Unit 3 Tutorials: Movement and Stability

INSIDE UNIT 3

Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Muscle
The Sliding Filament Model
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation
Sources of ATP
Muscle Contractions
Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
Endurance Exercise and Muscle Performance
Resistance Exercise and Muscle Performance

The Muscular System: Skeletal Muscle Tissue and Axial Muscles

Interactions of Skeletal Muscles and Their Lever Systems

Muscular Fascicle Arrangement
Axial Muscles of Facial Expression
Axial Muscles of Mastication
Axial Muscles of the Neck and Back
Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, Thorax, and Pelvis

The Muscular System: Appendicular Muscles

Appendicular Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle

Appendicular Muscles of the Humerus
Appendicular Muscles of the Forearm
Appendicular Muscles of the Hand and Fingers
Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle
Appendicular Muscles of the Thigh
Appendicular Muscles of the Lower Leg

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 Skeletal Muscle
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the general functions of skeletal muscle and its underlying
anatomical organization. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Skeletal Muscle
2. Skeletal Muscle Fibers

1. Skeletal Muscle
Recall that skeletal muscle is a voluntary muscle tissue that is attached to bones or skin. This tissue combines
with epithelial, connective, and nervous tissues to form the muscles of the muscular system, performing a range
of functions.

Contract and cause movement: When activated, muscle tissue shortens, causing the bones (or skin) that it is
attached to move.
Contract and resist movement: The activation of certain muscles can stop movement instead of causing it.
Small, constant adjustments of the skeletal muscles are needed to hold a body upright or balanced in any
position, resisting gravity. Muscles also prevent excess movement of the bones and joints, maintaining
skeletal stability and preventing skeletal structure damage or deformation. Joints can become misaligned
or dislocated entirely by pulling on the associated bones; muscles work to keep joints stable.
Regulate body openings: Skeletal muscles are located throughout the body at the openings of internal
tracts to control the movement of various substances. These muscles allow functions (such as swallowing,
urination, and defecation) to be under voluntary control.
Protect internal organs: Skeletal muscles also protect internal organs (particularly abdominal and pelvic
organs) by acting as an external barrier or shield to external trauma and by supporting the weight of the
organs.
Generate heat: Skeletal muscles perform contractions which require energy. When ATP is broken down,
heat is produced. This heat contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis. During exercise (sustained
muscle movement), it can also be very noticeable, causing body temperature to rise. In cases of extreme
cold, shivering produces random skeletal muscle contractions to generate heat.

Each skeletal muscle is an organ that consists of various integrated tissues and structures. These tissues
include blood vessels, nerve fibers, connective tissue, and skeletal muscle fibers, also known as skeletal muscle
cells. Each skeletal muscle has three layers of connective tissue (called “mysia”) that enclose it,

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 compartmentalize its muscle fibers, and provide structure to the muscle as a whole. Each muscle is wrapped in
a sheath of dense, irregular connective tissue called the epimysium, which allows a muscle to contract and
move powerfully while maintaining its structural integrity. The epimysium also separates muscle from other
tissues and organs in the area, allowing the muscle to move independently.

The Three Connective Tissue Layers - Bundles of muscle fibers, called fascicles, are covered by the perimysium.
Muscle fibers are covered by the endomysium.

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 Inside each skeletal muscle, several muscle fibers are organized into individual bundles, each called a muscle
fascicle, by a middle layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. This fascicular organization is common in
muscles of the limbs; it allows the nervous system to be selective in how much of a muscle it activates at one
time. Inside each fascicle, each muscle fiber is encased in a thin connective tissue layer of collagen and reticular
fibers called the endomysium. The endomysium contains extracellular fluid and nutrients to support the muscle
fiber. These nutrients are supplied via blood to the muscle tissue.

The connective tissue wrappings of a skeletal muscle continue at each end of the muscle to form a tendon.
Recall that a tendon is a cord-like dense regular connective tissue structure that attaches a skeletal muscle to a
bone. The collagen in the three tissue layers (the mysia) intertwines with the collagen of a tendon. At the other
end of the tendon, it fuses with the periosteum coating the bone. The tension created by contraction of the
muscle fibers is then transferred through the mysia, to the tendon, and then to the periosteum to pull on the
bone for movement of the skeleton. In other places, the mysia may fuse with a broad, tendon-like sheet called
an aponeurosis. Muscles that attach to small single points of a bone do so using tendons (i.e., biceps brachii).
Muscles that attach to broad or wide regions of a bone use an aponeurosis (i.e., frontalis). Some muscles use a
tendon on one end and an aponeurosis at the other (i.e., latissimus dorsi or “lats”).

Every skeletal muscle is also richly supplied by blood vessels for nourishment, oxygen delivery, and waste
removal. In addition, every muscle fiber in a skeletal muscle is supplied by a neuron, which signals the fiber to
contract. Unlike cardiac and smooth muscle, the only way to functionally contract a skeletal muscle is through
signaling from the nervous system.

 WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Skeletal muscle cells.

Epimysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle.

Muscle Fascicle
A bundle of muscle fibers.

Perimysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle fascicle.

Endomysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle fiber.

Aponeurosis
A broad tendon-like sheet of connective tissue which attaches a skeletal muscle to a bone or other
structure.

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 2. Skeletal Muscle Fibers
 KEY CONCEPT

Much of the terminology associated with muscle fibers that you will learn throughout this and future lessons
is rooted in two Greek root words. The root sarco means flesh and the root myo means muscle. Keep these
in mind as you compile your anatomical language. Anything that starts with "sarco-" or "myo-" is associated
with muscle tissue.
Skeletal muscle cells are long and cylindrical and can be quite large for human cells, with diameters up to 100
μm (micrometre or micrometer, also commonly known as a micron and in this case 0.004 in) and lengths up to
30 cm (11.8 in). During early development, embryonic stem cells called myoblasts, each with its own nucleus,
fuse with up to hundreds of other myoblasts to form a single multinucleated skeletal muscle fiber. Multiple
nuclei mean multiple copies of genes, permitting the production of large amounts of proteins and enzymes
needed for muscle contraction.

Recall that most cells, including muscle fibers, contain multiple organelles and structures. The muscle fiber,
however, has specific names for a few of the common structures. The plasma membrane of muscle fibers is
called the sarcolemma, the cytoplasm is referred to as sarcoplasm, and the specialized smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, which stores, releases, and retrieves calcium ions (Ca⁺⁺) is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
Each muscle fiber also contains hundreds to thousands of unique cylindrical organelles called myofibrils
composed of myofilaments, or protein filaments.

Muscle Fiber - A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains

sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle cells. A muscle fiber is composed of many fibrils, which give the cell its striated
appearance.

 TERMS TO KNOW

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 Myoblast
An embryonic stem cell which fuses to form skeletal muscle fibers.

Sarcolemma
The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber.

Sarcoplasm
The cytoplasm of a skeletal muscle fiber.

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
The specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which stores, releases, and retrieves calcium ions.

Myofibril
A cylindrical organelle of muscle fibers composed of myofilaments.

Myofilaments
Protein filaments.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the function of skeletal muscles and the anatomical arrangement
of their components. You also learned about the formation and organization of the individual
skeletal muscle fibers that make up skeletal muscles.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Aponeurosis
A broad tendon-like sheet of connective tissue which attaches a skeletal muscle to a bone or other
structure.

Endomysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle fiber.

Epimysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle.

Muscle Fascicle
A bundle of muscle fibers.

Myoblast
An embryonic stem cell which fuses to form skeletal muscle fibers.

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 Myofibril
A cylindrical organelle of muscle fibers composed of myofilaments.

Myofilaments
Protein filaments

Perimysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle fascicle.

Sarcolemma
The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber.

Sarcoplasm
The cytoplasm of a skeletal muscle fiber.

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
The specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which stores, releases, and retrieves calcium ions.

Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Skeletal muscle cells.

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 The Sliding Filament Model
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn the anatomical organization of the sarcomere and the way in which it
provides movement. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Sarcomere
2. The Sliding Filament Model

1. The Sarcomere
Skeletal muscle cells appear striated (striped) from the outside. This striation is due to the arrangement of the
myofilaments which are composed of alternating thin and thick filaments. When a light is placed behind the cell,
as in histology, thin filaments allow more light through while thick filaments block more light. This creates
alternating bands of light and dark along the skeletal muscle fiber.

Skeletal Muscle Fiber - Skeletal muscle fibers, shown in histology (left) and diagram (right) are striated on their
surface due to the presence of a unique contractile organelle called a myofibril.

A thick filament is a myofilament composed of a protein called myosin. Myosin looks like two golf clubs that
were twisted together and contains three regions, the head, neck, and tail. The long, twisted portion (the shaft
of the golf club) is called the myosin tails. The two bulbous ends are called the myosin heads and each contain
an actin-binding site and an ATP-binding site. The flexible region that is bent and connects the head to the tails
is called the myosin neck or hinge. A thick filament contains many myosin proteins bunched together with their
heads sticking out at all angles. At the end of this large group, the thick filament is connected to what you will
later learn is called the Z-line by an elastic protein called titin.

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 A thin filament is a myofilament composed of a complex of three proteins. The primary protein is actin.
Individual actin subunits are roughly spherical and bond together like beads on a string to form two filamentous
forms of actin that are twisted around one another. Each actin subunit contains a myosin-binding site. However,
when a muscle is at rest, this myosin-binding site is blocked by a long, thin protein called tropomyosin (tropo, to
change). Tropomyosin is held in place by a third protein called troponin which contains a calcium-binding site.

Muscle Fiber - A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains
sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle cells. A muscle fiber is composed of many fibrils, which give the cell its striated

appearance.

As you can see below, the thick and thin filaments are combined in a highly organized alternating pattern to
form a myofibril. This organization has various structures and regions.

The Z-line is the zig-zag point of attachment for thin filaments.

The M-line is the point of attachment for thick filaments.

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 The I-band is the region of a sarcomere that contains thin filaments only.
The H-zone is the region of a sarcomere that contains thick filaments only.
The A-band is the region of a sarcomere where thick filaments exist. Keep in mind that thin filaments may or
may not also be in the A-band depending on the contracted state of the muscle.
The zone of overlap is the region where thin and thick filaments overlap.
A sarcomere is the repeating unit of a muscle fiber and runs from Z-line to Z-line.

 HINT

There are a couple of tricks that may help you remember what all the structures and regions of a sarcomere
are.

The Z-line is at either END of the sarcomere, just like the letter Z is at the end of the alphabet.
The M-line is in the M-iddle or M-idline of the sarcomere.
The alternating I- and A-bands create the striations—alternating bands of light and dark—on a muscle
fiber.
The I-band is the l-I-ght band of the striation. The letter “I” is also THIN-ner than the letter “A” and is
made of thin filaments.
The A-band is the d-A-rk band of the striation. The letter “A” is also THICK-er than the letter “I” and is
made of thick filaments.
The H-Zone and zone of overlap are located right next to one another.

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 The Sarcomere - The sarcomere, the region from one Z-line to the next Z-line, is the functional unit of a skeletal
muscle fiber.

 WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Thick Filament
A myofilament composed of myosin.

Myosin
The protein that forms the thick filament.

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 Myosin Tail
The long, twisted portion of a myosin molecule.

Myosin Head
The bulbous region of a myosin molecule.

Myosin Neck
The flexible hinge that connects the myosin head and tail together.

Titin
An elastic protein connecting the thick filament to the Z-line.

Thin Filament
A myofilament composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.

Actin
The primary protein that forms the thin filament.

Tropomyosin
A long, thin regulatory protein that covers the myosin binding site of actin when a muscle is at rest.

Troponin
A regulatory protein that binds tropomyosin to actin.

Z-line
The point of attachment for thin filaments.

M-line
The point of attachment for thick filaments.

I-band
The region of a sarcomere that contains thin filaments only.

H-zone
The region of a sarcomere that contains thick filaments only.

A-band
The region of a sarcomere where thick filaments exist.

Zone of Overlap
The region where thin and thick filaments overlap.

Sarcomere
The repeating unit of a muscle fiber that runs from Z-line to Z-line.

2. The Sliding Filament Model

When excited (signaled) by a motor neuron, a skeletal muscle fiber contracts. As a muscle shortens, thin
filaments are pulled and then slide past the thick filaments within the fiber’s sarcomeres. This process is known

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 as the sliding filament model (also referred to as the sliding filament theory).

The Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction - When a sarcomere contracts, the Z lines move closer together
and the I band becomes smaller. The A band stays the same width. At full contraction, the thin and thick filaments

overlap completely.

 TRY IT

As the sarcomere shortens or lengthens, the muscle shortens or lengthens. Recall that the sarcomere
contains various regions and structures defined by their position relative to one another. As a muscle
shortens or lengthens, try and predict how each region changes.

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 As a muscle shortens, what happens to the I-band? +

It becomes smaller.

As a muscle shortens, what happens to the H-zone? +

It becomes smaller.

As a muscle shortens, what happens to the A-band? +

It does not change.

As a muscle contracts, what happens to the zone of overlap? +

It becomes larger.

As a muscle lengthens, what happens to the I-band? +

It becomes larger.

As a muscle lengthens, what happens to the H-zone? +

It becomes larger.

As a muscle lengthens, what happens to the A-band? +

It does not change.

As a muscle lengthens, what happens to the zone of overlap? +

It becomes smaller.

 TERM TO KNOW

Sliding Filament Model

A molecular model of a muscle contraction which explains how thin and thick filaments slide relative to
one another to cause a muscle to shorten or lengthen.

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  SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the anatomical organization of the sarcomere, the contractile unit
of muscle cells. Then you learned about how sarcomere changes relate to whole muscle changes
in the sliding filament model.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

A-band
The region of a sarcomere where thick filaments exist.

Actin
The primary protein that forms the thin filament.

H-zone
The region of a sarcomere that contains thick filaments only.

I-band
The region of a sarcomere that contains thin filaments only.

M-line
The point of attachment for thick filaments.

Myosin
The protein that forms the thick filament.

Myosin Head
The bulbous region of a myosin molecule.

Myosin Neck
The flexible hinge that connects the myosin head and tail together.

Myosin Tail
The long, twisted portion of a myosin molecule.

Sarcomere
The repeating unit of a muscle fiber that runs from Z-line to Z-line.

Sliding Filament Model

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 A molecular model of a muscle contraction which explains how thin and thick filaments slide relative to
one another to cause a muscle to shorten or lengthen.

Thick Filament
A myofilament composed of myosin.

Thin Filament
A myofilament composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.

Titin
An elastic protein connecting the thick filament to the Z-line.

Tropomyosin
A long, thin regulatory protein that covers the myosin binding site of actin when a muscle is at rest.

Troponin
A regulatory protein that binds tropomyosin to actin.

Z-line
The point of attachment for thin filaments.

Zone of Overlap
The region where thin and thick filaments overlap.

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 Excitation-Contraction Coupling
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about how electrical signals control the contractile function of a muscle
fiber. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Excitation-Contraction Coupling

1. Excitation-Contraction Coupling
All living cells have a membrane potential or a difference in electrical charge across their cell membrane. This
electrical gradient is created by the presence of an uneven amount of positive and negative ions (charged
atoms) on either side of the membrane. For instance, more positive ions on the outside of a cell than inside
causes the outside to be positively charged while the inside is negatively charged. Ion channels in the
membrane can move ions such as sodium (K) and potassium (Na) into or out of the cell by active membrane
transport.

Both neurons and muscle cells are electrically excitable, meaning they can use their membrane potential to
generate electrical signals that can travel along a cell membrane as a wave. The inside of their membranes are
usually around -60 to -90 mV (mv = millivolts, 1/1000th of a volt), relative to the outside. Although the currents
generated by ions moving through these channel proteins are very small, they form the basis of both neural
signaling and muscle contraction.

In order for a muscle fiber to contract, its membrane must first be “excited,” or electrically activated enough to
generate an electrical signal. This means that these two events, excitation and contraction, are linked, otherwise
referred to as excitation-contraction coupling. In skeletal muscle, the sequence of events that occur always
begins with signals from the motor neuron, a neuron that causes movement in the body.

Before you can learn the steps of excitation-contraction coupling, it is important to review the anatomy of a
neuron. Recall that a neuron is composed of a cell body, or soma, with two types of processes that extend
outwards. Dendrites branch off of the cell body and monitor the electrochemical activity in their surrounding
area, bringing electrical signals into the soma. The axon extends away from the cell body and propagates an
electrical signal onto the next cell. At the end of the axon are axon terminals (terminus, ending) which form
connections with and transfer electrochemical signals to other cells.

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 The Neuron - The cell body of a neuron, also called the soma, contains the nucleus and mitochondria. The

dendrites transfer the electrochemical signal to the soma. The axon carries the electrochemical signal away to
another excitable cell. The axon terminals for the synapse (connection) to the next excitable cell.

The series of events begins when an electrical signal travels along the axon of a neuron and reaches the axon
terminal. Here, the axon terminal meets the muscle fiber and forms a connection called a neuromuscular
junction (NMJ). The NMJ consists of the axon terminal of the neuron, a portion of the sarcolemma called the
motor end plate, and the space between them. These two cells do not form a physical connection, instead
leaving a small gap called a synaptic cleft between them.

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 Motor End-Plate and Innervation - At the NMJ, the axon terminal releases ACh. The motor end-plate is the location

of the ACh-receptors in the muscle fiber sarcolemma. When ACh molecules are released, they diffuse across a

minute space called the synaptic cleft and bind to the receptors.

The presence of a gap between the axon terminal and the motor end plate means the electrical signal cannot
directly transfer from neuron to muscle fiber. Instead, the electrical signal in the neuron must be converted into
a chemical signal which travels across the gap. This chemical signal must then be converted back into an
electrical signal in the muscle fiber. Because of the electrical and chemical components of the signal, it is
referred to as an electrochemical signal.

When the electrical signal arrives at the NMJ, it causes the release of a specific chemical messenger, or
neurotransmitter known as acetylcholine (ACh). The ACh molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to
ACh receptors located within the motor end-plate. Once ACh binds, a channel in the ACh receptor opens and
positively charged sodium ions can pass into the muscle fiber, causing its membrane potential to depolarize, or
become less negative. Once a specific threshold of depolarization is met, an electrochemical signal rapidly
propagates (spreads) along the sarcolemma to initiate excitation-contraction coupling.

