60-80 frames per seconds. The return to the left
of the screen, after refreshing each scan line, is called the horizontal retrace of the electron
beam.

At the end of the each frames, the electron beam returns(vertical retrace) to the top corner of the
screen to begin the next frame.

RANDOM-SCAN DISPLAY

In random scan display the CRT has the electron beam directed only to the part of the screen
where a picture is to be drawn.

Random scan monitors draw picture one line at a time and for this reason are also referred to as
vector displays (or stroke writing or calligraphic displays).

The component line of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a random scan system in any
specified order.

A pen plotter operates in the similar way and is an example of random scan, hard-copy devices.

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Refresh rate on a random system depends on the number of lines be displayed. Picture
definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory referred to as
the refresh display file.

The refresh display file is called the display list, display program or refresh buffer.

Fig:- Interfacing scan lines on a raster scan-display.

In raster scan first, all points on the even numbered (solid) scan lines are displayed, then all
points along the odd numbered (dashed) lines are displayed.

Random scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a pictures 30-60 times
each second.

Fig:- A random scan system draws the component lines of an object in any order specified.

Random scan systems are designed for line-drawing applications and cannot display realistic
shaded scenes.

COLOR CRT MONITORS:-

A CRT monitor displays color pictures using a combination of phosphor that emits different
colored lights.

There are two basic techniques for producing color display with a CRT.

1. The beam penetration method

2. The shadow mask method

The beam penetration method:-

The beam-penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used with random scan
monitors. Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green coated onto the inside of the CRT
screen, and the displayed color depends on the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor
layers.

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A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer. A beam of very fast electrons
penetrate through the red layer and excites the inner green layer.

Combinations of red and green light are emitted to show two additional colors, orange and
yellow. Here, only four colors are possible, and the quality of the pictures is not good as with
other methods.

The speed of the electron and the screen color is maintained by the beam acceleration voltage.

The shadow mask method:-

Shadow mask methods are commonly used in raster scan systems (including color TV) because
it produces more colors than the beam penetration method.

A shadow mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot
emits a red light, another emits a green light, and third emits a blue light.

This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a shadow mask grid just
behind the phosphor-coated screen.

Fig:- Operation of a delta-delta, shadow-mask CRT. Three electron guns, aligned with the
triangular color-dots pattern on the screen are directed to each dot triangle by a shadow
mask.

The three electron beam are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which
contain a series of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns.

When the three beams pass through the hole in the shadow mask, then appears. Color spots on
the screen.

The phosphor dots in the triangle are arranged, each electrons beam can activate only its
corresponding color dots when it passes through the shadow mask CRT.

We can produce the number of color from three electron beam. A white or gray area is the result
activating all three dots with equal intensity.

Yellow is produced with the green and red dots only. Magenta is produced with the blue and red
dots, Cyan shows up when blue and green are activated equally.

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Color graphics system can be designed to be used with several types of CRT display devices

1. Home computer
2. Video Games
3. Color TV and
4. Radio Frequency(RF) Modulator

Composite monitors are adaptation of TV sets that allow bypass of the broadcast circuitry.

Color CRT in graphics system is designed as RGB monitors. An RGB color system with 24 bits
of storage per pixel is generally referred as a full color system or true color system.

DIRECT VIEW STORAGE TUBES (DVST):

An alternative method for maintaining a screen image is to store the picture information inside
the CRT screen used instead of refreshing screen.

Two types of electron guns are used in DVST:-

1. Primary Gun: - It’s used to store the picture pattern.

2. Flood Gun: - It maintains the picture displays.

Advantages of DVST:

 No refreshing is needed
 Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolution

Disadvantage of DVST:

 They do not display colors and that selected parts of a picture cannot be erased.
 To eliminate a picture section, the entire screen must be erase and modified picture
redrawn.
 For these reason the storage display have been largely replaced by raster display system.

FLAT-PANEL DISPLAY:

Replace CRT monitors, the other technologies is called as a flat panel display.

It refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement
compared to a CRT.

The flat panel display currently used in small TV monitors, calculators, pocket video games,
laptop computers, arm rest viewing of movies on airlines, as advertisement boards in elevators
and portable monitors.

