Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to
identify and characterize organic, polymeric, and, in some cases, inorganic materials. It works by
measuring the absorption of infrared (IR) radiation by a sample, which causes molecular
vibrations. Each functional group (specific arrangements of atoms within a molecule) absorbs IR
light at characteristic frequencies, creating a unique "molecular fingerprint" that can be used for
identification and quantitative analysis.
The Basic Principle: Molecular Vibrations and IR Absorption
Molecules are not rigid structures; their bonds are constantly stretching, bending, and rotating.
These movements occur at specific frequencies, corresponding to discrete vibrational energy
levels.
When a molecule is exposed to infrared radiation, if the frequency of the IR light matches the
natural vibrational frequency of a specific bond within the molecule, the molecule will absorb
that energy. This absorption leads to an increase in the amplitude of the vibration.
Crucially, for a molecule to absorb IR radiation, the vibration must result in a change in the
dipole moment of the molecule. This means that symmetrical vibrations (like the stretching of a
C=C bond in ethylene) might not be IR active, while asymmetrical vibrations or vibrations
involving polar bonds (like C=O, O-H, C-H) typically are.
How an FTIR Spectrometer Works:
Unlike older dispersive IR spectrometers that scan through wavelengths one at a time, FTIR
spectrometers use an interferometer to collect all frequencies of infrared light simultaneously.
This offers significant advantages.
The core components of an FTIR spectrometer are:
1. IR Source: Typically a black-body radiator (e.g., a ceramic or globar rod) that emits
broadband infrared radiation.
2. Interferometer (Michelson Interferometer is most common): This is the heart of the
FTIR instrument. It consists of:
o Beam Splitter: A special mirror that splits the incoming IR beam into two paths.
One part is transmitted, and the other is reflected.
o Fixed Mirror: One of the split beams hits a stationary mirror.
o Moving Mirror: The other split beam hits a mirror that moves back and forth at a
constant velocity.
o Recombination: The two beams, after reflecting from their respective mirrors,
recombine at the beam splitter. Because the moving mirror changes the path
length of one beam relative to the other, the recombined beams interfere with each
other (constructive and destructive interference).
3. Sample Compartment: The interfering beam then passes through (or reflects off) the
sample. The sample absorbs specific frequencies of IR light, which are characteristic of
its molecular structure.
4. Detector: The detector measures the intensity of the IR light that passes through the
sample as a function of the moving mirror's position. This raw data is an interferogram
—a complex signal that contains information about all the absorbed frequencies.
5. Computer with Fourier Transform (FT) Software: The interferogram is a time-
domain signal. A powerful mathematical algorithm called the Fourier Transform is
applied to this interferogram to convert it from the time domain to the frequency domain,
producing the familiar IR spectrum (absorbance or transmittance vs. wavenumber,
typically in cm⁻¹).
Common Sampling Techniques:
FTIR is highly versatile and can analyze solids, liquids, and gases using various sampling
techniques:
Transmission: The simplest method, where the IR beam passes directly through a thin
film, a KBr pellet (for solid powders), or a liquid cell containing the sample.
Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR): The most common and versatile technique. The
IR beam enters a high refractive index crystal (e.g., diamond, ZnSe). It undergoes internal
reflections within the crystal, creating an "evanescent wave" that extends slightly into the
sample pressed against the crystal surface. The evanescent wave interacts with the
sample, and the attenuated beam is then detected. This technique requires minimal to no
sample preparation.
Diffuse Reflectance (DRIFTS): Used for powdered or rough solid samples. The IR
beam is focused onto the sample, and the diffusely scattered light (light that has
penetrated the sample and been reflected multiple times) is collected.
Specular Reflectance: For highly reflective surfaces or thin films on reflective
substrates, the IR beam is reflected directly off the surface at a specific angle.
Gas Cells: Long pathlength cells are used for gas samples to increase the interaction
between the IR beam and the dilute gas molecules.
Applications of FTIR Spectroscopy:
FTIR is used extensively in a wide array of fields:
Chemical Identification and Characterization:
o Identifying unknown organic compounds, polymers, and some inorganic
materials.
o Verifying the identity of raw materials, intermediates, and final products in
quality control.
o Detecting impurities or contaminants in a sample.
o Analyzing mixtures.
Polymer Science:
o Identifying types of plastics and rubbers.
o Studying polymer degradation (e.g., oxidation).
o Analyzing additives in polymers.
o Investigating curing processes.
Pharmaceuticals:
o Quality control of drugs and excipients.
o Identifying active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs).
o Monitoring stability and degradation of drug formulations.
o Characterizing polymorphism.
Materials Science:
o Characterizing new materials and their functional groups.
o Analyzing coatings and thin films.
o Studying surface modifications.
Forensics:
o Identifying fibers, paints, drugs, and other trace evidence at crime scenes.
Environmental Science:
o Monitoring air and