Things happen very quickly in the world of excitable membranes ( just think about how quickly you can snap your
fingers as soon as you decide to do it). Immediately following the depolarization of the membrane, it
repolarizes, re-establishing its original negative membrane potential. Meanwhile, the ACh in the synaptic cleft is
degraded and inactivated by an enzyme in the synaptic cleft called acetylcholinesterase (AChE) so that the ACh
cannot rebind to a receptor and reopen its channel, which would cause unwanted extended muscle excitation
and contraction.

Propagation of an electrochemical signal along the sarcolemma is the excitation portion of excitation-
contraction coupling. This excitation triggers the release of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) from its storage in the cell’s SR.
For the action potential to reach the membrane of the SR, there are periodic invaginations in the sarcolemma,
called transverse-tubules, also known as T-tubules. These T-tubules ensure that the membrane can get close to
the SR in the sarcoplasm. The arrangement of a T-tubule with the membranes of SR on either side is called a
triad. The triad surrounds the cylindrical myofibril which contains a protein called troponin that has a calcium-
binding site. The release of calcium will initiate another series of events known as the muscle contraction cycle

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 which will shorten the sarcomere and therefore the muscle.

The T-tubule - Narrow T-tubules permit the conduction of electrical impulses. The SR functions to regulate

intracellular levels of calcium. Two terminal cisternae (where enlarged SR connects to the T-tubule) and one T-tubule

comprise a triad—a “threesome” of membranes, with those of SR on two sides and the T-tubule sandwiched
between them.

 STEP BY STEP

The steps of exciting a muscle fiber can be confusing as there are many components and processes
involved. Below is a summary of the steps you covered so far.

1. An electrochemical signal travels along the axon of a motor neuron and reaches the axon terminal.
2. Acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter, is released from the axon terminal and diffuses across the
synaptic cleft.
3. ACh binds to acetylcholine receptors (AChR) on the motor end plate. AChR is a sodium channel that
opens when ACh binds.
4. Sodium (having previously been moved outside of the sarcolemma to form a negative membrane
potential), moves into the muscle fiber through AChR, causing the muscle fiber to depolarize.

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 5. The electrochemical signal propagates (spreads) along the sarcolemma and into the transverse
tubules.
6. At the triad, the electrochemical signal causes the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Membrane Potential
A difference in electrical charge across a cell membrane.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The concept that the excitation of a muscle fiber is linked to its contraction.

Axon Terminal
The distal end of an axon which forms a synapse with another cell.

Neuromuscular Junction
The synapse formed between the axon terminal of a neuron and the motor end plate of a muscle fiber.

Motor End Plate

The portion of the sarcolemma that participates in the neuromuscular junction.

Synaptic Cleft
A small space between two cells that neurotransmitter diffuses across in order to transfer an
electrochemical signal.

Neurotransmitter
A chemical messenger released from axon terminals to bind to receptors on a target cell.

Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter.

Depolarize
The change in a cell’s membrane potential when it becomes less negative.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
An enzyme that degrades and inactivates acetylcholine.

Transverse Tubules
Invaginations in the sarcolemma which surround the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Triad
A formation of one transverse tubule with a portion of sarcoplasmic reticulum on either side.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about how cell membranes can be electrically charged. You also learned
about how neurons are connected to muscle cells and transmit signals through the neuromuscular

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 junction. Finally, you learned about how neurons and their electrochemical signaling control the
contraction of muscles through excitation-contraction coupling.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
An enzyme that degrades and inactivates acetylcholine.

Axon Terminal
The distal end of an axon which forms a synapse with another cell.

Depolarize
The change in a cell’s membrane potential when it becomes less negative.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The concept that the excitation of a muscle fiber is linked to its contraction.

Membrane Potential
A difference in electrical charge across a cell membrane.

Motor End Plate

The portion of the sarcolemma that participates in the neuromuscular junction.

Neuromuscular Junction
The synapse formed between the axon terminal of a neuron and the motor end plate of a muscle fiber.

Neurotransmitter
A chemical messenger released from axon terminals to bind to receptors on a target cell.

Synaptic Cleft
A small space between two cells that neurotransmitter diffuses across in order to transfer an
electrochemical signal.

Transverse Tubules
Invaginations in the sarcolemma which surround the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Triad
A formation of one transverse tubule with a portion of sarcoplasmic reticulum on either side.

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 Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn the molecular mechanism of how a muscle shortens and lengthens.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Muscle Contraction Cycle

1. Muscle Contraction Cycle

Recall that when a muscle fiber (cell) is electrically activated (i.e., excited) at the neuromuscular junction, this
excitation results in the release of Ca²⁺ released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). The Ca²⁺ released by the
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) initiates a repetitive series of events called the muscle contraction cycle which
leads to the shortening of a muscle.

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 Muscle Contraction Cycle - (a) A resting muscle fiber. (b) Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and

binds to troponin; the troponin-tropomyosin complex shifts to reveal the myosin binding site on actin. (c) A
crossbridge is formed as myosin binds to actin. (d) A power stroke occurs as the myosin neck (hinge) bends,
shortening the sarcomere. ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) are released. (e) ATP binds the myosin head causing

the release of the crossbridge. Cleavage of ATP to ADP and Pi causes the myosin head to recock. This cycle
continues so long as calcium is still available. When calcium is no longer available, cross bridges will not reform and

the sarcomere and muscle fiber relax.

Recall that the proteins that form thin and thick filaments contain four key binding sites:

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 Calcium-binding site on troponin.
Myosin-binding site on actin.
Actin-binding site on the myosin head.
ATP-binding site on the myosin head.

When a muscle is at rest, the tropomyosin in a thin filament covers the myosin binding site on actin, keeping the
thin and thick filaments from interacting. When Ca²⁺ ions are released from the SR, they bind to the calcium-
binding site on troponin which shifts tropomyosin away from its position, revealing the myosin-binding site on
actin. Once this binding site is available, a myosin head binds to it, forming what is called a crossbridge. The
neck (hinge) region of myosin then decreases its angle, pulling on actin. This action is called a power stroke and
it causes the sarcomere to shorten approximately 10 nm (nanometers) which is 1/500,000th of the thickness of a
sheet of paper. The power stroke causes the ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) to be released, leaving an open
ATP-binding site. When a new molecule of ATP binds, the crossbridge between myosin and actin is released.
ATP is then cleaved to become ADP and Pi, releasing energy that is used to recock myosin, moving the myosin
head back to its original position.

As summarized in the image below, the electrochemical signal from a motor neuron causes the excitation of a
muscle fiber which results in the contraction of a muscle fiber. If enough muscle fibers contract within a muscle,
sufficient tension can be produced to cause the muscle to shorten.

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 Contraction of a Muscle Fiber - A cross-bridge forms between actin and the myosin heads triggering contraction. As
long as Ca²⁺ ions remain in the sarcoplasm to bind to troponin and as long as ATP is available the muscle fiber will

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 long as Ca ions remain in the sarcoplasm to bind to troponin and as long as ATP is available, the muscle fiber will

continue to shorten.

This series of events will continue to cycle so long as Ca²⁺ ions and ATP remain available or until the muscle
reaches its anatomical limit. Note that each thick filament of roughly 300 myosin molecules has multiple myosin
heads, and many cross-bridges form and break continuously during muscle contraction. Multiply this by all of
the sarcomeres in one myofibril, all the myofibrils in one muscle fiber, and all of the muscle fibers in one
skeletal muscle, so you can understand why so much energy (ATP) is needed to keep skeletal muscles working.
In fact, it is the loss of ATP that results in the rigor mortis observed soon after someone dies. With no further
ATP production possible, there is no ATP available for myosin heads to detach from the actin-binding sites, so
the cross-bridges stay in place, causing rigidity in the skeletal muscles.

When the body relaxes a skeletal muscle, all of the events that led to a muscle contraction reverse.

Electrochemicals in the motor neuron stop being generated.

ACh is no longer released into the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) and any remaining ACh is broken down by
acetylcholinesterase.
The muscle fiber is no longer excited and is able to repolarize or alter its membrane potential to become
more negative.
The lack of depolarization stops the release of Ca²⁺ from the SR. The SR is instead able to actively pump
Ca²⁺ back in, removing it from the sarcoplasm.
The lack of available calcium forces the troponin-tropomyosin complex to shift, covering and blocking the
myosin-binding site on actin. This restricts any cross bridges from being formed.
Sarcomeres relax and muscle fibers will lengthen causing the muscle to lengthen.

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 Relaxation of a Muscle Fiber - Ca²⁺ ions are pumped back into the SR, which causes the tropomyosin to reshield the
binding sites on the actin strands. A muscle may also stop contracting when it runs out of ATP and becomes

fatigued.

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  WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

IN CONTEXT
Disorders of the Muscular System

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive weakening of the skeletal muscles. It is one of
several diseases collectively referred to as “muscular dystrophy.” DMD is caused by a lack of the
protein dystrophin, which helps the thin filaments of myofibrils bind to the sarcolemma. Without
sufficient dystrophin, muscle contractions cause the sarcolemma to tear, causing an influx of Ca²⁺,
leading to cellular damage and muscle fiber degradation. Over time, as muscle damage accumulates,
muscle mass is lost, and greater functional impairments develop.

DMD is an inherited disorder caused by an abnormal X-chromosome. It primarily affects males, and it
is usually diagnosed in early childhood. DMD usually first appears as difficulty with balance and motion
and then progresses to an inability to walk. It continues progressing upward in the body from the
lower extremities to the upper body, affecting the muscles responsible for breathing and circulation. It
ultimately causes death due to respiratory failure, and those afflicted do not usually live past their 20s.

Because DMD is caused by a mutation in the gene that codes for dystrophin, it was thought that
introducing healthy myoblasts into patients might be an effective treatment. Myoblasts are the
embryonic cells responsible for muscle development, and ideally, they would carry healthy genes that
could produce the dystrophin needed for normal muscle contraction. This approach has been largely
unsuccessful in humans. A recent approach has involved attempting to boost the muscle’s production
of utrophin, a protein similar to dystrophin that may be able to assume the role of dystrophin and
prevent cellular damage from occurring.

 MAKE THE CONNECTION

If you're taking the Anatomy & Physiology I Lab course simultaneously with this lecture, it's a good time to try
the Lab Muscle tissues: An Overview in Unit 4 of the Lab course. Review the lab-to-lecture crosswalk if you
need more information. Good luck!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Muscle Contraction Cycle

A repetitive series of events which lead to the shortening of a muscle.

Crossbridge
A bond between a myosin head and an actin subunit.

Powerstroke

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 The action of myosin pulling on actin, resulting in the shortening of the sarcomere.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned the molecular steps of the muscle contraction cycle. You learned how the
various components of the myofilaments interact with one another to cause the shortening or
lengthening of a muscle. This interaction facilitates the mechanism of the sliding filament model.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Crossbridge
A bond between a myosin head and an actin subunit.

Muscle Contraction Cycle

A repetitive series of events which lead to the shortening of a muscle.

Powerstroke
The action of myosin pulling on actin, resulting in the shortening of the sarcomere.

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 Sources of ATP
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about how muscles acquire and utilize energy. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. Sources of ATP

1. Sources of ATP
ATP supplies the energy for muscle contraction to take place. In addition to its direct role in the cross-bridge
cycle, ATP also provides the energy for the active-transport Ca²⁺ pumps in the SR. Muscle contraction does not
occur without sufficient amounts of ATP. The amount of ATP stored in muscle is very low, only sufficient to power
a few seconds worth of contractions. As it is broken down, ATP must be regenerated and replaced quickly to
allow for sustained contraction. There are three mechanisms by which ATP can be regenerated in muscle cells:

1. Creatine Phosphate Metabolism

2. Anaerobic Glycolysis
3. Aerobic Respiration

Creatine phosphate is a molecule that can store energy from ATP in its phosphate bonds. In a resting muscle,
excess ATP transfers its energy to creatine, producing ADP and creatine phosphate. This acts as an energy
reserve that can be used to quickly create more ATP. When the muscle starts to contract and needs energy,
creatine phosphate transfers its phosphate back to ADP to form ATP and creatine. This reaction is catalyzed by
the enzyme creatine kinase and occurs very quickly; thus, creatine phosphate-derived ATP powers the first few
seconds of muscle contraction. However, creatine phosphate can only provide approximately 15 seconds worth
of energy, at which point another energy source has to be used.

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 Creatine Phosphate - A resting muscle stores the energy from excess ATP in creatine by forming creatine phosphate.

As a contraction starts, ATP is used up in seconds. Creatine phosphate can release its stored energy in order to
convert ADP back into ATP. This process extends energy reserves for about 15 seconds.

As the ATP produced by creatine phosphate is depleted, muscles turn to anaerobic (non-oxygen dependent)
respiration as an ATP source. Anaerobic respiration is the process by which glucose is broken down in the
absence of oxygen to produce ATP and pyruvic acid. The chemical reaction that facilitates this breakdown is
known as glycolysis (glyco, glucose; lysis, to cut). Glycolysis obtains glucose from your blood sugar or breaks
down glycogen stored in the muscle and produces more ATP than creatine phosphate but at a slower rate.

In anaerobic respiration, the breakdown of one glucose molecule produces two ATP and two molecules of
pyruvic acid, which can be used later in aerobic respiration or when oxygen levels are low, converted to lactic
acid. Glycolysis is the primary source of ATP for bacteria and is harnessed to produce alcohol. Your body
utilizes anaerobic respiration during short, intense bursts of high-intensity output such as running a 100-meter
sprint. Towards the end of this time period, the lactic acid buildup causes cellular and blood pH to lower
(become more acidic), contributing to muscle fatigue.

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 Anaerobic Respiration - Glycolysis uses one molecule of glucose to produce two net molecules of ATP and two

molecules of pyruvic acid. If oxygen is not available, pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid. If oxygen is available,
additional chemical reactions can use pyruvic acid to produce additional ATP.

Aerobic respiration is the process by which glucose or other nutrients are broken down in the presence of
oxygen (O₂) to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Approximately 95% of the ATP required by the body is
provided by aerobic respiration, which takes place in the mitochondria. The input sources for aerobic
respiration are more varied than any other ATP production process and include glucose, pyruvic acid, and fatty
acids.

Aerobic respiration is much more efficient than anaerobic glycolysis, producing approximately 36 ATPs per
molecule of glucose versus 2 from glycolysis. However, aerobic respiration cannot be sustained without a
steady supply of O₂ to the skeletal muscle and is much slower. To compensate, muscles store a small amount of
excess oxygen in proteins called myoglobin, allowing for more efficient muscle contractions and less fatigue.
Aerobic training also increases the efficiency of the circulatory system so that O₂ can be supplied to the muscles
for longer periods of time.

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 Aerobic Respiration - Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen (O₂) to produce

carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Approximately 95% of the ATP required for resting or moderately active muscles is
provided by aerobic respiration, which takes place in mitochondria.

Muscle fatigue occurs when a muscle can no longer contract in response to signals from the nervous system.
The exact causes of muscle fatigue are not fully known, although certain factors have been correlated with the
decreased muscle contraction that occurs during fatigue. ATP is needed for normal muscle contraction, and as
ATP reserves are reduced, muscle function may decline. This may be more of a factor in brief, intense muscle
output rather than sustained, lower-intensity efforts. Lactic acid buildup may lower intracellular pH, affecting
enzyme and protein activity. Imbalances in Na⁺ and K⁺ levels as a result of membrane depolarization may
disrupt Ca²⁺ flow out of the SR. Long periods of sustained exercise may damage the SR and the sarcolemma,
resulting in impaired Ca²⁺ regulation.

Intense muscle activity results in an oxygen debt, which is the amount of oxygen needed to compensate for ATP
produced without oxygen during muscle contraction. Oxygen is required to restore ATP and creatine phosphate
levels; convert lactic acid to pyruvic acid; and, in the liver, to convert lactic acid into glucose or glycogen. Other
systems used during exercise also require oxygen, and all of these combined processes result in the increased
breathing rate that occurs after exercise. Until the oxygen debt has been met, oxygen intake is elevated, even
after exercise has stopped.

 REFLECT

All skeletal muscle actions require a constant supply of ATP. The greater the intensity of the movement or
the more movement required, the greater the amount of ATP required. As you just learned, the body has
multiple processes in place to generate ATP and each produces a different amount of ATP at a different
rate. The example below may help you understand the difference and how they are related.

Imagine that you are going to run. The plan is to run as fast as you possibly can for one mile—not the fastest
time overall, but the fastest pace your body can produce at every moment during that mile. The changes in
your speed and how your body feels indicate the different ATP sources your body is using.

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 Get ready, set, GO!

You start out with lots of energy. You can feel your muscles tightening as your legs spring you forward and
your arms pump. You are continuing to pick up speed. Your body feels tense, but you have no complaints as
you have plenty of energy. For approximately 6 seconds, your muscles are using the ATP you had
previously produced and stored inside your muscle fibers and converting it to ADP + Pi. This ATP is present
for any immediate movement needs.

After 6 seconds, you don’t feel much different. You are continuing to pick up speed, though at a slower rate.
Your muscle has run out of ATP, but you don’t stop running. The body has quietly begun using creatine
phosphate to recycle the ADP + Pi you just created and convert it back into ATP. The body continues to use
that ATP to run at top speed. This lasts for an additional 15 seconds.

Around 21 seconds into your run, despite all your motivation, your body begins to slow down. Physically, the
body has begun producing ATP using anaerobic respiration (glycolysis). This process requires chemical
reactions to break down glucose, which takes time. That means your muscles cannot contract at the speed
and force that they did before. Still pushing as hard as you can, you run for an additional 60 seconds. Over
that period of time, the body feels increasingly fatigued and your muscles begin to feel like they are
burning as the pyruvic acid is accumulating and converting into lactic acid, which drops the pH of your cells
and blood.

Around 1:21 into your run, your body slows down again. If you continue to push at the previous level, your
body will shut down and you’ll pass out from a lack of energy. Alternatively, your body will convert to using
aerobic respiration to produce ATP. This process takes even longer, so muscle contractions slow down and
decrease force yet again. However, aerobic respiration can run on stored glucose for approximately 90
minutes and stored lipids (adipose tissue) for much longer.