Flat panel display are divided into two parts

1. Emissive displays
2. Non-Emissive displays

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Emissive display:- The emissive display or emitters are devices that convert electrical energy
into light.

Ex:

 Plasma panels
 Thin-film electroluminescent display
 Light-Emitting diodes

Non-emissive displays:- The non-emissive display or non emitters use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphic patterns.

Ex:

 Liquid-crystal devices(LCD)

PLASMA PANELS:

Plasma panel are also called as gas-discharge display, are constructed by filling the region
between two glass plates with a mixture of gases that includes neon.

A series of vertical conductors ribbon is placed on one glass panel and a set of horizontal
ribbons is built into the other glass panel.

Fig:- Basic Design of Plasma-panel display devices

Firing voltage applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical conductors causes the gas at the
intersection of the two conductors to break down into a glowing plasma of electrons and ions.

The pictures definition is stored in a refresh buffer, and the firing voltages are applied to refresh
the pixels position 60 times per seconds.

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THIN FILM ELECTROLUMINESCENT DISPLAYS:

It’s similar in construction to a plasma panel. But the only difference is the region between the
glass plates are filled with a phosphor.

Such as Zinc, Sulphide doped with Manganese instead of a gas.

Fig: Basic Design of Thin Film Electroluminescent display device

Advantage:

Electroluminescent display requires more power than the plasma panels, and good color and
gray scale display are hard to achieve.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:

The third type of emissive device is the light-emitting diode (LED).

A matrix of diode is arranged to form the pixel positions in the display, and picture definition is
stored in a refresh buffer.

The information is read from the refresh buffer and converted to voltage levels that are applied
to the diodes to produce the light patterns in the display.

LIGHT CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

It’s commonly used in small system such as calculators, portable, laptop computers.
These are non-emissive devices produce a picture by passing polarized light from the
surrounding a liquid crystal material that can be aligned to either block or transmit the light.

A flat panel display can then be constructed with nematic liquid crystals, as two glass plates,
each containing a light polarizer at right angle to the other place

Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one glass plate and column of vertical
conductors are put into the other plate. Intersection between two conductors defines pixel
positions.

When it will get “on state” the polarized light passing through the material is twisted. So that it
will pass through the opposite polarized.

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The light is then reflected back to the viewers to “off state” when the light is not twisted. This
type of flat panel display device is called as a “passive matrix” LCD.

The transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations and to prevent charge from
gradually leaking out of the liquid-crystal cells. These devices are called “active-matrix”
displays.

THREE DIMENSIONAL VIEWING DEVICES:

The graphic monitors displays the three dimensional scenes by using a techniques that reflects a
CRT images from vibrating, flexible mirrors.

The varifocal mirror vibrates, it changes focal length. These vibrations are synchronized with
the display of an object on a CRT.

So that each point on the object is reflected from the mirror into a spatial position corresponding
to the distance of that point from a specified viewing position. We can view it from different
sides.

Fig: Three dimensional display system using vibrating mirror.

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Raster Scan System:

The Raster scan contains:

1. Video Controller
2. Raster-scan display processor.
1. Video Controller:
Interactive raster graphics systems typically employ several processing units. In
Addition to the central processing unit or cpu a special purpose processor called the video
controller or display controller is used to control the operation of the display device.
Organisation of a simple raster system here the frame buffer can be anywhere in the system
memory and the video controller accesses the frame buffer to refresh the screen. In addition to
the video controller more sophisticated raster systems employ other processors as coprocessors
and accelerators to implement various graphics operation.

Fig:
A fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer and the video
controller is given direct access to the frame buffer memory.

Fig:

The basic refresh operations of a video controller are diagrammed. The register
are used to store the coordinates of the screen pixels. Initially the x register is set to 0(zero)
and the y register is set to ymax. The value stored in the frame buffer for this pixel position is
then retrieved and used to set the intensity of CRT beam.

Then the x register is increment by 1(0ne), and the process repeated for the next
pixel on the top scan line. This procedure is repeated for each pixel along the scanline. After
the last pixel on the top scan line has been processed, the x register is reset to 0(zero) and the y
register is decremented by 1(one).

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Fig: Basic video controller raster operations.

RASTER – SCAN DISPLAY PROCESSOR:

Figure shows one way to set up organization of a raster system containing a separate
display processor, sometimes referred to as a graphics controller or a display coprocessor.

