AR5412 - Site Surveying and Planning
[Link] 4th semester School of Architecture and Planning, 2024
Contours
Site
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A contour is an imaginary line that connects all points of equal elevation
above or below a fixed reference plane – mean sea level or a locally
established benchmark.
A contour line is the graphic representation of a contour on a plan or map.
The shore line of a pond or lake is an example of a naturally
occurring contour and illustrates the concept of a closed contour.
Row of seating in an athletic stadium or amphitheater provides an
example to visualize a series of contours
Contours
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Contours
• Contours not only help us understand elevation variation, they also serve as an
aide to visualizing natural landform and, in the built environment, sloping planes
and three-dimensional form.
• Contour drawings are two dimensional representations of three dimensional
forms
• Each contour line represents the form in which the site acquires over a specified
elevation that is why we have surveyors and topographic surveys.
• Contour lines are continuous and never interest each other.
• The difference in elevation between adjacent contour lines is defined as the
contour interval.
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Contour line spaced equally Contour line spaced far Contour line spaced close
CONSTANT SLOPE apart FLAT SLOPE together STEEP SLOPE
Contour representation
• Each contour on a map represents an elevation and so, each contour line needs
to be labeled with its elevation.
• Each contour line is placed with a an elevation marker which states the height of
the contour relative to the site.
• Most common intervals are 1, 2, 5 10 meters.
• To interpret a contour map – scale, direction of slope and contour interval must
be known
• As map scale decreases, the contour interval increases, the amount of detail and
degree of accuracy decreases.
Contour characteristics
• All points on the same contour line are at the same elevation.
• Every contour line is a continuous line, which forms a closed figure, either within
or beyond the limits of the map.
• The steepest slope is perpendicular to the contour lines. This is a result of having
the greatest vertical change in the shortest horizontal distance.
• Consistent to the preceding point water flows perpendicular to contour lines.
• Contour lines never cross except where there is an overhanging cliff, natural
bridge or other similar phenomenon.
• Two or more contour lines are required to indicate three dimensional form an
direction of slope.
form
Land
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Landforms
• Contours on a topographic map have very specific shapes or forms.
• Each landform has a recognizable arrangement or pattern of contours in plan.
• Each landform has an arrangement of contours that is often described as a landform
signature.
• Four distinct landforms found in nature
• Summit landform
• Depression landform
• Valley Landform
• Ridge landform
Summit landform
• Summit landform contains the
highest point relative to the
surrounding terrain.
• Contours arranged in concentric
or irregular concentric, closed
figures with the highest contour
at the center.
• Since the land slopes away in all
directions, summits tends to
drain well.
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Depression landform
• Depression landform contains the
lowest point relative to the
surrounding terrain
• Contours arranged in concentric or
irregular concentric, closed figures
with the lowest contour at the center
• To distinguish between summit and
depression it is necessary to know
the direction of elevation change .
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Ridge and valley
• Ridge landform is shown in plan - it is
a raised elongated landform.
• The contours along the sides of the
ridge will be relatively parallel and
there will be a high point or several
high points along the ridge.
• It has its unique signature with the
contours arranged with a “U” bottom
(downhill).
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Ridge and valley
• Valley landform is shown in plan - it is
an elongated depression that forms
the space between two ridges.
• It has its unique signature with the
contours arranged with a inverted U
bottom (uphill).
• Contours oriented uphill with a wide
bottom represent a valley formed by
the action of erosion.
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analysis
Slope
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Slope analysis
• An analysis of the steepness of the terrain is referred to as slope analysis.
• Function of Slope analysis -- identify/determine the best areas for planning
buildings, roads, parking lots
• To conduct slope analysis on a map, the following information is required
• Horizontal scale
• Contour interval
• % of slope
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Slope analysis
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Slope analysis
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grading
Site
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Grading is the process of modification of existing landform to accommodate
new structures, parking and circulation and to ensure positive drainage pattern.
Grading process requires a careful change of contours so that they support the
integration of building within the site.
Site grading
• The principal aim of all grading work is to
make the land appropriate for its purpose
and to preserve a stable system.
• Most economical grading plan is one in
which there is a minimum of earthwork
and the amounts of cut and fill are in
balance.
• The finished grade should have positive
drainage, stable slopes, balanced cut and
fill & harmonious visual forms.
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Site grading
• Extensive alteration in the landform may
lead to unstable conditions resulting in
erosion, landslide, floods and a complete
destruction of ecosystem.
• A balanced site - geotechnical
information.