At the end of your run, you stop and find you are breathing hard for a few minutes or more. This is your
body trying to repay your oxygen debt. The body needs energy (ATP) to get rid of the remaining lactic acid,
rebalance your body pH, reform all of the creatine phosphate, and create more ATP to leave available for
immediate movements. All of this requires aerobic respiration to continue working well past when you finish
running. As aerobic respiration slows down, your breathing rate will as well.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Creatine Phosphate
A molecule that can store energy from ATP in its phosphate bonds and release it to produce ATP.

Anaerobic Respiration
The process by which glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP and pyruvic
acid.

Glycolysis

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 The chemical reaction which breaks down glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP and
pyruvic acid.

Pyruvic Acid
A byproduct of glycolysis which can convert into lactic acid or be used by aerobic respiration.

Lactic Acid
The product of pyruvic conversion following glycolysis.

Aerobic Respiration
The process by which glucose or other nutrients are broken down in the presence of oxygen (O₂) to
produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Oxygen Debt
The amount of oxygen needed to compensate for ATP produced without oxygen during muscle
contraction.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the sources of ATP from which muscles acquire energy to contract.
You learned how cells produce ATP under various scenarios based on the amount of energy required
and the effects these processes have on the body. You also learned about how cells and the body
replenish ATP stores once energy demand decreases.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Aerobic Respiration
The process by which glucose or other nutrients are broken down in the presence of oxygen (O₂) to
produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Anaerobic Respiration
The process by which glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP and pyruvic acid.

Creatine Phosphate
A molecule that can store energy from ATP in its phosphate bonds and release it to produce ATP.

Glycolysis
The chemical reaction which breaks down glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP and pyruvic
acid.

Lactic Acid
The product of pyruvic conversion following glycolysis.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 37
 Oxygen Debt
The amount of oxygen needed to compensate for ATP produced without oxygen during muscle
contraction.

Pyruvic Acid
A byproduct of glycolysis which can convert into lactic acid or be used by aerobic respiration.

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 Muscle Contractions
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about muscle contractions and the tension they produce. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. Contractions
2. Motor Units
3. The Length-Tension Relationship

1. Contractions
To move an object, referred to as a load, the sarcomeres in the muscle fibers of the skeletal muscle must
shorten. The force generated by the contraction of a muscle is called muscle tension. A muscle contraction can
be defined by the length of the muscle involved and the muscle tension it produces. All muscle contractions fall
into two categories, isotonic and isometric (iso, equal).

In isotonic contractions, the tension in the muscle stays constant and the muscle changes length as the load
moves. There are two types of isotonic contractions: concentric and eccentric. A concentric contraction involves
the muscle shortening to move a load. The image below depicts a muscle of the arm called the bicep brachii,
more commonly referred to as the bicep. In a concentric contraction, muscle tension is greater than the force of
the load, the muscle shortens, and in this case, the elbow flexes, lifting the hand weight up. An eccentric
contraction occurs as the muscle lengthens. In this contraction, the muscle tension is less than the load, the
muscle lengthens, and in this case, the elbow extends, lowering the hand weight.

An isometric contraction occurs as the muscle produces tension without changing the angle of a skeletal joint.
Isometric contractions do not move a load, as the force produced cannot overcome the resistance provided by
the load. For example, if one attempts to lift a hand weight that is too heavy, there will be sarcomere activation
and shortening to a point, ever-increasing muscle tension, but no change in the angle of the elbow joint. In
everyday living, isometric contractions are active in maintaining posture and maintaining bone and joint stability.
However, holding your head in an upright position occurs not because the muscles cannot move the head but
because the goal is to remain stationary and not produce movement. Most actions of the body are the result of
a combination of isotonic and isometric contractions working together to produce a wide range of outcomes.

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© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 40
 Types of Muscle Contractions - During isotonic contractions, muscle length changes to move a load. During
isometric contractions, muscle length does not change because the load exceeds the tension the muscle can
generate.

All of these muscle activities are under the exquisite control of the nervous system. Neural control regulates
concentric, eccentric and isometric contractions, muscle fiber recruitment, and muscle tone. A crucial aspect of
the nervous system's control of skeletal muscles is the role of motor units.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Muscle Tension
The force generated by the contraction of a muscle.

Isotonic Contraction
A contraction in which the tension in the muscle stays constant and the muscle changes length as the
load moves.

Concentric Contraction
An isotonic contraction in which the muscle shortens.

Eccentric Contraction
An isotonic contraction in which the muscle lengthens.

Isometric Contraction
A contraction in which the muscle produces tension without changing the angle of a skeletal joint.

2. Motor Units
As you have learned, every skeletal muscle fiber must be innervated by the axon terminal of a motor neuron in
order to contract. Each muscle fiber is innervated (forms a synapse with) by only one motor neuron. However,
each motor neuron innervates more than one muscle fiber. The actual group of muscle fibers in a muscle
innervated by a single motor neuron is called a motor unit. The size of a motor unit is variable depending on the
nature of the muscle.

A small motor unit is an arrangement where a single motor neuron supplies a small number of muscle fibers in a
muscle. Small motor units generate smaller amounts of tension and permit very fine motor control of the
muscle.

EXAMPLE The best example in humans is the extraocular eye muscles that move the eyeballs. Of the
thousands of muscle fibers in each muscle, each motor unit only comprises six or so fibers. This allows for
exquisite control of eye movements so that both eyes can quickly focus on the same object.

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 Small motor units are also involved in the many fine movements of the fingers and thumb of the hand for
grasping, texting, etc.

A large motor unit is an arrangement where a single motor neuron supplies a large number of muscle fibers in a
muscle. Large motor units are concerned with simple, or “gross,” movements, such as powerfully extending the
knee joint.

EXAMPLE The best example is the large motor units of the thigh muscles, where a single motor neuron
will supply thousands of muscle fibers in a muscle.
Many skeletal muscles contain a wide range of motor units—some small and some large. This variety within a
muscle gives the nervous system better control over body movement. Small motor units have motor neurons
with a lower threshold that are more excitable which means they fire first, generating small amounts of tension.
If more strength is needed, more electrochemical signals are generated and larger motor units with higher-
threshold motor neurons are activated. These generate greater amounts of tension. This increasing activation
of motor units produces an increase in muscle contraction known as recruitment. As more motor units are
recruited, the muscle contraction grows progressively stronger.

 THINK ABOUT IT

In some muscles, the largest motor units may generate a contractile force of 50 times more than the
smallest motor units in the muscle. This allows a feather to be picked up using the biceps brachii arm
muscle with minimal force and a heavy weight to be lifted by the same muscle by recruiting the largest
motor units.
The activation of motor units can be coordinated to produce a wide variety of muscle tensions. Single motor
units can be recruited to produce small amounts of tension. Many motor units can be sequentially recruited
together to gradually increase muscle tension. All motor units can be recruited simultaneously to produce
maximum force, though this cannot last long because of the large energy requirements. Motor units can also
cycle on and off like a tag team in order to maintain relatively stable non-maximal muscle tension within the
muscle, providing time for recovery in resting motor units. This phenomenon is generally referred to as
asynchronous motor unit recruitment. An example is holding a lightweight in a partial contraction. Individual
motor units would fatigue over time, but the muscle can swap which motor units are recruited in order to let
each recover, allowing the tension to remain constant and the load to remain stationary.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Motor Unit
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates.

Recruitment
The increasing activation of motor units in a muscle contraction.

3. The Length-Tension Relationship

Recall that when a skeletal muscle fiber concentrically contracts, myosin heads attach to actin to form cross-
bridges followed by the thin filaments sliding over the thick filaments as the heads pull the actin. This results in

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 sarcomere shortening, creating the tension of muscle contraction. The cross-bridges can only form where thin
and thick filaments already overlap so that the length of the sarcomere has a direct influence on the force
generated when the sarcomere shortens. This is called the length-tension relationship.

The ideal length of a sarcomere to produce maximal tension occurs at 80 to 120% of its resting length, with
100% being the state where the medial edges of the thin filaments are just at the most-medial myosin heads of
the thick filaments. This length maximizes the overlap of actin-binding sites and myosin heads. If a sarcomere is
stretched past this ideal length (beyond 120%), thick and thin filaments overlap less, which results in less tension
produced. If a sarcomere is shortened beyond 80%, the zone of overlap is reduced with the thin filaments
jutting beyond the last of the myosin heads and shrinks the H zone, which is normally composed of myosin tails.
Eventually, there is nowhere else for the thin filaments to go and the amount of tension is diminished. If the
muscle is stretched to the point where thick and thin filaments do not overlap at all, no cross-bridges can be
formed and no tension is produced in that sarcomere. This amount of stretching does not usually occur as titin,
accessory proteins, and connective tissue oppose extreme stretching.

The Ideal Length of a Sarcomere - Sarcomeres produce maximal tension when thick and thin filaments overlap
between about 80 to 120%.

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  SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify the types of contractions a muscle can produce. You also learned
the structure and function of motor units and how they can be activated to create various amounts of
muscle tension. Then you applied your understanding of the sarcomere to understand the length-
tension relationship.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Concentric Contraction
An isotonic contraction in which the muscle shortens.

Eccentric Contraction
An isotonic contraction in which the muscle lengthens.

Isometric Contraction
A contraction in which the muscle produces tension without changing the angle of a skeletal joint.

Isotonic Contraction
A contraction in which the tension in the muscle stays constant and the muscle changes length as the
load moves.

Motor Unit
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates.

Muscle Tension
The force generated by the contraction of a muscle.

Recruitment
The increasing activation of motor units in a muscle contraction.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 44
 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about how changes in electrical activation can alter muscle contractions and
the tension they produce. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Frequency of Motor Neuron Stimulation
2. Muscle Tone

1. The Frequency of Motor Neuron Stimulation

Recall that muscle fibers (cells) are stimulated by electrochemical signals from motor neurons at the
neuromuscular junction. This electrochemical excitation controls the contractile function of muscle fibers and the
muscle they are a part of through excitation-contraction coupling. It should make sense then that changes to the
neuronal signal (i.e., excitation) should cause changes to the contraction and the tension the muscle produces.

A single action potential from a motor neuron will produce a single contraction in the muscle fibers of its motor
unit. This isolated contraction is called a twitch. A twitch can last for a few milliseconds or 100 milliseconds,
depending on the muscle type. The tension produced by a single twitch can be measured and is displayed by a
myogram, a representation of the amount of tension produced in a muscle over time. Each twitch undergoes
three phases. The first phase is the latent period, during which the electrochemical signal is being propagated
along the sarcolemma and Ca²⁺ ions are released from the SR. This is the phase during which excitation and
contraction are being coupled but contraction has yet to occur. The contraction phase occurs next. The Ca²⁺
ions in the sarcoplasm have bound to troponin, tropomyosin has shifted away from myosin-binding sites, cross-
bridges have formed, and sarcomeres are actively shortening to the point of peak tension. The last phase is the
relaxation phase, when tension decreases as contraction stops. Ca²⁺ ions are pumped out of the sarcoplasm
into the SR, and cross-bridge cycling stops, returning the muscle fibers to their resting state.

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 A Myogram of a Muscle Twitch - A single muscle twitch has a latent period, a contraction phase when tension

increases, and a relaxation phase when tension decreases. During the latent period, the action potential is
propagated along the sarcolemma. During the contraction phase, Ca²⁺ ions in the sarcoplasm bind to troponin,
tropomyosin moves from myosin-binding sites, cross-bridges between actin and myosin form, and sarcomeres

shorten. During the relaxation phase, tension decreases as Ca²⁺ ions are pumped out of the sarcoplasm and cross-
bridge cycling stops.

Although a person can experience a muscle “twitch,” a single twitch does not produce any significant muscle
activity in a living body. A series of action potentials to the muscle fibers is necessary to produce a muscle
contraction that can produce work. A normal muscle contraction is more sustained, and it can be modified by
input from the nervous system to produce varying amounts of force; this is called a graded muscle response.
The frequency of action potentials (electrochemical signals) from both a motor neuron and the number of motor
neurons transmitting action potentials affect the tension produced in skeletal muscle.

The rate at which a motor neuron activates a muscle fiber affects the tension produced in the skeletal muscle. If
the fibers are stimulated while a previous twitch is still occurring or soon after, the second twitch will be
stronger. This general response is called wave summation because the excitation-contraction coupling effects
of successive motor neuron signaling are summed, or added together. At the molecular level, wave summation
occurs because the second stimulus triggers the release of additional Ca²⁺ ions, which become available to
activate additional sarcomeres while the muscle is still reacting to the first stimulus. Summation results in
greater contraction of the motor unit.

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 The image below shows a series of myograms indicating the changes that occur as motor neuron signaling
increases frequency. As previously mentioned, a twitch is a single stimulation and muscle contraction. If
subsequent stimulations arrive at the end of or just after the relaxation phase, several of the following
contractions are stronger than the previous but eventually reach a plateau. This is called Treppe or referred to
as the “staircase effect.” As the stimulation is moved earlier in the relaxation phase, the muscle fiber has less
time to relax between stimulations and total tension increases. Incomplete tetanus occurs when stimulations
arrive at the beginning of the relaxation phase, creating greater muscle tension which plateaus just below the
maximum tension that muscle fiber. Lastly, complete tetanus is when stimulations arrive during the contraction
phase. Because the muscle fiber is unable to relax between stimulations, it produces a smooth increase in
tension up to its maximum. All of your conscious muscle movements are done by activating muscle fibers with
complete tetanus.

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 Wave Summation - (a) A twitch is a single stimulation and contraction. (b) Treppe is created when stimulations arrive

at the end of the contraction phase and muscle tension initially increases within subsequent contractions until a
low-level plateau. (c) Incomplete tetanus is created when stimulations arrive at the beginning of the relaxation

phase and muscle tension reaches a high-level plateau just under the maximum tension. (d) Complete tetanus is

created when stimulations arrive during the contraction phase and the muscle reaches maximum tension.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Twitch
An isolated muscle contraction.

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 Myogram
A representation of the amount of tension produced in a muscle over time.

Latent Period
The first phase of a muscle contraction during which excitation and contraction are being coupled but
contraction has yet to occur.

Contraction Phase
The second phase of a muscle contraction during which tension increases.

Relaxation Phase
The third phase of a muscle contraction during which tension decreases.

Graded Muscle Response

The ability of muscle contractions to be modified based on input from the nervous system.

Wave Summation
The increase in muscle tension due to the effects of successive motor neuron signaling.

Treppe
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases stepwise due to successive stimulations
with nearly full time for relaxation.

Incomplete Tetanus
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases to just below its maximum due to
successive stimulations with little time for relaxation.

Complete Tetanus
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases to its maximum due to successive
stimulations with no time for relaxation.

2. Muscle Tone
Skeletal muscles are rarely completely relaxed, or flaccid. Even at rest, a muscle produces a small amount of
tension, called muscle tone, to maintain its contractile proteins. The tension produced by muscle tone allows
muscles to continually stabilize joints and maintain posture.

Muscle tone is accomplished by a complex interaction between the nervous system and skeletal muscles that
results in the activation of a few motor units at a time, most likely in a cyclical manner. In this manner, muscles
never fatigue completely, as some motor units can recover while others are active.

Abnormally low levels or absence of the low-level contractions that lead to muscle tone is referred to as
hypotonia and can result from damage to parts of the central nervous system (CNS), such as the cerebellum, or
from loss of innervations to a skeletal muscle, as in poliomyelitis. Hypotonic muscles have a flaccid appearance
and display functional impairments, such as weak reflexes. Conversely, excessive muscle tone is referred to as
hypertonia, accompanied by hyperreflexia (excessive reflex responses), often the result of damage to upper

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 motor neurons in the CNS. Hypertonia can present with muscle rigidity (as seen in Parkinson’s disease) or
spasticity, a phasic change in muscle tone, where a limb will “snap” back from passive stretching (as seen in
some strokes).

 TERMS TO KNOW

Muscle Tone
The level of muscle contraction that occurs at rest.

Hypotonia
Abnormally low muscle tone.

Hypertonia
Abnormally high muscle tone.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about how muscle tension is coordinated by the frequency of motor neuron
stimulation. Changes to the electrical signals cause changes to the amount of tension a muscle will
produce as a result. Lastly, you applied this idea to muscles at rest to understand muscle tone.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Complete Tetanus
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases to its maximum due to successive
stimulations with no time for relaxation.

Contraction Phase
The second phase of a muscle contraction during which tension increases.

Graded Muscle Response

The ability of muscle contractions to be modified based on input from the nervous system.

Hypertonia
Abnormally high muscle tone.

Hypotonia
Abnormally low muscle tone.

Incomplete Tetanus
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases to just below its maximum due to
successive stimulations with little time for relaxation.

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 Latent Period
The first phase of a muscle contraction during which excitation and contraction are being coupled but
contraction has yet to occur.

Muscle Tone
The level of muscle contraction that occurs at rest.

Myogram
A representation of the amount of tension produced in a muscle over time.

Relaxation Phase
The third phase of a muscle contraction during which tension decreases.

Treppe
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases stepwise due to successive stimulations
with nearly full time for relaxation.

Twitch
An isolated muscle contraction.

Wave Summation
The increase in muscle tension due to the effects of successive motor neuron signaling.

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 Endurance Exercise and Muscle Performance
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the relationship between low-intensity physical activity (endurance
exercise) and skeletal muscles. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Types of Muscle Fibers
2. Endurance Exercise
3. Performance Enhancement

1. Types of Muscle Fibers

Two criteria to consider when classifying the types of muscle fibers are how fast some fibers contract relative to
others and how fibers produce ATP. Using these criteria, there are three main types of skeletal muscle fibers.
Most skeletal muscles in a human contain(s) all three types, although in varying proportions:

Slow oxidative (SO) fibers, also known as type 1, contract relatively slowly and fatigue relatively slowly.
These fibers use aerobic respiration (oxygen and glucose) to produce ATP.
Fast oxidative (FO) fibers, also known as type 2A, have fast contractions and primarily use aerobic
respiration. However, because they may switch to anaerobic respiration (glycolysis), they can fatigue more
quickly than SO fibers.
Fast glycolytic (FG) fibers, also known as type 2B, have fast contractions and primarily use anaerobic
glycolysis. The FG fibers fatigue faster than the others.