The purpose of the display processor is to free, the cpu from the graphics chores. In
addition to the system memory, a separate display processor memory area can also be provided.

A major task of the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an

application program into a set of pixel intensity values for storage in the frame buffer. This
digitization process is called scan conversation.

Character can be defined with rectangular grids or they can be defined with curved
outlines.

RANDOM – SCAN SYSTEMS:

An application program is input and stored in the system memory along with graphics
package.

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 Graphics commands in the application program are translated by the graphics package
into a display file stored in the system memory.

This display file is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the screen.

The display processor cycles through each command in the display file program once
during every refresh cycle.

Sometimes the display processor in a random scan system is referred to as a display

processing unit or a graphics controller.

Fig: Architecture of a simple random- scan system.

INPUT DEVICES
Many many device are available for data input on graphics workstation .most system have a
keyboard and mouse. And one or more addition devices for interactive input.

The following devices are including a input devices.

1. Keyboard 2. Mouse 3. Track ball 4. Space ball 5. Joystick 6. Digitizers 7. Dials 8. Bottom boxes

some other input devices used in particular application only

1. Data gloves 2. Touch panels 3. Image scanners 4. Voice system

Keyboards :

An alphanumeric keyboard in used on a graphics system as a device for entering text

string .keyboards can also be provided to entry of screen coordinates, menu selection
(or)graphics function.

There are 3 type of keys available in keyboards

1. cursor keys 2. function keys 3. control keys

Cursor and control keys:

It can be used for select display object and coordinate position by positioning the screen cursor

Function keys:

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 It can be used to enter frequently used operations in a single key stroke. One more keys
add on right side of the keyboards. As a numeric keypad in used to fast entry of numeric data.

Mouse:

It is a small hand held box. Used to position the screen cursor. One wheel or roller on
the bottom of the mouse. It can be used to record the direction of the movement. Another
method mouse in an optical sensor. These system can be used detects movement across the
vertical and horizontal line in the grid. One , two or three buttons are usually include on the top
of the mouse for the execution of same operations. Recently introduced one more mouse in z-
mouse .it has a three button a thumbwheel on the side , a track ball on the top and a standard
mouse ball under health . this provide 6 degree of freedom to select and can be rotation and
other parameters .

The application of z-mouse.

1. Virtual reality 2. CAD 3. Animation.

Track Ball and Space Ball

It is in a ball . It’s can be rotated with the fingers .it can be provide screen –cursor
movement. One potentiometer in attached to the ball. This in used to measure the direction of
rotation. It’s like a z-mouse .

Space Ball:

It’s provides 6 degree of freedom. Not like a track ball. Does not actually move. It can be
measure the amount of premium applied to the space ball to provide input for positions. This ball
in passed and pulled in various direction .It can be used for 3 dimensional positioning and
selection operation in virtual reality system , modelling , animation , CAD, and other application

Joy sticks:

It as a small , vertical lever (or) stick. It is used to steer the screen position .it is select
position with the stick movement . It is like a keyboard. The stick is moved in any direction from
it’s enter position .potentiometer mounted at the base of the joystick . It is used to measure the
amount of movement one or more buttons can be added with joystick to act as input switches to
signal for screen position has hen selected . Another type of moveable joystick the stick is used
measure the screen cursor position of the direction selected .It has 8 switches and arranged in
circle it can be selected any one of 8 direction for the cursor movement.

Data Glove:

That can be used to display a “virtual” object. This is constructed with series of sensors that
detect hand and finger motions. Electromagnetic coupling between transmitting antennas and
receiving antennas is used to provide information about position of the hand. Both antennas can
be structured as a set of three perpendicular coils. Given input from the glove can be used to

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position or manipulate object in a virtual scene. The video monitor will be produced 2
dimensional projection can be viewed with a headset.

Digitizers:

This is common devices for drawing painting , selection coordinate position on a object
this can be used for input coordinate value in either a 2D or 3D space. Another type of
digitizers is called as a graphics tablet. It can be used the input value in 2D coordinates.

It as 2 type :1.desktop 2. Floor-model.