• Grading operations begin by removing
the topsoil, which is stored on the site
and later reused over the modified
ground forms.
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Site grading principles
• The ground surface must be suitable for the intended purpose or use.
• The visual result should be pleasing.
• The result of any grading must have positive drainage.
• Avoidance of runoff water over roadways.
• Top soil must be conserved wherever possible.
• Considerations must be given to utilities such as water, power, communication
services, and sewerage for disposal of wastewater and storm water.
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Site grading principles
• Minimize the need for large cuts and
fills.
• The designer begins to mitigate the
impact of the development.
• The design should retain as much of the
original terrain and character of the site
as is feasible.
• The quality of cut should be
approximately equal to the quantity of
fill.
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Drainage
• Positive Drainage means a condition where the
finished grade or clay surface of a property is
sloped away from all structures, directing
water to a similarly sloped drainage swale and
storm sewer collection system.
• Continuous downhill grades in which water can
flow without ponding.
• Proper grading can prevent things like leaks,
cracks in foundations, rot of wooden structural
members, and other major/costly foundation
problems.
Grading necessity
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THREE METHODS OF GRADING
Cut ---- Removing Earth
Fill ----Adding Earth
Combination of cut and fill
Site grading cut & fill
• The greatest economy results when the
amount of earth cut is approximately equal to
the amount filled.
• Grading plans - indicate cut or fill - new, solid
contour lines (Proposal), shown dashed
(existing contours).
• A proposed contour that moves in the direction
of a lower contour line indicates fill.
• A proposed contour that moves in the direction
of a higher contour line indicates cut.
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Grading criteria
• Grading of outdoor areas is
aimed at controlling surface
stormwater runoff while
providing safe and efficient
pedestrian and vehicular
movement.
• The grading plans should
attempt to keep new levels
as close as possible to the
original state of the land.
Site grading
• Grade stakes are located at all critical points,
such as peaks, valleys, roads, walls, and other
points of grade change.
• Grading machines then cut or fill the earth to
the staked level and shape it into the desires
configuration.
Site grading – rules
• Do not extend grading beyond the property
lines.
• Avoid the destruction of valuable existing
vegetation.
• Avoid flat grades that create drainage
pockets and enable water to flow away
from all structures.
• Avoid erosion by grading slopes within their
natural angle of repose.
• Avoid grading solutions that rely on
expensive retaining walls, steps, or other
construction.
Site grading – terms
Site grading – terms
Site grading – roads
Grading to Grading to screen Grading to facilitate
expose vista undesirable view better plant growth
Site grading – roads
Swales to divert water around building
Site grading – swale & ditch
Site grading – swale & ditch
Site grading – erosion control
Spot elevations
• Spot elevations – Elevations of point on map/ chart from reference datum -
establish limits of slope, to locate contour lines, and to provide detail for
establishing control points that cannot be obtained via contour lines.
• Elevation of any point on an accurately drawn contour plan may be determined
by interpolation.
• Interpolation is the process of computing intermediate value between two
related value.
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Spot elevation
Roadways
• Primary purpose of a grading a roadway is to increase the speed of the storm
runoff from the road surface.
• Minimize fluctuations across variable terrain.
• Have constant slope or gradient, minimize cut and fill.
• Crown is the difference in elevation between the edge and the center line of a
roadway expressed in inches or inches per foot.
• Total height of a crown is calculated by dividing half of the road width and the
whole multiplied by the rate of change of crown. Crown height for a 24 ft wide road with a
crown of ¼ in/ft. (24/12) x (1/4) = 3 in.
• Three basic types of road crown sections - Parabolic Section | Tangential Section |
Reverse Crown. 51
Roadways
Tangential section
Parabolic section Reverse crown
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Grading
Sports field
gradients –
relatively flat
gradient
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Grading
Grading to create berms for
noise and wind barriers or for
additional soil depth above
unfavorable sub grade
conditions.
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Grading
Surface draining around a
building
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Grading
Grading to emphasize
or control circulation
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Grading
Grading to modify
existing landforms –
deep gullies, steep
slopes can be
modified to create
more useful and
attractive landforms.
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Grading
Grading for increased
site interest –
emphasize a site’s
topography and add
interest to an
otherwise flat site.
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Grading
Grading related to
good and bad view.
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Grading
Grading done to reduce the
noise pollution.
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Grading
Grading executed to manage human
scale and angle of repose to reduce the
soil erosion and increase the stability.
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Grading
Grading to reduce the rigorous change of
contours.
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Grading
Grading to increase view and extensive
removal of land.
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