The speed of contraction is dependent on how quickly the ATP attached to myosin during the muscle
contraction cycle can be cleaved to form ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pᵢ). Recall that the cleavage of this ATP
molecule allows for the release of myosin from actin and allows for the eventual reformation of the crossbridge
at a different location. Fast fibers convert ATP approximately twice as quickly as slow fibers, resulting in much
quicker crossbridge cycling (which pulls the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomeres at a faster rate).

 KEY CONCEPT

The primary metabolic pathway used by a muscle fiber determines whether the fiber is classified as
oxidative or glycolytic. If a fiber primarily produces ATP through aerobic pathways, it is oxidative. More ATP
can be produced during each metabolic cycle, making the fiber more resistant to fatigue. Glycolytic fibers

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 primarily create ATP through anaerobic glycolysis, which produces less ATP per cycle. As a result, glycolytic
fibers fatigue at a quicker rate.
The oxidative fibers contain many more mitochondria than the glycolytic fibers, because aerobic metabolism,
which uses oxygen (O₂) in the metabolic pathway, occurs in the mitochondria. The SO fibers possess a large
number of mitochondria and are capable of contracting for longer periods because of the large amount of ATP
they can produce, but they have a relatively small diameter and do not produce a large amount of tension. SO
fibers are extensively supplied with blood capillaries to supply O₂ from the red blood cells in the bloodstream.
The SO fibers also possess myoglobin, an O₂-carrying molecule similar to O₂-carrying hemoglobin in the red
blood cells. The myoglobin stores some of the needed O₂ within the fibers themselves (and gives SO fibers
their red color). All of these features allow SO fibers to produce large quantities of ATP, which can sustain
muscle activity without fatiguing for long periods of time.

The fact that SO fibers can function for long periods without fatiguing makes them useful in maintaining posture,
producing isometric contractions, stabilizing bones and joints, and making small movements that happen often
but do not require large amounts of energy. They do not produce high tension, and thus they are not used for
powerful, fast movements that require high amounts of energy and rapid cross-bridge cycling.

FO fibers are sometimes called intermediate fibers because they possess characteristics that are intermediate
between fast fibers and slow fibers. They produce ATP relatively quickly, more quickly than SO fibers, and thus
can produce relatively high amounts of tension. They are oxidative because they produce ATP aerobically,
possess high amounts of mitochondria, and do not fatigue quickly. However, FO fibers do not possess
significant myoglobin, giving them a lighter color than the red SO fibers. FO fibers are used primarily for
movements, such as walking, that require more energy than postural control but less energy than an explosive
movement, such as sprinting. FO fibers are useful for this type of movement because they produce more
tension than SO fibers but they are more fatigue-resistant than FG fibers.

FG fibers primarily use anaerobic glycolysis as their ATP source. They have a large diameter and possess high
amounts of glycogen, which is used in glycolysis to generate ATP quickly to produce high levels of tension.
Because they do not primarily use aerobic metabolism, they do not possess substantial numbers of
mitochondria or significant amounts of myoglobin and therefore have a white color. FG fibers are used to
produce rapid, forceful contractions to make quick, powerful movements. These fibers fatigue quickly,
permitting them to only be used for short periods. Most muscles possess a mixture of each fiber type. The
predominant fiber type in a muscle is determined by the primary function of the muscle.

 KEY CONCEPT

Physical training alters the appearance of skeletal muscles and can produce changes in muscle
performance. Conversely, a lack of use can result in decreased performance and muscle appearance.
Although muscle cells can change in size, new cells are not formed when muscles grow. Instead, the muscle
fiber diameter increases due to the production of additional structural proteins. When structural proteins
are lost, muscle mass decreases. Age-related loss of muscle mass is called sarcopenia. Cellular
components of muscles can also undergo changes in response to changes in muscle use.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Slow Oxidative Fiber

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 A muscle fiber which produces slow, sustained muscle contractions and primarily uses aerobic
respiration.

Fast Oxidative Fiber

An intermediate muscle fiber which produces fast muscle contractions and primarily uses aerobic
respiration.

Fast Glycolytic Fiber

A muscle fiber which produces fast muscle contractions and primarily uses anaerobic respiration.

2. Endurance Exercise
Endurance exercise is a form of physical activity that performs sustained or repetitive muscle contractions for an
extended period of time. Common forms of endurance exercise include walking, running, hiking, swimming,
cycling, and more. During these activities, each individual contraction requires a low amount of force but
requires constant repetition. To satisfy these needs, slow oxidative (SO) fibers are predominantly used in
endurance exercises. SO fibers use aerobic respiration to maintain a steady supply of ATP over long periods of
time, limiting maximum force but delaying muscle fiber fatigue.

Endurance training modifies SO fibers to make them even more efficient by producing more mitochondria to
enable more aerobic metabolism and more ATP production. Endurance exercise can also increase the amount
of myoglobin in a cell, as increased aerobic respiration increases the need for oxygen. Myoglobin is found in
the sarcoplasm and acts as an oxygen storage supply for the mitochondria.

Another change endurance exercise promotes is the formation of more extensive capillary networks, or
angiogenesis, around the muscle fiber to supply oxygen and remove metabolic waste. To allow these capillary
networks to supply the deep portions of the muscle, it is important for the muscle to remain slim as increasing
greatly in size will limit the diffusion of nutrients and gasses. All of these cellular changes result in the increase
of force generated by a muscle contraction and the ability to sustain muscle contractions for greater periods
without fatiguing.

It is important to note that fast oxidative (FO) fibers also play a role in endurance exercise. Because these fibers
also predominantly rely on aerobic respiration, the increase in mitochondria, myoglobin, and capillary networks
will increase their ability to produce ATP just as it does for SO fibers. However, FO fibers do not see as large of
an increase in ability as SO fibers do.

The proportion of SO muscle fibers in muscle determines the suitability of that muscle for endurance and may
benefit those participating in endurance activities. Postural muscles have a large number of SO fibers and
relatively few FO and FG fibers, to keep the back straight. Endurance athletes, like marathon runners also would
benefit from a larger proportion of SO fibers, but it is unclear if the most-successful marathoners are those with
naturally high numbers of SO fibers, or whether the most successful marathon runners develop high numbers of
SO fibers with repetitive training.

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 Marathoners - Long-distance runners have a large number of SO fibers and relatively few FO and FG fibers.

3. Performance Enhancement
Some athletes attempt to boost their performance by using various agents or processes that enhance muscle
fiber function. For endurance athletes, these agents or processes focus on increasing the efficiency of aerobic
respiration in order to improve the performance of SO fibers. Those discussed below focus on increasing the
availability of the nutrients required for aerobic respiration.

There are a number of substances that endurance athletes can use to boost aerobic respiration. One of the
most highly recognized substances is erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone normally produced in the kidneys, which
triggers the production of red blood cells. In A&P II, you will learn that red blood cells transport oxygen
throughout the body. Therefore, a greater number of oxygen-transporting cells allows for more oxygen
available to muscles for aerobic respiration.

Although performance-enhancing substances often do improve performance, most are banned by governing
bodies in sports and are illegal for non-medical purposes. Their use to enhance performance raises ethical
issues of cheating because they give users an unfair advantage over non-users. A greater concern, however, is
that their use carries serious health risks. The side effects of these substances are often significant,
nonreversible, and in some cases fatal. The physiological strain caused by these substances is often greater
than what the body can handle, leading to effects that are unpredictable and dangerous.

There are, however, things an athlete can do that are not banned by governing bodies. Caffeine is one of the
most widely consumed legal performance-enhancing substances in the world. It functions to make the body and
mind more alert, resist fatigue, and increase overall muscle performance, benefiting both aerobic and
anaerobic performance.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a chemical naturally produced in the body in response to exercise. This molecule serves to
open blood vessels and increase blood flow, thereby increasing the delivery of nutrients required for aerobic

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 respiration and removal of its waste products. Some athletes consume substances such as beetroot juice in
order to increase the level of NO in their bodies, though the evidence of a benefit is inconsistent.

Some athletes will spend time at higher elevations where there is a decreased level of oxygen. This causes the
body to adapt by producing more red blood cells and becoming more efficient in its use of oxygen. Other
athletes will avoid the need for travel and spend time in an altitude or hypoxic tent, a specialized tent that
reduces the available oxygen to mimic the air at higher elevations.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify the types of muscle fibers found in muscle tissue. You also learned
about how endurance exercise alters skeletal muscle tissue. Lastly, you explored how certain
substances and activities can augment the function of muscles for endurance athletes through
performance enhancement.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

REFERENCES
Evans J, Richards JR, Battisti AS. Caffeine. [Updated]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls
Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519490/

Jiménez, S. L., Díaz-Lara, J., Pareja-Galeano, H., & Del Coso, J. (2021). Caffeinated Drinks and Physical
Performance in Sport: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 13(9), 2944. doi.org/10.3390/nu13092944

Domínguez, R., Cuenca, E., Maté-Muñoz, J. L., García-Fernández, P., Serra-Paya, N., Estevan, M. C., Herreros, P.
V., & Garnacho-Castaño, M. V. (2017). Effects of Beetroot Juice Supplementation on Cardiorespiratory
Endurance in Athletes. A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 9(1), 43. doi.org/10.3390/nu9010043

Perez JM, Dobson JL, Ryan GA, Riggs AJ. The Effects of Beetroot Juice on VO₂max and Blood Pressure during
Submaximal Exercise. Int J Exerc Sci. 2019 Mar 1;12(2):332-342. PMID: 30899343; PMCID: PMC6413851.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Fast Glycolytic Fiber

A muscle fiber which produces fast muscle contractions and primarily uses anaerobic respiration.

Fast Oxidative Fiber

An intermediate muscle fiber which produces fast muscle contractions and primarily uses aerobic
respiration.

Slow Oxidative Fiber

A muscle fiber which produces slow, sustained muscle contractions and primarily uses aerobic respiration.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 56
 Resistance Exercise and Muscle Performance
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the relationship between high-intensity physical activity (resistance
exercise) and skeletal muscles. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Resistance Exercise
2. Performance Enhancement

1. Resistance Exercise
Resistance exercises, as opposed to endurance exercises, require large amounts of fast-glycolytic (FG) fibers to
produce short, powerful movements that are not repeated over long periods. The high rates of ATP hydrolysis
and cross-bridge formation in FG fibers result in powerful muscle contractions. Muscles used for power have a
higher ratio of FG to slow-oxidative (SO) and fast-oxidative (FO) fibers and trained resistance athletes possess
even higher levels of FG fibers in their muscles.

Over time, resistance exercise will cause skeletal muscles to adapt by increasing in size. However, the number
of skeletal muscle fibers in a given muscle is genetically determined and does not change. A muscle, therefore,
changes in size by altering the number of myofibrils and sarcomeres each of its muscle fibers contains. The
enlargement of a muscle is called muscle hypertrophy, exemplified by the large skeletal muscles seen in
bodybuilders and other athletes. Because this muscular enlargement is achieved by the addition of structural
proteins, athletes trying to build muscle mass often ingest large amounts of protein.

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 Hypertrophy - Body builders have a large number of FG fibers and relatively few FO and SO fibers.

Alternatively, decreased use of skeletal muscle results in muscle atrophy, where the number of sarcomeres and
myofibrils disappear (but not the number of muscle fibers). When bodybuilders decrease their workout routine,
their skeletal muscle tissue no longer has as much signal to increase in size and can actually decrease in size
instead. It is also common for a limb in a cast to show atrophied muscles when the cast is removed, and certain
diseases, such as polio, show atrophied muscles.

Except for the hypertrophy that follows an increase in the number of sarcomeres and myofibrils in a skeletal
muscle, the cellular changes observed during endurance training do not usually occur with resistance training.
There is usually no significant increase in mitochondria or capillary density. However, resistance training does
increase the development of connective tissue, which adds to the overall mass of the muscle and helps to
contain muscles as they produce increasingly powerful contractions. Tendons also become stronger to prevent
tendon damage, as the force produced by muscles is transferred to tendons that attach the muscle to bone.

For effective strength training, the intensity of the exercise must continually be increased. For instance,
continued weight lifting without increasing the intensity (i.e., weight) of the load does not increase muscle size.
To produce ever-greater results, the weights lifted must become increasingly heavier, making it more difficult
for muscles to move the load. The muscle then adapts to this heavier load, and an even heavier load must be
used if even greater muscle mass is desired.

If done improperly, resistance training can lead to overuse injuries of the muscle, tendon, or bone. These
injuries can occur if the load is too heavy or if the muscles are not given sufficient time between workouts to
recover or if joints are not aligned properly during the exercises. Cellular damage to muscle fibers that occurs
after intense exercise includes damage to the sarcolemma and myofibrils. This muscle damage contributes to
the feeling of soreness after strenuous exercise, but muscles gain mass as this damage is repaired, and
additional structural proteins are added to replace the damaged ones. Overworking skeletal muscles can also
lead to tendon damage and even skeletal damage if the load is too great for the muscles to bear.

 TERM TO KNOW

Hypertrophy

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 An increase in tissue size.

2. Performance Enhancement
Resistance (or strength) athletes may also attempt to boost their performance by using various agents that may
enhance muscle performance. Anabolic steroids are one of the more widely known agents used to boost
muscle mass and increase power output. Anabolic steroids are a form of testosterone, a male sex hormone that
stimulates muscle formation, leading to increased muscle mass.

Human growth hormone (hGH) is a natural hormone produced by the body in response to physical activity. Its
main role is to promote the healing of muscle and other tissues after strenuous exercise and benefits both
resistance and endurance activities. Some athletes will take gGH supplements in order to speed up recovery
after muscle damage, reduce the required rest time after exercise, and allow them to sustain a higher level of
overall performance.

As you saw previously with EPO for endurance athletes, despite the fact that many substances often do improve
performance, most are banned by the governing bodies of sports and may even be illegal outside of medical
purposes. Because they are banned, athletes who use them are subject to the consequences of cheating
because they will likely have obtained an unfair advantage over their competitors. The more obvious concern,
however, is the health risks associated with these substances. Anabolic steroid use has been linked to infertility,
aggressive behavior, cardiovascular disease, and brain cancer.

There are, however, substances or practices that are not banned by governing bodies. Caffeine benefits both
endurance and resistance muscle performance by increasing focus, alertness, and decreasing the sensation of
fatigue.

Creatine is an amino acid the body naturally produces. Recall that creatine converts ADP back to its more
energized ATP state. Some athletes have used creatine supplements to increase power output. Free ATP and
creatine only provide approximately 15 seconds of energy, but increasing the amount of available creatine
within cells can make short muscle movements more powerful and/or last longer. Results, however, have been
highly individual and variable, in part due to dosing and the need for long-term, consistent supplementation.

IN CONTEXT
Everyday Connection - Aging and Muscle Tissue

Although atrophy due to disuse can often be reversed with exercise, muscle atrophy with age,
referred to as sarcopenia, is irreversible. This is a primary reason why even highly trained athletes
succumb to declining performance with age. This decline is noticeable in athletes whose sports
require strength and powerful movements, such as sprinting, whereas the effects of age are less
noticeable in endurance athletes such as marathon runners or long-distance cyclists. As muscles age,
muscle fibers die, and they are replaced by connective tissue and adipose tissue. Because those
tissues cannot contract and generate force as muscle can, muscles lose the ability to produce
powerful contractions. The decline in muscle mass causes a loss of strength, including the strength

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 required for posture and mobility. This may be caused by a reduction in FG fibers that hydrolyze ATP
quickly to produce short, powerful contractions. Muscles in older people sometimes possess greater
numbers of SO fibers, which are responsible for longer contractions and do not produce powerful
movements. There may also be a reduction in the size of motor units, resulting in fewer fibers being
stimulated and less muscle tension being produced.

Atrophy Muscle - Mass is reduced as muscles atrophy with disuse.

Sarcopenia can be delayed to some extent by exercise, as training adds structural proteins and
causes cellular changes that can offset the effects of atrophy. Increased exercise can produce greater
numbers of cellular mitochondria, increase capillary density, and increase the mass and strength of
connective tissue. The effects of age-related atrophy are especially pronounced in people who are
sedentary, as the loss of muscle cells is displayed as functional impairments such as trouble with
locomotion, balance, and posture. This can lead to a decrease in quality of life and medical problems,
such as joint problems because the muscles that stabilize bones and joints are weakened. Problems
with locomotion and balance can also cause various injuries due to falls.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about how resistance exercise alters skeletal muscle tissue. You also
explored how certain substances and activities can augment the function of muscles for resistance

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 60
 athletes through performance enhancement.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

REFERENCES
Rawson ES, Volek JS. Effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and
weightlifting performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2003 Nov;17(4):822-31. doi: 10.1519/1533-
4287(2003)017<0822:eocsar>2.0.co;2. PMID: 14636102. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14636102/

Dinan NE, Hagele AM, Jagim AR, Miller MG, Kerksick CM. Effects of creatine monohydrate timing on resistance
training adaptations and body composition after 8 weeks in male and female collegiate athletes. Front Sports
Act Living. 2022 Nov 16;4:1033842. doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.1033842 PMID: 36465581; PMCID:
PMC9708881.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Hypertrophy
An increase in tissue size.

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 Interactions of Skeletal Muscles and Their Lever
Systems
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about how muscles play various roles in producing specific body
movements. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body
2. The Lever System

1. Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body

Recall that skeletal muscles are attached to bones through tendons. When skeletal muscles contract, they pull
on a bone and can cause the angle of its synovial joint to change. This action moves the skeleton which is why
skeletal muscle is called ‘skeletal.’

The attachment point of the muscle that moves as it pulls on the bone is called the muscle’s insertion. The other
end of the muscle is attached to a fixed (stabilized) bone and is called the origin.

During body movements, muscles play various roles—creating, antagonizing, or supporting the movement. In
any body movement, the principal muscle involved in its action is called the agonist muscle, or prime mover, of
that movement. Many movements can also recruit additional muscles known as synergist or synergist muscles,
whose contraction aids the agonist. A fixator or fixator muscle is a muscle that stabilizes the origin of the
agonist, keeping it from moving. And lastly, any muscle that opposes the movement performed by an agonist is
known as the antagonist or antagonist muscle. Antagonists perform two functions:

1. They maintain body or limb position, such as holding the arm out or standing erect.
2. They control rapid movement, as in shadow boxing without landing a punch or the ability to check the
motion of a limb.