Floor-model table:

This type of table has 2,4 or 16 buttons. This table size various from 12 by 12 inches for
desktop model to 44 by 60 inches (or) larger for floor model . Graphics tablets can be used to
provide a accurate method for selecting coordinate position.

desktop-model-0.2mm. floor-model-0.05mm.

Three dimensional digitizers use sonic or electromagnetic transmission to record position

electromagnetic transmission is similar to that used in data glove . A coupling between the two
antennas . It measure the location (or) manipulation of an object.

Image Scanners:

Drawings, graphs, colour and block and white photos and text can be store for computer
processing with an image scanner by passing an optical scanning mechanism over the
information to be store. Grey scale(or) colour are then recorded and store in an array. Image
scanner can apply transformation to rotate , scale or crop the picture to a particular area. And
then modify the picture .
Touch panels:

Touch panels allows displayed objects or screen position to be selected with the touch of
a finger. An application of touch panel is for the selection of processing options that are
represented with graphical icons. Touch input by filling a transparent device with a touch-
sensing mechanism over the video monitor screen . Touch input can be recorded using optical,
electrical and acoustical methods.

An optical touch panels:

This is built a line of infrared light-emitting diodes[LEO] along one vertical edges and
along one horizontal edges of the frame. The opposite vertical and horizontal edges contain light
decodes . The decoders are used to record. Which beams are interrupted when the panel is
touched . Two crossing beams that are interrupted identify the horizontal and vertical coordinate
of the screen position selected.

An electrical touch panels:

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 It is built with two transparent plates separated by a small distance one plate is coated
with a conducting materials and other plate is coated with a resistive material. When the outer
plate is touched. Then will be contact with inner plate. This contact creates a voltage drop across
the resistive plate, that is converted to the word value of the selected screen position.

Accountant touch panels:

It is built by high frequency sound wares are generated the horizontal and vertical
direction across part of each wave to be reflected from the finger to the emitters.

Light Pens:

Pencil-shaped devices are used to select screen positions by defection the light coming
from points on the CRT screen . An activated light pen, pointed at a spot on the CAR screen as
the electrical pulse that causer the coordinate position of the electron beam to be recorded . As
with cursor –positioning device , recorded light pen coordinating can he used to positing an
object or to processing option .

disadvantages:

when light pen is point at the screen part of the screen image is not secure. Light pen
required special requirement for some application.

Voice systems:

It can be used to initiate graphics operations. These system operate by matching an input
data(or)sound to compare with predefined dictionary of words.

OUTPUT DEVICES OR HARD COPY DEVICES:

The Output produced for these outside the organisation called the external output. The
output devices are 1. Printer 2. Monitor 3. Plotter.

PRINTERS:

To prepare permanent copies of outputs which are called hard copies printers are widely
used as primary output devices. The printers are divided by the two parts:

1. Impact printers. 2. Non-impact printer.

IMPACT PRINTERS :

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 Printers which resemble the architecture of a typewriter and create an impression of the
character on a paper against an inked ribbon are impact printers.

A few impact printers are

1. Daily wheel printer

2. Dot matrix printer.
3. Drum printer
4. Chain printer
5. Plotter.

Daily wheel printer: These printers have a print head in the form of a wheel with each petal
embossed with a character.

Dot matrix printer: Dot matrix printers are faster than the daily – wheel printers. The print head
has a set of pin shaped hammers ranged in the form of a matrix. The Dot matrix printers are
cheap compared to other printers.

Drum printer: The Drum printers consists of bands depending upon the printing units in the
drum. Each band in turn contains all possible characters.

Chain printers: The chain moves at high speed over the printing positions.

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS :

Printers with office-copies technologies which print out sheets using electrical chemical
or thermal energy without creating impressions are non-impact printers.

The Non-impact printers are:

1. Ink-jet printer
2. Laser printer
3. Thermal – transfer printers.

Ink-jet printer: In this printer the droplets of ink are electrically hanged after leaving a paper.

Laser printer: Laser printers uses the laser beam to producing spots needed to make of the image
of the output character. This is a impact printer. A laser beam creates a charge distribution on a
rotating drum coated with a photo electro material (selenium).The speed of the laser printer is
high and the quality of the print is good. The laser printer can print pages of output in a few
seconds.

Thermal-transfer printers: These printers print the characters on paper against the ink ribbon,
which holds the ink in a wax binder.