In the image below, a cup is being raised using flexion of the elbow. A muscle in the arm known as the biceps
brachii is the agonist of this movement, pulling on the forearm to decrease the angle in the elbow. Muscles
known as the brachialis in the arm and brachioradialis in the forearm function as synergists, adding force to the
movement. Additional muscles in the shoulder region stabilize the origin of the biceps brachii, working as
fixators. And lastly, a muscle on the posterior region of the arm known as the triceps brachii is the antagonist of

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 this movement. Keep in mind that as the body movement is reversed (when the cup is set back down, causing
extension of the elbow), each muscle takes on new roles.

Prime Movers and Synergists - The biceps brachii flex the elbow joint, raising the forearm. The brachoradialis, in the
forearm, and brachialis, located deep to the biceps in the arm, are both synergists that aid in this motion.

 KEY CONCEPT

As you can see, these terms would also be reversed for the opposing action. If you consider the first action
as the knee bending, the hamstrings would be called the agonists and the quadriceps femoris would then
be called the antagonists.
See the table below for a list of some agonists and antagonists. You will become more familiar with the muscle
names in future lessons.

Agonist and Antagonist Skeletal Muscle Pairs

Agonist Antagonist Movement

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 Triceps brachii: in the
Biceps brachii: in the anterior The biceps brachii flexes the forearm, whereas
posterior compartment of
compartment of the arm the triceps brachii extends it.
the arm

Quadriceps femoris: group

Hamstrings: group of three
of four muscles in the The hamstrings flex the leg, whereas the
muscles in the posterior
anterior compartment of quadriceps femoris extend it.
compartment of the thigh
the thigh

The flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor

Flexor digitorum superficialis
Extensor digitorum: in the digitorum profundus flex the fingers and the
and flexor digitorum profundus:
posterior compartment of hand at the wrist, whereas the extensor
in the anterior compartment of
the forearm digitorum extends the fingers and the hand at
the forearm
the wrist.
There are also skeletal muscles that do not pull against the skeleton for movements.

EXAMPLE There are the muscles that produce facial expressions. The insertions and origins of facial
muscles are in the skin, so that certain individual muscles contract to form a smile or frown, form sounds or
words, and raise eyebrows. There also are skeletal muscles in the tongue, and the external urinary and anal
sphincters that allow for voluntary regulation of urination and defecation, respectively. In addition, the
diaphragm contracts and relaxes to change the volume of the pleural cavities but it does not move the
skeleton to do this.

IN CONTEXT
Everyday Connection: Exercise and Stretching

When exercising, it is important to first warm up the muscles. Stretching pulls on the muscle fibers and
it also results in an increased blood flow to the muscles being worked. Without a proper warm-up, it is
possible that you may either damage some of the muscle fibers or pull a tendon. A pulled tendon,
regardless of location, results in pain, swelling, and diminished function; if it is moderate to severe, the
injury could immobilize you for an extended period.

Recall the discussion about muscles crossing joints to create movement. Most of the joints you use
during exercise are synovial joints, which have synovial fluid in the joint space between two bones.
Exercise and stretching may also have a beneficial effect on synovial joints. Synovial fluid is a thin, but
viscous film with the consistency of egg whites. When you first get up and start moving, your joints feel
stiff for a number of reasons. After proper stretching and warm-up, the synovial fluid may become less
viscous, allowing for better joint function.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Insertion
The end of a skeletal muscle that moves during a contraction.

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 Origin
The end of a skeletal muscle that remains fixed during a contraction.

Agonist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction is the principal cause of a given body movement.

Synergist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction supports the agonist of a given body movement.

Fixator Muscle
A muscle whose contraction stabilizes the origin of the agonist of a given body movement.

Antagonist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction opposes the agonist in a given body movement.

2. The Lever System

 THINK ABOUT IT

Skeletal muscles do not work by themselves. Muscles are arranged in pairs (agonist and antagonist) based
on their functions. For muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton, the connection determines the force,
speed, and range of movement. These characteristics depend on each other and can explain the general
organization of the muscular and skeletal systems.
A lever is a simple machine that transfers force and consists of a rigid structure such as a board, metal bar, or
bone, placed over a fixed point which creates a pivot, called a fulcrum. When a weight or mass referred to as a
load is placed on the lever, an effort, or external force can be applied to the lever to make the load move. In the
body, bones are the levers and synovial joints are fulcrums. The parts of our body can represent loads in
addition to items that you carry. The contraction of a muscle is the effort that, when sufficient, can cause the load
to move.

There are three classes of levers—first, second, and third—which only differ in the arrangement of the load,
fulcrum, and effort (see the image below).

First-class levers have the fulcrum at the center of the load and effort. This type of lever is seen in the
extension of the neck. Gravity will pull down on the head (load). In order to counteract this, the muscles of
the posterior neck and upper back contract to pull down (effort) on the posterior head which will cause the
skull to pivot at the articulation with the vertebrae.
Second-class levers have the load in between the fulcrum and effort. This type of lever is seen in the lower
leg with plantar flexion. The load is the body, weighed down by gravity. In order to lift the body, the muscles
of the posterior lower leg, commonly referred to as your calves, must contract and pull up on the ankle
(effort). On the other end, this contraction will cause the body to pivot on the toes (fulcrum).
Third-class levers have the effort in between the load and fulcrum. This type of lever is seen in the flexion
of the elbow. The load is caused by gravity acting on the forearm, wrist, and hand. The muscle of the

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 anterior arm (biceps brachii) will contract to pull up on the forearm (effort). As the forearm moves, the elbow
(fulcrum) will pivot.

Lever Systems - The arrangement of the fulcrum, load, and effort relative to one another provides three different

classes of levers. Each of these is used by the body to allow for a variety of potential movements.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Lever
A simple machine that transfers force and consists of a rigid structure placed over a fulcrum for the
purpose of moving a load.

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 Fulcrum
A fixed point that allows the lever to pivot.

Load
An object that has weight and mass.

Effort
An external force, or muscle contraction.

First-Class Lever
A lever system that has the fulcrum in between the load and effort.

Second-Class Lever
A lever system that has the load in between the effort and fulcrum.

Third-Class Lever
A lever system that has the effort in between the fulcrum and load.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about how skeletal muscles interact in the body with the bones of the
skeleton and each other to produce, restrict, and stabilize movement. You also learned how the
anatomical arrangement of muscle attachments creates various classes of levers in the lever system.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Agonist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction is the principal cause of a given body movement.

Antagonist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction opposes the agonist in a given body movement.

Effort
An external force, or muscle contraction.

First-Class Lever
A lever system that has the fulcrum in between the load and effort.

Fixator Muscle
A muscle whose contraction stabilizes the origin of the agonist of a given body movement.

Fulcrum
A fixed point that allows the lever to pivot.

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 Insertion
The end of a skeletal muscle that moves during a contraction.

Lever
A simple machine that transfers force and consists of a rigid structure placed over a fulcrum for the
purpose of moving a load.

Load
An object that has weight and mass.

Origin
The end of a skeletal muscle that remains fixed during a contraction.

Second-Class Lever
A lever system that has the load in between the effort and fulcrum.

Synergist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction supports the agonist of a given body movement.

Third-Class Lever
A lever system that has the effort in between the fulcrum and load.

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 Muscular Fascicle Arrangement
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about how muscle fascicles are organized and the general naming
system of skeletal muscles. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Patterns of Fascicle Organization
2. Naming Skeletal Muscles

1. Patterns of Fascicle Organization

 BEFORE YOU START

Recall that skeletal muscle is enclosed in connective tissue scaffolding at three levels. Each muscle fiber
(cell) is covered by endomysium and the entire muscle is covered by epimysium. When a group of muscle
fibers is “bundled” as a unit within the whole muscle by an additional covering of a connective tissue called
perimysium (plural, perimysia), that bundled group of muscle fibers is called a fascicle.
Fascicle arrangement by perimysia is correlated to the force generated by a muscle; it also affects the range of
motion of the muscle. Based on the patterns of fascicle arrangement, skeletal muscles can be classified in
several ways. The following are the most common fascicle arrangements.

1. Parallel muscles have fascicles that are arranged in the same direction as the long axis of the muscle. The
majority of skeletal muscles in the body have this type of organization. Some parallel muscles are flat
sheets that expand at the ends to make broad attachments. Other parallel muscles are rotund with tendons
at one or both ends. Muscles that seem to be plump have a large mass, called a belly, of tissue located in
the middle of the muscle, between the insertion and the origin, which is known as the central body. When a
muscle contracts, the contractile fibers shorten it to an even larger bulge. For example, extend and then flex
your biceps brachii muscle in your anterior arm; the large, middle section is the belly.

2. When a parallel muscle has a central, large belly that is spindle-shaped, meaning it tapers as it extends to
its origin and insertion, it sometimes is called fusiform (tapered).

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 Muscle Shapes and Fiber Alignment - The skeletal muscles of the body typically come in seven different general

shapes.

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 Biceps Brachii Muscle Contraction - The large mass at the center of a muscle is called the belly. Tendons emerge

from both ends of the belly and connect the muscle to the bones, allowing the skeleton to move. The tendons of
the bicep connect to the upper arm and the forearm.

Credit: Victoria Garcia

3. Circular muscles, also called sphincters, are concentrically arranged bundles of muscle fibers of
increasing size around and opening—an exit or entrance to the body or an organ. When they contract, the
size of the opening shrinks to the point of closure. The orbicularis oris muscle is a circular muscle that goes
around the mouth. When it contracts, the oral opening becomes smaller, as when puckering the lips for
whistling. Another example is the orbicularis oculi, one of which surrounds each eye. Consider, for example,
the names of the two orbicularis muscles (orbicularis oris and oribicularis oculi), where part of the first name
of both muscles is the same. The first part of orbicularis, orb (orb, circular), is a reference to a round or

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 circular structure; it may also make one think of orbit, such as the moon’s path around the earth. The word
oris (oris, oral) refers to the oral cavity or the mouth. The word oculi (ocular, eye) refers to the eye.

 DID YOU KNOW

There are other muscles throughout the body named by their shape or location. The deltoid is a large,
triangular-shaped muscle that covers the shoulder. It is so-named because the Greek letter delta looks like
a triangle. The rectus abdominis (rector = “straight”) is the straight muscle in the anterior wall of the
abdomen, while the rectus femoris is the straight muscle in the anterior compartment of the thigh.

4. When a muscle has a widespread expansion over a sizable area, but then the fascicles come to a single,
common attachment point, the muscle is called convergent. The attachment point for a convergent muscle
could be a tendon, an aponeurosis (a flat, broad tendon), or a raphe (a very slender median tendon). The
large muscle on the chest, the pectoralis major, is an example of a convergent muscle because it converges
on the greater tubercle of the humerus via a tendon. The temporalis muscle of the cranium is another.

Pennate muscles (penna, feathers) blend into a tendon that runs through the central region of the muscle for its
whole length, somewhat like the quill of a feather with the muscle arranged similarly to the feathers. Due to this
design, the muscle fibers in a pennate muscle can only pull at an angle, and as a result, contracting pennate
muscles do not move their tendons very far. However, because a pennate muscle generally can hold more
muscle fibers within it, it can produce relatively more tension for its size. There are three subtypes of pennate
muscles.

5. In a unipennate muscle, the fascicles are located on one side of the tendon. The extensor digitorum of
the forearm is an example of a unipennate muscle.

6. A bipennate muscle has fascicles on both sides of the tendon.

7. In some pennate muscles, the muscle fibers wrap around the tendon, sometimes forming individual
fascicles in the process. This arrangement is referred to as multipennate. A common example is the deltoid
muscle of the shoulder, which covers the shoulder but has a single tendon that inserts on the deltoid
tuberosity of the humerus.

Because of fascicles, a portion of a multipennate muscle like the deltoid can be stimulated by the nervous
system to change the direction of the pull. For example, when the deltoid muscle contracts, the arm abducts,
but when only the anterior fascicle is stimulated, the arm will abduct and flex.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Parallel
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are arranged in the same direction as
the long axis of the muscle.

Belly

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 The large central mass or body of a muscle between the insertion and origin.

Fusiform
Spindle-shaped; tapered.

Circular
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are arranged concentrically around a
body or organ opening.

Convergent
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles expand widely over a sizable area on
one end but then come together at a single, common attachment point on the other.

Pennate
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles blend into a tendon that runs through
the central region of the muscle for its whole length.

Unipennate
A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are located on one side of the tendon.

Bipennate
A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are located on both sides of the tendon.

Multipennate
A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles wrap around the tendon.

2. Naming Skeletal Muscles

The following image represents many of the muscles that you will learn in the coming lessons. Each of these
muscles performs a function and many of them do so in coordination with one another.

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© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 74
 Overview of the Muscular System - On the anterior and posterior views of the muscular system above, superficial

muscles are shown on the right side of the body while deep muscles are shown on the left half of the body. For the

legs, superficial muscles are shown in the anterior view while the posterior view shows both superficial and deep

muscles.

 REFLECT

As you look over the muscles above, if you find yourself thinking ‘Why weren’t the muscles named
something a little easier to remember?,’ you’re not alone. This assumes, however, that you don’t speak
Greek and Latin.

 DID YOU KNOW

The Greeks and Romans conducted the first studies done on the human body in Western culture. The
educated class of subsequent societies studied Latin and Greek, and therefore, the early pioneers of
anatomy continued to apply Latin and Greek terminology or roots when they named the skeletal muscles.

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 These muscles were named based on their location, structure, or function to make understanding and
identifying them easier.
EXAMPLE In the table below are two muscles. From their name on the left, it may not seem apparent
where they are located or what they do. However, read through the breakdown of their root words and see
if the naming makes more sense. If so, all we need to better understand the muscle names is to know the
Greek and Latin root words.
Table: Understanding a Muscle Name from the Latin
Latin
Example Word Latin Root 1 Meaning Translation
Root 2

ab = away duct = to A muscle that

abductor
from move moves away from

Abductor digiti Refers to a finger or A muscle that moves the little

digiti digitus = digit
minimi toe finger or toe away.

minimus =
minimi little
mini, tiny

ad = to, duct = to A muscle that

adductor
towards move moves towards

Adductor digiti Refers to a finger or A muscle that moves the little

digiti digitus = digit
minimi toe finger or toe toward.

minimus =
minimi little
mini, tiny

 DID YOU KNOW

The large number of muscles in the body and unfamiliar words can make learning the names of the muscles
in the body seem daunting, but understanding the etymology can help. Etymology is the study of how the
root of a particular word entered a language and how the use of the word evolved over time. As you’ve
seen above, taking the time to learn the root of the words is crucial to understanding the vocabulary of
anatomy and physiology. When you understand the names of muscles, it will help you remember where the
muscles are located, their structure, and what they do.
Below is a list of root words you will encounter in the muscles of future lessons. This is also a good time to
review your directional terms (i.e., anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, and more), anatomical regions (i.e., cranial,
brachial, gluteus, and more), and body movements (i.e., flexion, extension, rotation, supination, and more).

Table: Mnemonic Device for Latin Roots

Latin or Greek
Example Mnemonic Device
Translation

ad to; toward ADvance toward your goal.

ab away from ABduction moves a body part away from the midline.

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 sub under SUBmarines move under water.

ductor something that moves A conDUCTOR makes a train move.

anti against If you are ANTIsocial, you are against engaging in social activities.

epi on top of The EPIdermis is the tissue on top of the dermis.

apo to the side of An APOstle is someone who is sent away on a mission.

longissimus longest “Longissimus” is longer than the word “long.”

longus long long

brevis short brief

maximus large max

medius medium “Medius” and “medium” both begin with “med.”

minimus tiny; little mini

rectus straight To RECTify a situation is to straighten it out.

An oblique section is at an angle to any of the three planes of the

oblique at an angle
body.

multi many If something is MULTIcolored, it has many colors.

uni one A UNIcorn has one horn.

bi/di two If a ring is DIcast, it is made of two metals.

tri three TRIple the amount of money is three times as much.

quad four QUADruplets are four children born at one birth.

externus outside EXternal

internus inside INternal

semi half Semi-transparent materials can only partially be seen through

Anatomists name the skeletal muscles according to a number of criteria, each of which describes the muscle in
some way. These include naming the muscle after its shape, its comparative size, its location in the body or the
location of its attachments to the skeleton, how many origins it has, or its action.

The skeletal muscle’s anatomical location or its relationship to a particular bone often determines its name.

EXAMPLE The frontalis muscle is located on top of the frontal bone of the skull.
Similarly, the shapes of some muscles are very distinctive and the names reflect the shape. Muscles can be
named based on their size—maximus (largest), medius (medium), and minimus (smallest). For example, the
primary muscles of the buttocks are the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, and gluteus minimus. Muscles can
also be named based on their length—brevis (short), longus (long), and longissimus (longest). The muscle fibers
within a muscle can be arranged in many different patterns—rectus (straight) or oblique (at an angle). For
example, the rectus abdominis is a muscle of the abdomen region with straight, parallel muscle fibers. Lastly,

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 muscles can be named based on how superficial or deep they are—external (superficial) or internal (deep). For
example, the external obliques are a muscle with angled muscle fibers that are superficial in relation to the
internal obliques which are deeper.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Maximus
The Latin/Greek term for “largest”.

Medius
The Latin/Greek term for “medium-sized”.

Minimus
The Latin/Greek term for “smallest”.

Brevis
The Latin/Greek term for ‘short”.

Longus
The Latin/Greek term for “long”.

Longissimus
The Latin/Greek term for “longest”.

Rectus
The Latin/Greek term for “straight”.

Oblique
The Latin/Greek term for “at an angle”.

External
The Latin/Greek term for “superficial”.

Internal
The Latin/Greek term for “deep”.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned the patterns of fascicle organization in skeletal muscles which
determines the directionality of muscle tension during contraction. You also learned how Greek
and Latin root terms are used in naming skeletal muscles.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

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 Belly
The large central mass or body of a muscle between the insertion and origin.

Bipennate
A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are located on both sides of the tendon.

Brevis
The Latin/Greek term for ‘short”.

Circular
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are arranged concentrically around a body
or organ opening.

Convergent
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles expand widely over a sizable area on one
end but then come together at a single, common attachment point on the other.

External
The Latin/Greek term for “superficial”.

Fusiform
Spindle-shaped; tapered.

Internal
The Latin/Greek term for “deep”.

Longissimus
The Latin/Greek term for “longest”.

Longus
The Latin/Greek term for “long”.

Maximus
The Latin/Greek term for “largest”.

Medius
The Latin/Greek term for “medium-sized”.

Minimus
The Latin/Greek term for “smallest”.

Multipennate
A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles wrap around the tendon.

Oblique
The Latin/Greek term for “at an angle”.

Parallel

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 A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are arranged in the same direction as the
long axis of the muscle.

Pennate
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles blend into a tendon that runs through the
central region of the muscle for its whole length.

Rectus
The Latin/Greek term for “straight”.

Unipennate
A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are located on one side of the tendon.

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 Axial Muscles of Facial Expression
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of facial expression.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Skeletal Muscles
2. Muscles of Facial Expression

 BEFORE YOU START

In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles of the head.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional axial muscles, please visit the supplemental  Axial Muscles.pdf.

1. Skeletal Muscles
The skeletal muscles are divided into axial muscles (muscles of the trunk and head) and appendicular muscles
(muscles of the arms and legs) categories. This system is the same as the bones of the skeleton. The axial
muscles are grouped based on location, function, or both. Some axial muscles may seem to blur the boundaries
because they cross over to the appendicular skeleton. The first grouping of the axial muscles you will review
includes the muscles of the head, then you will review the muscles of the vertebral column, and finally you will
review the oblique and rectus muscles.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Axial Muscles
Muscles of the trunk and head.

Appendicular Muscles
Muscles of the arms and legs.

2. Muscles of Facial Expression

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 The origins of the muscles of facial expression are on the surface of the skull (remember, the origin of a muscle
does not move). The insertions of these muscles have fibers intertwined with connective tissue and the dermis
of the skin. Because the muscles insert in the skin rather than on the bone, the skin moves to create facial
expressions when they contract.

Muscles of Facial Expression - Many of the muscles of facial expression insert into the skin surrounding the eyelids,

nose, and mouth, producing facial expressions by moving the skin rather than bones.

The orbicularis oris, commonly referred to as the kissing muscle, is a circular muscle located around the mouth
that shapes the lips, including puckering them. The orbicularis oculi is a circular muscle located around the orbit
of the eye. These muscles allow you to forcefully close your eyes out of protection and if you can control them
individually, wink. The occipitofrontalis muscle has two bellies, a frontal belly (frontalis) and an occipital belly
(occipitalis). The two bellies are connected by a broad tendon called the epicranial aponeurosis. This muscle
elevates the eyebrows, furrows (wrinkles) the forehead, and retracts the scalp. If you are able to control
separate portions of the frontalis, you may be able to raise one or each of your eyebrows individually. The
corrugator supercilii is located deep in the superomedial portion of the orbicularis oculi and oriented
horizontally. When activated, it pulls on the eyebrows, moving them inferiorly and medially. This action forms the
vertical lines between the eyebrows during a frown.

The buccinator muscle spans a large portion of the buccal region (cheeks) and is oriented horizontally. This
muscle compresses the cheeks (allowing you to whistle, blow, and suck), and it contributes to the action of
chewing. The zygomaticus is angled up from the lateral edge of the lips to the zygomatic arch. When activated,
this muscle pulls laterally and superiorly on the lateral edge of the lips, pulling them into a smile. This muscle is

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 actually two: the zygomaticus major and the zygomaticus minor. You or someone you know may have dimples
on their cheeks when they smile. This superficial feature is caused by a split in the belly of the zygomaticus
major, which is a genetic trait.

Table: The Muscles of Facial Expression

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Alveolar processes of
Buccinator Compresses the cheeks Muscles of upper lip
maxilla and mandible

Depresses and medially Skin above supraorbital

Corrugator Supercilii Orbital ridge of frontal bone
pulls the eyebrow margin

Occipitofrontalis Elevates eyebrows and Skin and muscles of

Epicranial aponeurosis
(frontal belly) forehead eyebrow and forehead

Occipitofrontalis Occipital bone, mastoid

Retract scalp Epicranial aponeurosis
(occipital belly) process of temporal bone

Frontal, maxillary, and

Orbicularis Oculi Closes the eye Skin of orbital region
lacrimal bones

Orbicularis Oris Protrudes lips Maxilla and mandible Skin of lips

Elevates angle of mouth

Zygomaticus Posterior zygomatic bone Muscle of upper lip
superolateral

 WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Orbicularis Oris
The muscle around the mouth which shapes the lips.

Orbicularis Oculi
The muscle around the eye which closes the eye.

Occipitofrontalis
The muscle of the scalp which elevates the eyebrows and forehead and retracts the scalp.

Frontalis
The frontal belly of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

Occipitalis
The occipital belly of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

Epicranial Aponeurosis
The tendon connecting the frontal and occipital bellies of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 83
 Corrugator Supercilii
A muscle in the forehead which depresses and medially pulls the eyebrows.

Buccinator
A muscle of the cheek which compresses the cheek.

Zygomaticus
A muscle of the cheek which elevates and laterally pulls the lips.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that skeletal muscles are categorized similarly to the bones of the
skeleton. You also learned to identify the location and action of the muscles of facial expression.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Appendicular Muscles
Muscles of the arms and legs.

Axial Muscles
Muscles of the trunk and head.

Buccinator
A muscle of the cheek which compresses the cheek.

Corrugator Supercilii
A muscle in the forehead which depresses and medially pulls the eyebrows.

Epicranial Aponeurosis
The tendon connecting the frontal and occipital bellies of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

Frontalis
The frontal belly of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

Occipitalis
The occipital belly of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

Occipitofrontalis
The muscle of the scalp which elevates the eyebrows, forehead, and retracts the scalp.

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 Orbicularis Oculi
The muscle around the eye which closes the eye.

Orbicularis Oris
The muscle around the mouth which shapes the lips.

Zygomaticus
A muscle of the cheek which elevates and laterally pulls the lips.

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 Axial Muscles of Mastication
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of mastication.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Muscles of Mastication

 BEFORE YOU START

In a previous lesson, you learned about the muscles of facial expression—the muscles that help you smile,
frown, wink, squint, and impersonate a fish. There are, however, other muscles in this region of the body—
the craniofacial region—that perform other functions. In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent
muscles related to the function of chewing.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional axial muscles, please visit the supplemental  Axial Muscles.pdf.

1. Muscles of Mastication
In anatomical terminology, chewing is called mastication. Muscles involved in chewing must be able to exert
enough pressure to bite through and then chew food before it is swallowed. The masseter muscle is the main
muscle used for chewing because it elevates the mandible (lower jaw) to close the mouth, and it is assisted by
the temporalis muscle, which retracts the mandible. You can feel the temporalis move by putting your fingers to
your temple as you chew.

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 Muscles That Move the Lower Jaw - The muscles that move the lower jaw are typically located within the cheek and
originate from processes in the skull. This provides the jaw muscles with the large amount of leverage needed for

chewing.

The masseter is the largest and strongest muscle to move the lower jaw during mastication. In fact, for its
weight, the masseter produces the greatest amount of pressure of any skeletal muscle in the body. The
masseter, located in the buccal region, functions to elevate the mandible (lower jaw). Because of its incredible
strength, this is why it can be very dangerous to get your hand stuck in the jaw of another animal. However,
despite its individual strength, the body contains multiple synergistic muscles. The temporalis, located
superficial to the temporal bone of the cranium, also elevates the mandible. However, the unilateral contraction
of one side allows for the shifting of the mandible to that side. This provides the ability to grind food between
the teeth. The lateral pterygoid, located in the superior portion of the deep buccal region, is oriented
horizontally and functions to protrude (stick out) and depress (lower) the mandible. When unilaterally activated,
it also supports the lateral shift of the mandible. The medial pterygoid, which is also located in the deep buccal
region, is oriented vertically and functions to elevate and medially rotate the mandible.

Table: The Muscles of Mastication

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Greater wing and lateral

Lateral Depresses, protrudes, and Temporomandibular joint,
pterygoid plate of sphenoid
Pterygoid laterally shifts the mandible condyloid process of mandible
bone

Elevates and protrudes the

Masseter Zygomatic arch Ramus and angle of mandible
mandible

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 Medial Elevates and medially
Maxilla, palatine bone Ramus and angle of mandible
Pterygoid rotates the mandible

Retracts and laterally shifts

Temporalis Temporal bone Coronoid process of mandible
the mandible

 WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Mastication
The anatomical term for chewing.

Masseter
A muscle of the cheek which elevates and protrudes the mandible.

Temporalis
A muscle located superficial to the temporal bone which retracts and laterally shifts the mandible.

Lateral Pterygoid
A muscle of the cheek that depresses, protrudes, and laterally shifts the mandible.

Medial Pterygoid
A muscle of the cheek that elevates and medially rotates the mandible.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about additional muscles of the craniofacial region. Specifically, you
learned to identify the location and action of the muscles of mastication.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Lateral Pterygoid
A muscle of the cheek that depresses, protrudes, and laterally shifts the mandible.

Masseter
A muscle of the cheek which elevates and protrudes the mandible.

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 Mastication
The anatomical term for chewing.

Medial Pterygoid
A muscle of the cheek that elevates and medially rotates the mandible.

Temporalis
A muscle located superficial to the temporal bone which retracts and laterally shifts the mandible.

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 Axial Muscles of the Neck and Back
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of the neck and back.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Muscles of the Anterior Neck
2. Muscles That Move the Head
3. Muscles of the Posterior Neck and the Back

 BEFORE YOU START

In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles of the neck and back.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional axial muscles, please visit the supplemental  Axial Muscles.pdf.

1. Muscles of the Anterior Neck

The muscles of the anterior neck assist in deglutition (swallowing) and speech by controlling the positions of the
larynx (voice box), and the hyoid bone, a horseshoe-shaped bone that functions as a solid foundation on which
the tongue can move. The muscles of the neck are categorized according to their position relative to the hyoid
bone. Suprahyoid muscles are superior to it, and the infrahyoid muscles are located inferiorly. The suprahyoid
muscles raise the hyoid bone, the floor of the mouth, and the larynx during deglutition. The strap-like infrahyoid
muscles generally depress the hyoid bone and control the position of the larynx.

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 Muscles of the Anterior Neck - The anterior muscles of the neck facilitate swallowing and speech. The suprahyoid

muscles originate from above the hyoid bone in the chin region. The infrahyoid muscles originate below the hyoid

bone in the lower neck.

Table: Muscles of the Anterior Neck

Muscle Action

Infrahyoid Muscles Depresses the hyoid bone, controls the position of the larynx

Suprahyoid Muscles Elevates the hyoid bone, the floor of the mouth, and the larynx

 WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Suprahyoid Muscles
Muscles of the neck located above the hyoid bone.

Infrahyoid Muscles
Muscles of the neck located below the hyoid bone.

2. Muscles That Move the Head

The head, attached to the top of the vertebral column, is balanced, moved, and rotated by the neck muscles.
When these muscles act unilaterally, the head rotates. When they contract bilaterally, the head flexes or
extends. The major muscle that laterally flexes and rotates the head is the sternocleidomastoid (SCM). In
addition, both muscles working together are the flexors of the head. Place your fingers on both sides of the
neck and turn your head all the way to the left and to the right. You will feel the movement originate there. This
muscle divides the neck into anterior and posterior triangles when viewed from the side.

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 Sternocleidomastoid - Bilateral contraction of the SCM performs flexion of the neck while unilateral contraction
performs left and right rotation.

Table: Muscles that Move the Head

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 Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Flexes and rotates the head Manubrium, Mastoid process of the temporal bone,
Sternocleidomastoid
and neck clavicle occipital bone

 TERM TO KNOW

Sternocleidomastoid
A muscle of the anterior neck which performs flexion and rotation of the head and neck.

3. Muscles of the Posterior Neck and the Back

The posterior muscles of the neck are primarily concerned with head movements, like extension. The back
muscles stabilize and move the vertebral column, and are grouped according to the lengths and direction of the
fascicles.

The splenius group of muscles originate at the midline and run laterally and superiorly to their insertions.
Collectively, they function to perform extension, lateral flexion, and rotation of the neck.

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 Muscles of the Neck and Back - The large, complex muscles of the neck and back move the head, shoulders, and
vertebral column.

The erector spinae group forms the majority of the muscle mass of the back and it is the primary extensor of the
vertebral column. It controls flexion, lateral flexion, and rotation of the vertebral column and maintains the

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 lumbar curve. The erector spinae comprises the iliocostalis (laterally placed) group, the longissimus
(intermediately placed) group, and the spinalis (medially placed) group.

Table: Muscles of the Posterior Neck and Back

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Iliocostalis Extends and laterally flexes Ribs 3–12, sacrum, iliac Transverse process C4–C7 and L1–
Group the spine crest L4, Ribs 1–12,

Extends and laterally flexes Transverse Process of Mastoid process of temporal bone,
Longissimus
the neck and spine, rotates C4–T5 and L1–L5, Transverse process of C2–C6 and
Group
the neck sacrum, ilium T1–L5, Ribs 7–12

Extends the neck and

Spinous process of C7–T1 Occipital bone, Spinous process of
Spinalis Group spine, laterally flexes the
and T11–L2 C2–C4 and T2–T8
spine

Extends, laterally flexes, Transverse process of C1–C3,

Spinous process of C7–
Splenius and rotates the head and Occipital bone, Mastoid process of
T3
neck temporal bone

 TERMS TO KNOW

Splenius Group
Muscles of the posterior neck which perform extension, lateral flexion and rotation of the head and
neck.

Erector Spinae Group

A large collective of muscles of the back which perform extension, lateral flexion, and rotation of the
spine and/or neck.

Iliocostalis Group
Lateral muscles of the erector spinae group.

Longissimus Group
Intermediate muscles of the erector spinae group.

Spinalis Group
Medial muscles of the erector spinae group.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify the muscles of the anterior neck and the posterior neck and back
as well as the muscles that move the head. You also learned the location and action of each of these
muscles.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 96
 Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Erector Spinae Group

A large collective of muscles of the back which perform extension, lateral flexion, and rotation of the
spine and/or neck.

Iliocostalis Group
Lateral muscles of the erector spinae group.

Infrahyoid Muscles
Muscles of the neck located below the hyoid bone.

Longissimus Group
Intermediate muscles of the erector spinae group.

Spinalis Group
Medial muscles of the erector spinae group.

Splenius Group
Muscles of the posterior neck which perform extension, lateral flexion and rotation of the head and neck.

Sternocleidomastoid
A muscle of the anterior neck which performs flexion and rotation of the head and neck.

Suprahyoid Muscles
Muscles of the neck located above the hyoid bone.

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 Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, Thorax, and
Pelvis
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of the abdominal wall, thorax,
and pelvis. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Muscles of the Abdomen
2. Muscles of the Thorax
2a. The Diaphragm
2b. The Intercostal Muscles
3. Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum

 BEFORE YOU START

In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles of the abdominal wall, thorax, and pelvis.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional axial muscles, please visit the supplemental  Axial Muscles.pdf.

1. Muscles of the Abdomen

There are four pairs of abdominal muscles that cover the anterior and lateral abdominal region and meet at the
anterior midline. These muscles of the anterolateral abdominal wall can be divided into four groups:

The External Obliques

The Internal Obliques
The Transversus Abdominis
The Rectus Abdominis

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 Muscles of the Abdomen - (a) The anterior abdominal muscles include the medially located rectus abdominis, which

is covered by a sheet of connective tissue called the rectus sheath. On the flanks of the body, medial to the rectus

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 abdominis, the abdominal wall is composed of three layers. The external oblique muscles form the superficial layer,

while the internal oblique muscles form the middle layer, and the transversus abdominis form the deepest layer. (b)

The muscles of the lower back move the lumbar spine but also assist in femur movements.

There are three flat skeletal muscles in the antero-lateral wall of the abdomen. The external oblique is closest
to the surface and extends inferiorly and medially (V-shape), in the direction of sliding one’s four fingers into
pants pockets. Perpendicular and deep to it is the internal oblique, extending superiorly and medially (an
upside down V-shape), the direction the thumbs usually go when the other fingers are in the pants pocket.
These two abdominal obliques perform flexion, lateral flexion, and rotation of the spine. The transversus
abdominis is the deep muscle and is arranged transversely around the abdomen, similar to the front of a belt
on a pair of pants. This muscle provides compression to the abdomen. This arrangement of three bands of
muscles in different orientations allows various movements and rotations of the trunk. The three layers of
muscle also help to protect the internal abdominal organs in an area where there is no bone.

The linea alba (linea, line; alba, white) is a white, fibrous band along the anterior abdominal midline that is made
from the joining of the bilateral rectus sheaths (rectus, straight), or abdominal aponeuroses of the transversus
abdominis and abdominal obliques. These sheaths enclose the rectus abdominis muscles, a pair of long, linear
muscles, commonly called the “sit-up” muscles. Each muscle is segmented by three transverse bands of
collagen fibers or tendinous intersections. This results in the look of “six-pack abs,” as each segment
hypertrophies on individuals at the gym who do many sit-ups.

The posterior abdominal wall is formed by the lumbar vertebrae, parts of the ilia of the hip bones, and the
quadratus lumborum muscle. This part of the core plays a key role in stabilizing the rest of the body and
maintaining posture through controlling lateral flexion of the spine.

Table: Muscles of the Abdomen

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Flexes, laterally flexes, and rotates

External Oblique Ribs 5–12; ilium Linea alba, iliac crest, pubis
the spine

Flexes, laterally flexes, and rotates

Internal Oblique Iliac crest Linea alba, ribs 10–12
the spine

Quadratus Rib 12; transverse process of

Extends and laterally flexes the spine Iliac crest
Lumborum L1–L4

Rectus Abdominis Flexes the spine Pubis Xiphoid process; ribs 5 and 7

Transversus Compresses the abdomen, rotates Iliac crest; ribs

Linea alba, pubis
Abdominis the spine 7–12

 TERMS TO KNOW

External Oblique
The superficial muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

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 Internal Oblique
The intermediate muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

Transversus Abdominis
The deep muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

Linea Alba
The anterior midline of the abdomen formed by the joining of rectus sheaths.

Rectus Sheath
The abdominal aponeuroses of the transversus abdominis and abdominal obliques.

Rectus Abdominis
A pair of long, linear muscles of the anterior abdomen; sit-up muscles.

Quadratus Lumborum
A muscle of the posterior abdomen which supports posture by performing lateral flexion of the spine.