PLOTTER:

A plotter is a device that converts computer output into a graphic hard copy. Plotter uses
laser techniques. These devices are used in producing graphical outputs.

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 The different type of plotters are:

1. Drum plotter

2. Flat-bed plotter

3. Ink-jet plotter.

Drum plotter: In this device, the paper is plotter over a drum that rotates in all the directions. A
carriage holding pens in horizontally.

Flat-bed plotter: In this device, a fixed flat-bed is used and once the paper does not move. The
pen moves in all direction with the help of a mechanism controlled by the computer.

Ink-jet plotter: The paper is placed on a drum and a carriage holds jets with inks of different
colors. The computer controls the color and the amount of ink placed on the paper to print the
desired output.

MONITOR: Monitor is of two types: 1. CRT(Cathode Ray Tube) 2. LCD(Liquid Crystal

Device).

GRAPHICS SOFTWARE:

There are two general classification for graphics software:

1. General programming package.

2. Special purpose application package.

GENERAL PROGRAMMING PACKAGE:

A general graphics programming package provide an extension set of graphics functions

that can be used in a high level programming language such as C or FORTRAN.

Ex: GL(graphics library), PHIGS.

SPECIAL PURPOSE APPLICATION PACKAGE:

An application graphics packages are designed by the programmer, so that user can
generate displays without worrying about how graphics operating work.

Ex: Artists painting program, CAD etc.

A Graphics software contains

 Coordinate Representation
 Graphics Function
 Software standards
 PHIGS Workstations.

COORDINATE REPRESENTATION:

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 General graphics packages are designed to be used with Cartesian coordinate
specifications.

Some of the coordinates are:

1. Local or Modify coordinates.

2. World Coordinates.
3. Device or Screen coordinates.

Local coordinate:

The shape of individual objects such as trees or function in a scene with in separate
coordinate reference frames called local coordinate.

World coordinate:

The individual objects shapes have been specified we can place the objects into
appropriate positions within the scene using a reference frame called world coordinate.

Device coordinate:

The world coordinate description of the scene is transferred to one or more output device
reference frame for display. These display coordinate systems are referred to as device
coordinate.

Software Standard:

The primary goal of standardized graphics software is portability and software moved
from one hardware to another.

The graphics software are GKS(Graphical Kernel System), PHIGS(Programmer’s

Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System).

Graphics Functions:

A general purpose graphics package provides users with a variety of functions for
creating and manipulating pictures.

The basic building blocks for pictures are referred to as output primitives. They include
character strings and geometric entities such as points, straight lines, curved lines, filled areas
and shapes defined with arrays of color points.

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 Attributes are the properties of the output primitives, that is an attribute describe how a
particular primitive is to be displayed. They include intensity and color specifications, line
style, text styles and area filling patterns.

Geometric Transformation: We can change the size, position, or orientation of an

object within a scene using geometric transformation.

Modeling Transformation : It is used to construct a scene using object descriptions

given in modeling coordinates.

Viewing Transformation: It is used to specify the view that is to be presented and the
portion of the output display area that is to be used.

PHIGS Workstations.

1. PHIGS is an API standard for rendering 3D computer graphics considered to be the

3D graphics standard.
2. The word “hierarchical” in the name refers to a notable feature of PHIGS: unlike
most graphics systems, PHIGS included a scene graph system as apart of the basic
standard. Models were built up in a Centralized Structure Store(CSS), a database
containing a “World” including both the drawing primitives and their
attributes(color, line style). CSSes could be shared among a number of virtual
devices, known under PHIGS as workstations, each of which could contains any
number of views.
3. PHIGS+ works in essentially the same manner but added methods for lighting and
filling surfaces within a 3D scene.
4. PHIGS+ also introduces more advances graphics primitives, such as Non – uniform
rational B-spline(NURBS) surfaces.

GRAPHICS FILE FORMATS:

Including proprietary types, there are hundreds of image file types. The PNG, JPEG
and GIF formats are most often used to display images on the internet.

1. JPEG(Joint Photographic Experts group)

2. TIFF(Togged Image File Formats)
3. GIF(Graphics Interchange Formats)
4. BMP(Windows bitmap)
5. PNG(Portable Network Graphics)

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