2. Muscles of the Thorax

The muscles of the chest serve to facilitate breathing by changing the size of the thoracic cavity. When you
inhale, your chest rises because the cavity expands. Alternately, when you exhale, your chest falls because the
thoracic cavity decreases in size.

Table: Muscles of the Thorax

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Xiphoid process of sternum; ribs 7– Central tendon of

Diaphragm Expands the thoracic cavity
12; vertebral bodies of L1–L4 diaphragm

External Elevate the ribs, expand the Rib superior to each intercostal Rib inferior to each
Intercostals thoracic cavity muscle intercostal muscle

Innermost Depresses the ribs, Rib inferior to each intercostal Rib superior to each
Intercostals compress the thoracic cavity muscle intercostal muscle

Internal Depress the ribs, compress Rib inferior to each intercostal Rib superior to each
Intercostals the thoracic cavity muscle intercostal muscle

2a. The Diaphragm

The change in volume of the thoracic cavity during breathing is due to the alternate contraction and relaxation
of the diaphragm. This thoracic muscle separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is dome-shaped at
rest. The superior surface of the diaphragm is convex, creating the elevated floor of the thoracic cavity. The
inferior surface is concave, creating the curved roof of the abdominal cavity.

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 Muscles of the Diaphragm - The diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Defecating, urination, and even childbirth involve cooperation between the diaphragm and abdominal muscles
(this cooperation is referred to as the “Valsalva maneuver”). You hold your breath with a steady contraction of
the diaphragm; this stabilizes the volume and pressure of the peritoneal cavity. When the abdominal muscles
contract, the pressure cannot push the diaphragm up, so it increases pressure on the intestinal tract
(defecation), urinary tract (urination), or reproductive tract (childbirth).

2b. The Intercostal Muscles

There are three sets of muscles, called intercostal muscles, which span each of the intercostal spaces. The
principal role of the intercostal muscles is to assist in breathing by changing the dimensions of the rib cage.

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 Intercostal Muscles - The external intercostals are located laterally on the sides of the body. The internal intercostals
are located medially near the sternum. The innermost intercostals are located deep to both the internal and external

intercostals.

The 11 pairs of superficial external intercostal muscles aid in the inspiration of air during breathing because
when they contract, they raise the rib cage, which expands it. The 11 pairs of internal intercostal muscles, just
under the externals, are used for expiration because they draw the ribs together to constrict the rib cage. The
innermost intercostal muscles are the deepest, and they act as synergists for the action of the internal
intercostals.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Diaphragm
A thoracic muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is the primary control of the
change in volume of the thoracic cavity during breathing.

External Intercostals
Superficial intercostal muscles that elevate the ribs and expand the thoracic cavity.

Internal Intercostals
Intermediate intercostal muscles that depress the ribs and compress the thoracic cavity.

Innermost Intercostals
Deep intercostal muscles that act as synergists to the internal intercostals.

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 3. Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum
The pelvic floor is a muscular sheet that defines the inferior portion of the pelvic cavity. The pelvic diaphragm,
spanning anteriorly to posteriorly from the pubis to the coccyx, comprises the levator ani and the
ischiococcygeus. Its openings include the anal canal and urethra, and vagina in females.

The large levator ani consists of two skeletal muscles and is considered the most important muscle of the
pelvic floor because it supports the pelvic viscera. It resists the pressure produced by the contraction of the
abdominal muscles so that the pressure is applied to the colon to aid in defecation and to the uterus to aid in
childbirth. The levator ani is assisted by the ischiococcygeus, also referred to as the coccygeus, which pulls the
coccyx anteriorly. This muscle also creates skeletal muscle sphincters at the urethra and anus.

Muscles of the Pelvic Floor - The pelvic floor muscles support the pelvic organs, resist intra-abdominal pressure, and

work as sphincters for the urethra, rectum, and vagina.

The perineum is the diamond-shaped space between the pubic symphysis (anteriorly), the coccyx (posteriorly),
and the ischial tuberosities (laterally), lying just inferior to the pelvic diaphragm (levator ani and coccygeus).
Divided transversely into triangles, the anterior is the urogenital triangle, which includes the external genitals.

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 The posterior is the anal triangle, which contains the anus. The perineum is also divided into superficial and
deep layers with some of the muscles common to people of any sex. The muscles of this region function to
compress the urethra to block urination (peeing), close the vagina (female only), and promote ejaculation (male
only). You will learn about these muscles in the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems if you take the A&P
II course.

Muscles of the Perineum - The perineum muscles play roles in urination in both sexes, ejaculation in males, and

vaginal contraction in females.

Table: Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Ischiococcygeus Flexes the coccyx Ischium Sacrum, coccyx

Stabilizes the pelvic floor by resisting intra-abdominal Pubis, Coccyx, prostate,

Levator Ani
pressure ischium vagina

 TERMS TO KNOW

Pelvic Diaphragm
A muscle sheet in the pelvic floor which resists internal pressure.

Levator Ani

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 The primary muscle of the pelvic diaphragm.

Ischiococcygeus
A synergist muscle of the pelvic diaphragm that pulls the coccyx anteriorly.

Perineum
The diamond-shaped space between the pubic symphysis, coccyx, and the ischial tuberosities, just
inferior to the pelvic diaphragm.

Urogenital Triangle
The anterior portion of the perineum that includes the external genitals.

Anal Triangle
The posterior portion of the perineum that includes the anus.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify the muscles of the abdomen, the thorax (including the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles), the pelvic floor, and perineum. You also learned the location and action of
each of these muscles.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Anal Triangle
The posterior portion of the perineum that includes the anus.

Diaphragm
A thoracic muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is the primary control of the
change in volume of the thoracic cavity during breathing.

External Intercostals
Superficial intercostal muscles that elevate the ribs and expand the thoracic cavity.

External Oblique
The superficial muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

Innermost Intercostals
Deep intercostal muscles that act as synergists to the internal intercostals.

Internal Intercostals
Intermediate intercostal muscles that depress the ribs and compress the thoracic cavity.

Internal Oblique
The intermediate muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

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 Ischiococcygeus
A synergist muscle of the pelvic diaphragm that pulls the coccyx anteriorly.

Levator Ani
The primary muscle of the pelvic diaphragm.

Linea Alba
The anterior midline of the abdomen formed by the joining of rectus sheaths.

Pelvic Diaphragm
A muscle sheet in the pelvic floor which resists internal pressure.

Perineum
The diamond-shaped space between the pubic symphysis, coccyx, and the ischial tuberosities, just
inferior to the pelvic diaphragm.

Quadratus Lumborum
A muscle of the posterior abdomen which supports posture by performing lateral flexion of the spine.

Rectus Abdominis
A pair of long, linear muscles of the anterior abdomen; sit-up muscles.

Rectus Sheath
The abdominal aponeuroses of the transversus abdominis and abdominal obliques.

Transversus Abdominis
The deep muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

Urogenital Triangle
The anterior portion of the perineum that includes the external genitals.

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 Appendicular Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of the pectoral girdle.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Muscles that Position the Pectoral Girdle

 BEFORE YOU START

Muscles of the shoulder and upper limb can be divided into four groups:

1. Muscles that stabilize and position the pectoral girdle.

2. Muscles that move the arm.
3. Muscles that move the forearm.
4. Muscles that move the wrists, hands, and fingers.

Recall that the pectoral girdle consists of the lateral ends of the clavicle and scapula, along with the proximal
end of the humerus, and the muscles covering these three bones to stabilize the shoulder joint. The girdle
creates a base from which the head of the humerus, in its ball-and-socket joint with the glenoid fossa of the
scapula, can move the arm in multiple directions. In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles of
the pectoral girdle and humerus.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional appendicular muscles, please visit the supplemental  Appendicular
Muscles.pdf.

1. Muscles that Position the Pectoral Girdle

Muscles that position the pectoral girdle are located either on the anterior thorax or on the posterior thorax.
The anterior muscles include the subclavius, pectoralis minor, and serratus anterior. The posterior muscles
include the trapezius, rhomboid major, and rhomboid minor.

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 Muscles That Position the Pectoral Girdle - The muscles that stabilize the pectoral girdle make it a steady base on

which other muscles can move the arm. Note that the pectoralis major and deltoid, which move the humerus, are

cut here to show the deeper positioning muscles.

On the anterior thorax, the subclavius (sub, underneath; clavius, clavicle) is a muscle that originates from the
sternal end of the first rib and inserts into the middle third of the clavicle. Recall that the origin does not move
during a contraction but the insertion does. Therefore, the subclavius pulls on the clavicle to depress it. Inferior
to the subclavius is the pectoralis minor (pectoralis, pectoral region; minor, small) which pulls inferiorly on the
scapula causing it to rotate inferiorly, depressing the shoulder. Alternatively, if the shoulder is held in position,
this muscle can also elevate the ribs. Inferior to the pectoralis minor is the serratus anterior which is a muscle
that has a serrated (saw-like) shape and pulls on the scapula, causing it to rotate superiorly which protracts the
shoulder.

On the posterior thorax, the trapezius, commonly referred to as the ‘traps,’ is the triangular, superficial muscle
that is composed of muscle fibers arranged in many directions. Due to the ability to activate separate portions
of this muscle, it can perform a variety of actions including elevation and depression as well as retraction and
rotation of the scapula. It can also depress the clavicle and extend the neck. The rhomboids are a pair of larger
(major) and smaller (minor) muscles located deep in the trapezius which adduct and inferiorly rotate the scapula.
The rhomboid major is the inferior muscle while the rhomboid minor is the superior.

 TRY IT

Locate your trapezius muscle (‘traps’).

Place one hand on your opposite shoulder, between the bony shoulder and your neck. Elevate (shrug) your
shoulder and feel where the muscle tension is created. Do you feel a muscle tighten and get bigger
(thicker)? This is the belly of the superior portion of your trapezius muscle concentrically contracting. If you
shrug your shoulder strong enough, you may feel tension pulling on the occipital bone and upper neck as

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 well, the origin of these muscle fibers.

Place one or both hands on the upper back, between your shoulder blades (scapulae). Standing or sitting
upright, retract your scapula. To do this, move your shoulders back and press your chest forward. Do you
feel tension in the upper back? This is the middle portion of the trapezius muscles.

Table: Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Pectoralis Rotates the scapula which depresses shoulder; Coracoid process of

Ribs 2–5
Minor elevates the ribs scapula

Rhomboid Spinous process of Medial border of

Adducts and inferiorly rotates the scapula
Major T2–T5 scapula

Rhomboid Spinous process of Medial border of

Adducts and inferiorly rotates the scapula
Minor C7–T1 scapula

Serratus Rotates scapula superiorly which protracts Medial border of

Ribs 1–9
Anterior shoulder scapula

Subclavius Stabilizes and depresses clavicle Rib 1 Clavicle

Elevates, retracts, depresses, and rotates Occipital bone,

Clavicle, acromion
Trapezius superiorly the scapula; elevates clavicle; spinous process of
and spine of scapula
extends neck T1–T12

 TERMS TO KNOW

Subclavius
The muscle located underneath the clavicle that stabilizes and depresses the clavicle.

Pectoralis Minor
A deep muscle of the anterior thorax which rotates the scapula, depressing the shoulder.

Serratus Anterior
A deep muscle of the anterior thorax which rotates the scapula, protracting the shoulder.

Trapezius
A superficial muscle of the posterior thorax which stabilizes the scapula.

Rhomboid Major
A deep muscle of the posterior thorax which adducts and inferiorly rotates the scapula; inferior
rhomboid muscle.

Rhomboid Minor
A deep muscle of the posterior thorax which adducts and inferiorly rotates the scapula; superior
rhomboid muscle.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 110
  SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify the muscles of the appendicular skeleton. Specifically, you
learned the location and action of the muscles that position the pectoral girdle.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Pectoralis Major
A fan-shaped superficial muscle of the anterior thorax which flexes, adducts, and medially rotates the
shoulder.

Pectoralis Minor
A deep muscle of the anterior thorax which rotates the scapula, depressing the shoulder.

Rhomboid Major
A deep muscle of the posterior thorax which adducts and inferiorly rotates the scapula; inferior rhomboid
muscle.

Rhomboid Minor
A deep muscle of the posterior thorax which adducts and inferiorly rotates the scapula; superior rhomboid
muscle.

Subclavius
The muscle located underneath the clavicle that stabilizes and depresses the clavicle.

Trapezius
A superficial muscle of the posterior thorax which stabilizes the scapula.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 111
 Appendicular Muscles of the Humerus
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles that manipulate the position
of the humerus. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Muscles that Move the Humerus

 BEFORE YOU START

Recall that the humerus is the long bone of the arm, commonly known as the upper arm. As you know, the
movement of the humerus plays a role in a wide array of simple and complex movements of the overall
upper limb because the humerus is a component of the proximal shoulder joint and the distal elbow joint.
Multiple muscles, therefore, coordinate the various body movements the humerus can do.

In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles that move the humerus.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional appendicular muscles, please visit the supplemental  Appendicular
Muscles.pdf.

1. Muscles that Move the Humerus

Similar to the muscles that position the pectoral girdle, muscles that cross the shoulder joint and move the
humerus bone of the arm include both axial and scapular muscles. The largest muscles are the pectoralis major
and the latissimus dorsi. The pectoralis major (pectoralis, pectoral region; major, large) is thick and fan-shaped,
covering much of the superior portion of the anterior thorax. This muscle flexes, adducts, and medially rotates
the shoulder. The broad, triangular latissimus dorsi (latus, broad; dorsi, posterior) is located on the inferior part
of the back and extends, adducts, and medially rotates the shoulder.

The rest of the shoulder muscles originate on the scapula. The anatomical structure of the shoulder joint and
the arrangements of the muscles covering it allow the arm to carry out different types of movements. The
deltoid (delta, triangular), the thick, triangular-shaped muscle that creates the rounded lines of the shoulder is
the major abductor of the arm but it also facilitates flexing and medial rotation, as well as extension and lateral
rotation. The subscapularis (sub, underneath; scapularis, scapula) originates on the anterior scapula and
medially rotates the arm. Named for their locations, the supraspinatus (supra, superior; spinatus, spine of the
scapula) abducts the shoulder while the infraspinatus (infra, inferior) laterally rotates the shoulder. The thick and

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 flat teres major is inferior to the teres minor and extends the arm and assists in adduction and medial rotation of
it. The long teres minor laterally rotates and extends the arm. Finally, the coracobrachialis (coraco, coracoid
process of the scapula, brachialis, brachial region) flexes and adducts the arm.

The tendons of the subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor connect the scapula to the
humerus, forming the rotator cuff (musculotendinous cuff), the circle of tendons around the shoulder joint. When
baseball pitchers undergo shoulder surgery, it is usually on the rotator cuff, which becomes pinched and
inflamed and may tear away from the bone due to the repetitive motion of bringing the arm overhead to throw a
fast pitch.

 TRY IT

Locate the deltoid muscle.

The deltoid muscle is commonly divided into three portions, the anterior deltoid, middle deltoid, and
posterior deltoid. Place one hand on the superior portion of the opposite brachial region (your upper arm)
and adduct your arm away from the body. Do you feel tension in the large muscle of the shoulder? That is
your deltoid muscle.

With your arm adducted, move it anteriorly until it is pointed directly in front of you. Do you feel a difference
in the tension of the anterior versus the posterior portion of the deltoid muscle? In order for the shoulder to
be flexed, the posterior portion of the muscle must eccentrically contract, reducing tension. The anterior
portion of the muscle increases tension to maintain shoulder flexion.

With your arm adducted, move it posteriorly until it is pointed behind you. Do you feel a difference in the
tension of the anterior versus the posterior portion of the deltoid muscle? In order for the shoulder to be
extended, the anterior portion of the muscle must eccentrically contract, reducing tension. The posterior
portion of the muscle increases tension to maintain shoulder extension.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 113
 Muscles That Move the Humerus - (a, c) The muscles that move the humerus anteriorly are generally located on the

anterior side of the body and originate from the sternum (e.g., pectoralis major) or the anterior side of the scapula

(e.g., subscapularis). (b) The muscles that move the humerus superiorly generally originate from the superior

surfaces of the scapula and/or the clavicle (e.g., deltoids). The muscles that move the humerus inferiorly generally

originate from the middle or lower back (e.g., latissiumus dorsi). (d) The muscles that move the humerus posteriorly
are generally located on the posterior side of the body and inserted into the scapula (e.g., infraspinatus).

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 114
 Table: Muscles that Move the Humerus

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Coracobrachialis (not Adducts and flexes the

Coracoid process of scapula Shaft of humerus
shown in image) shoulder

Flexes, extends, medially

Clavicle, acromion process of Deltoid tuberosity of
Deltoid and laterally rotates, and
scapula humerus
abducts the shoulder

Greater tubercle of
Infraspinatus Laterally rotates of shoulder Infraspinous fossa of scapula
humerus

Extends, adducts, and Spinous process of T7–T12, iliac

Intertubercular
Latissimus Dorsi medially rotates the crest of ilium, ribs 9–12, inferior
sulcus of humerus
shoulder scapula

Flexes, adducts, and

Ribs 2–6, body of sternum, Greater tubercle of
Pectoralis Major medially rotates the
clavicle humerus
shoulder

Medially rotates the Lesser tubercle of

Subscapularis Subscapular fossa of scapula
shoulder humerus

Greater tubercle of
Supraspinatus Abducts the shoulder Supraspinous fossa of scapula
humerus

Extends and medially Intertubercular

Teres Major Lateral border of scapula
rotates the shoulder sulcus of humerus

Laterally rotates and Greater tubercle of

Teres Minor Lateral border of scapula
adducts the shoulder humerus

 WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

IN CONTEXT
Career Connection: Physical Therapists

Those who have a muscle or joint injury will most likely be sent to a physical therapist (PT) after seeing
their regular doctor. PTs have a master’s degree or doctorate and are highly trained experts in the
mechanics of body movements. Many PTs also specialize in sports injuries.

If you injured your shoulder while you were kayaking, the first thing a physical therapist would do

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 115
 during your first visit is to assess the joint's functionality. The range of motion of a particular joint refers
to the normal movements the joint performs. The PT will ask you to abduct and adduct, circumduct,
and flex and extend the arm. The PT will note the shoulder’s degree of function and, based on the
assessment of the injury, will create an appropriate physical therapy plan.

The first step in physical therapy will probably be applying a heat pack to the injured site, which acts
much like a warm-up to draw blood to the area, to enhance healing. You will be instructed to do a
series of exercises to continue the therapy at home, followed by icing, to decrease inflammation and
swelling, which will continue for several weeks. When physical therapy is complete, the PT will do an
exit exam and send a detailed report on the improved range of motion and return of normal limb
function to your doctor. Gradually, as the injury heals, the shoulder will begin to function correctly. A PT
works closely with patients to help them get back to their normal level of physical activity.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Pectoralis Major
A fan-shaped superficial muscle of the anterior thorax which flexes, adducts, and medially rotates the
shoulder.

Latissimus Dorsi
A broad superficial muscle of the inferior back which extends, adducts, and medially rotates the
shoulder.

Deltoid
The superficial muscle of the shoulder which flexes, extends, medially and laterally rotates, and abducts
the shoulder.

Subscapularis
A muscle in the subscapular fossa of the scapula which medially rotates the shoulder.

Supraspinatus
A muscle in the supraspinous fossa of the scapula which abducts the shoulder.

Infraspinatus
A muscle in the infraspinous fossa of the scapula which laterally rotates the shoulder.

Teres Major
An inferior scapular muscle which extends and medially rotates the shoulder.

Teres Minor
An inferior scapular muscle which laterally rotates and adducts the shoulder.

Coracobrachialis
A deep muscle of the anterior brachial region which adducts and flexes the shoulder.

Rotator Cuff
The circle of tendons around the shoulder.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 116
  SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify the muscles of the appendicular skeleton. Specifically, you
learned the location and action of the muscles that move the humerus.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Coracobrachialis
A deep muscle of the anterior brachial region which adducts and flexes the shoulder.

Deltoid
The superficial muscle of the shoulder which flexes, extends, medially and laterally rotates, and abducts
the shoulder.

Infraspinatus
A muscle in the infraspinous fossa of the scapula which laterally rotates the shoulder.

Latissimus Dorsi
A broad superficial muscle of the inferior back which extends, adducts, and medially rotates the shoulder.

Pectoralis Major
A fan-shaped superficial muscle of the anterior thorax which flexes, adducts, and medially rotates the
shoulder.

Rotator Cuff
The circle of tendons around the shoulder.

Subscapularis
A muscle in the subscapular fossa of the scapula which medially rotates the shoulder.

Supraspinatus
A muscle in the supraspinous fossa of the scapula which abducts the shoulder.

Teres Major
An inferior scapular muscle which extends and medially rotates the shoulder.

Teres Minor
An inferior scapular muscle which laterally rotates and adducts the shoulder.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 117
 Appendicular Muscles of the Forearm
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of the forearm. Specifically,
this lesson will cover:
1. Muscles that Move the Forearm

 BEFORE YOU START

In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles of the forearm.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional appendicular muscles, please visit the supplemental  Appendicular
Muscles.pdf.

1. Muscles that Move the Forearm

The forearm, made of the radius and ulna bones, has four main types of action at the hinge of the elbow joint:

Flexion
Extension
Pronation
Supination

The forearm flexors include the biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis which cause flexion of the elbow.
The two-headed biceps brachii (biceps, two heads; brachii, brachial region) crosses the shoulder and elbow
joints to flex the forearm, also taking part in supinating the forearm at the radioulnar joints and flexing the arm at
the shoulder joint. Deep to the biceps brachii, the brachialis provides synergistic power in flexing the forearm.
Finally, the brachioradialis in the antebrachial region connects the humerus to the radius and can flex the
forearm quickly or help lift a load slowly. These muscles and their associated blood vessels and nerves form
the anterior compartment of the arm (anterior flexor compartment of the arm).

The forearm extensors are the triceps brachii and anconeus which cause extension of the elbow. The three-
headed triceps brachii (triceps, three heads) crosses the shoulder and elbow joints to connect the scapula and
humerus with the ulna. Collectively, the three heads extend the elbow. The long head is the only one that

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 crosses the shoulder and therefore extends and adducts the shoulder. The anconeus is a small, more distal
muscle that also connects the humerus to the ulna performing extension at the elbow.

Recall that when the forearm faces anteriorly, it is supinated. When the forearm faces posteriorly, it is pronated.
The pronators of the forearm are the pronator teres and the pronator quadratus. The pronator teres is more
proximal and connects the humerus and ulna to the radius. The pronator quadratus is more distal and only
connects the ulna and radius. Both muscles perform pronation of the elbow. The supinator is the only muscle
that turns the forearm anteriorly,

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 Muscles That Move the Forearm - The muscles originating in the upper arm flex, extend, pronate, and supinate the

forearm.

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 Table: Muscles that Move the Forearm
Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Olecranon of
Anconeus Extends the elbow Lateral epicondyle of humerus
ulna

(Short Head): Coracoid process of

scapula
Tuberosity of
Biceps Brachii Flexes and supinates the elbow
radius
(Long Head): Superior ridge of
glenoid cavity of scapula

Tuberosity of
Brachialis Flexes the elbow Distal shaft of humerus
ulna

Styloid process
Brachioradialis Flexes the elbow Lateral epicondyle of humerus
of radius

Pronator Distal shaft of

Pronates the elbow Distal shaft of ulna
Quadratus radius

Medial epicondyle of humerus,

Pronator Teres Pronates the elbow Shaft of radius
coronoid process of ulna

Lateral epicondyle of humerus,

Supinator Supinates the elbow Shaft of radius
radial notch of ulna

(Lateral Head): Posterolateral

surface of proximal shaft of
humerus

Extends the elbow (long head also Olecranon

Triceps Brachii (Long Head): Inferior ridge of
extends and adducts the shoulder) process of ulna
glenoid cavity of scapula

(Medial Head): Posterior surface of

proximal shaft of humerus

 WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Biceps Brachii
The two-headed muscle of the anterior arm that flexes and supinates the elbow while flexing the
shoulder.

Brachialis

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 A muscle of the anterior arm that flexes the elbow.

Brachioradialis
A muscle of the anterior forearm that flexes the elbow.

Triceps Brachii
The three-headed muscle of the posterior arm that extends the elbow while extending and abducting
the shoulder.

Anconeus
A muscle of the posterior forearm that extends the elbow.

Pronator Teres
A muscle of the proximal forearm that pronates the elbow.

Pronator Quadratus
A muscle of the distal forearm that pronates the elbow.

Supinator
A muscle of the proximal forearm that supinates the elbow.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify muscles of the upper limb. Specifically, you learned the muscles
that move the forearm. You learned the location and action of each of these muscles.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Anconeus
A muscle of the posterior forearm that extends the elbow.

Biceps Brachii
The two-headed muscle of the anterior arm that flexes and supinates the elbow while flexing the shoulder.

Brachialis
A muscle of the anterior arm that flexes the elbow.

Brachioradialis
A muscle of the anterior forearm that flexes the elbow.

Pronator Quadratus
A muscle of the distal forearm that pronates the elbow.

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 Pronator Teres
A muscle of the proximal forearm that pronates the elbow.

Supinator
A muscle of the proximal forearm that supinates the elbow.

Triceps Brachii
The three-headed muscle of the posterior arm that extends the elbow while extending and abducting the
shoulder.

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 Appendicular Muscles of the Hand and Fingers
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of the hand and fingers.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Muscles that Move the Hand and Fingers

 BEFORE YOU START

In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles of the hand and fingers.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional appendicular muscles, please visit the supplemental  Appendicular
Muscles.pdf.

1. Muscles that Move the Hand and Fingers

Hand and finger movements are facilitated by a large group of muscles that are named for their location,
anatomical structure, or action. The following list covers most of the terms used in naming the muscles in this
region.

Superficialis = Superficial
Profundus = Deep
Brevis = Short
Longus = Long
Carpi = Carpal region (wrist)
Digiti Minimi = Little digit (pinky)
Digitorum = Digital region (fingers)
Pollicis = Pollex region (thumb)
Palmaris = Palm of the hand
Flexor = Causes flexion
Extensor = Causes extension
Abductor = Causes abduction
Adductor = Causes adduction

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 Muscles That Move the Hands and Fingers - The muscles originating in the forearm move the hands and fingers.

 DID YOU KNOW

One way to categorize these muscles is by their action—do they cause flexion or extension?
The flexors and extensors can be further divided by whether they move the hand or fingers. The flexors of the
hand all originate at the medial epicondyle of the humerus, are located in the anterior forearm, and are listed
below.

The flexor carpi radialis flexes the wrist (carpi) by its insertion into the radius (radialis). It also performs
abduction of the wrist.
The flexor carpi ulnaris flexes the wrist by its insertion into the ulna (ulnaris). It also performs adduction of
the wrist.
The palmaris longus is located between the other two muscles in this group and flexes the wrist by its
insertion into the flexor retinaculum, a connective tissue band over the anterior portion of the wrist. The

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 posterior portion of the wrist is covered by the extensor retinaculum.

The flexors of the fingers originate from the humerus, ulna, or radius and are listed below.

The flexor digitorum superficialis is a superficial (superficialis) muscle of the anterior forearm which causes
flexion of digits 2–5. This muscle flexes the metacarpophalangeal joint and the proximal interphalangeal
joint.
The flexor digitorum profundus is a deep (profundus) muscle of the anterior forearm which causes flexion
of digits 2–5. This muscle flexes the distal interphalangeal joint.
The flexor pollicis longus is the flexor of the thumb (pollicis).

The flexor digitorum superficialis flexes the hand as well as the digits at the knuckles, which allows for rapid
finger movements, as in typing or playing a musical instrument. However, poor ergonomics can irritate the
tendons of these muscles as they slide back and forth within the carpal tunnel formed by the flexor retinaculum.
This irritation can cause the median nerve to be pinched inside the tunnel, causing Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.

The extensors of the hand all originate at the lateral epicondyle of the humerus, are located in the posterior
forearm, and are listed below.

The extensor carpi radialis brevis is a short (brevis) extensor of the wrist (carpi) which inserts into the radius
(radialis). This muscle also performs abduction of the wrist. The extensor carpi radialis longus performs the
same actions but is slightly longer (longus).
The extensor carpi ulnaris extends the wrist. Due to its insertion into the fifth metacarpal and origin on the
proximal ulna, it also performs adduction of the wrist.

The extensors of the fingers originate from a variety of points on the humerus, radius, or ulna and are listed
below.

The extensor digitorum is a middle layer muscle that inserts into the phalanges on digits 2–5 performing
extension of these fingers.
The extensor digiti minimi is a middle layer muscle that inserts into the proximal phalanx of digit 5 only. This
muscle performs extension of the pinky only.
The extensor pollicis brevis is a deep layer muscle that inserts into the proximal phalanx of the first digit,
the thumb (pollicis). This muscle performs extension of the thumb.
The extensor pollicis longus is a deep layer muscle that inserts into the distal phalanx of the first digit, the
thumb (pollicis). This muscle performs extension of the thumb.
The extensor indicis is a deep layer muscle that inserts into the phalanges for digit 2, the index finger,
performing extension and adduction of this digit only.

As indicated above, some flexor and extensor muscles do perform abduction and adduction of the hand and
fingers. However, there is one forearm muscle that only performs abduction.

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 The abductor pollicis longus connects the proximal ulna and radius to the fifth metacarpal and performs
abduction of the thumb (pollicis). A short (brevis) version of this does exist but is only located within the
hand.

Table: Muscles that Move the Hand and Fingers

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Flexors of the Hand

Flexor Carpi Medial epicondyle of Base of 2nd & 3rd

Flexes and abducts the wrist
Radialis humerus metacarpals

Pisiform, hamate,
Flexor Carpi Medial epicondyle of
Flexes and adducts the wrist base of 5th
Ulnaris humerus, olecranon of ulna
metacarpal

Medial epicondyle of Flexor retinaculum,

Palmaris Longus Flexes the wrist
humerus palmar aponeurosis

Extensors of the Hand

Extensor Carpi Lateral epicondyle of Base of 3rd

Extends and abducts the wrist
Radialis Brevis humerus metacarpal

Extensor Carpi Lateral epicondyle of Base of 2nd

Extends and abducts the wrist
Radialis Longus humerus metacarpal

Lateral epicondyle of
Extensor Carpi Base of 5th
Extends and adducts the wrist humerus, posterior surface
Ulnaris metacarpal
of ulnar shaft

Flexors of the Fingers

Flexor Digitorum Shaft and coronoid process Distal phalanges of

Flexes distal interphalangeal joints
Profundus of ulna digits 2–5

Medial epicondyle of
Flexor Digitorum Flexes metacarpophalangeal and Middle phalanges of
humerus, anterior proximal
Superficialis proximal interphalangeal joints digits 2–5
radius and ulna

Flexor Pollicis Distal phalanx of digit

Flexes digit 1 (thumb) Shaft of radius
Longus 1

Extensors of the Fingers

Extensor Digiti Lateral epicondyle of Proximal phalanx of

Extends the digit 5 (pinky)
Minimi humerus digit 5

Extensor Lateral epicondyle of Phalanges of digits

Extends digits 2–5
Digitorum humerus 2–5

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 Extends and adducts digit 2 (index
Extensor Indicis Posterior surface of ulna Phalanges of digit 2
finger)

Extensor Pollicis Proximal phalanx of

Extends digit 1 (thumb) Shaft of radius
Brevis digit 1

Extensor Pollicis Distal phalanx of digit

Extends digit 1 (thumb) Shaft of ulna
Longus 1

Abductor of the Fingers

Abductor Pollicis Posterior shaft of proximal Lateral margin of 5th

Abducts digit 1 (thumb)
Longus ulna and radius metacarpal bone

 WATCH

Please watch the following video for more information on this topic.

 MAKE THE CONNECTION

If you're taking the Anatomy & Physiology I Lab course simultaneously with this lecture, it's a good time to try
the Lab Skeletal Muscle Movement: Build your own muscle system in Unit 4 of the Lab course. Review the
lab-to-lecture crosswalk if you need more information. Good luck!

 TERMS TO KNOW

Flexor Carpi Radialis

A forearm muscle that flexes and abducts the wrist.

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

A forearm muscle that flexes and adducts the wrist.

Palmaris Longus
A forearm muscle that flexes the wrist.

Flexor Retinaculum
A band of connective tissue which extends over the anterior wrist.

Extensor Retinaculum
A band of connective tissue which extends over the posterior wrist.

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis

A forearm muscle that flexes the proximal joints of digits 2–5.

Flexor Digitorum Profundus

A forearm muscle that flexes the distal joints of digits 2–5.

Flexor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that flexes digit 1.

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 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
A condition in which a nerve is compressed in the anterior wrist causing pain, numbness, and tingling
sensations in the hand.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis

A forearm muscle that extends the wrist.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus

A forearm muscle that extends and abducts the wrist.

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris

A forearm muscle that extends and adducts the wrist.

Extensor Digitorum
A forearm muscle that extends digits 2–5.

Extensor Digiti Minimi

A forearm muscle that extends digit 5.

Extensor Pollicis Brevis

A forearm muscle that extends the proximal joint of digit 1.

Extensor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that extends the distal joint of digit 1.

Extensor Indicis
A forearm muscle that extends and adducts the joints of digit 2.

Abductor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that abducts the thumb.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify muscles of the upper limb. Specifically, you learned the muscles
that move the hand and fingers. You learned the location and action of each of these muscles.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Abductor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that abducts the thumb.

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

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 A condition in which a nerve is compressed in the anterior wrist causing pain, numbness, and tingling
sensations in the hand.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis

A forearm muscle that extends the wrist.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus

A forearm muscle that extends and abducts the wrist.

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris

A forearm muscle that extends and adducts the wrist.

Extensor Digiti Minimi

A forearm muscle that extends digit 5.

Extensor Digitorum
A forearm muscle that extends digits 2–5.

Extensor Indicis
A forearm muscle that extends and adducts the joints of digit 2.

Extensor Pollicis Brevis

A forearm muscle that extends the proximal joint of digit 1.

Extensor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that extends the distal joint of digit 1.

Extensor Retinaculum
A band of connective tissue which extends over the posterior wrist.

Flexor Carpi Radialis

A forearm muscle that flexes and abducts the wrist.

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

A forearm muscle that flexes and adducts the wrist.

Flexor Digitorum Profundus

A forearm muscle that flexes the distal joints of digits 2–5.

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis

A forearm muscle that flexes the proximal joints of digits 2–5.

Flexor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that flexes digit 1.

Flexor Retinaculum
A band of connective tissue which extends over the anterior wrist.

Palmaris Longus
A forearm muscle that flexes the wrist.

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© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 131
 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of the pelvic girdle.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Gluteal Region Muscles that Move the Femur

 BEFORE YOU START

The appendicular muscles of the lower body position and stabilize the pelvic girdle, which serves as a
foundation for the lower limbs. Comparatively, there is much more movement at the pectoral girdle than at
the pelvic girdle. There is very little movement of the pelvic girdle because of its connection with the
sacrum at the base of the axial skeleton. The pelvic girdle has less range of motion because it was
designed to stabilize and support the body.

 THINK ABOUT IT

What would happen if the pelvic girdle, which attaches the lower limbs to the torso, were capable of the
same range of motion as the pectoral girdle?

For one thing, walking would expend more energy if the heads of the femurs were not secured in the
acetabula of the pelvis. The body’s center of gravity is in the area of the pelvis. If the center of gravity were
not to remain fixed, standing up would be difficult as well. Therefore, what the leg muscles lack in range of
motion and versatility, they make up for in size and power, facilitating the body’s stabilization, posture, and
movement.

In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles of the pelvic girdle and thigh.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional appendicular muscles, please visit the supplemental  Appendicular
Muscles.pdf.

1. Gluteal Region Muscles that Move the Femur

Most muscles that insert on the femur (the thigh bone) and move it originate on the pelvic girdle. These muscles
can be categorized into four groups based on their location and function:

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 The Iliopsoas Group
The Gluteal Group
The Adductor Group
The Lateral Rotator Group

The iliopsoas muscle group is composed of two muscles, the psoas major and iliacus. Both perform flexion at
the hip while the psoas major additionally can flex the lumbar spine.

The gluteal muscle group is composed of four muscles—three in the gluteal region and one on the lateral hip. In
the gluteal region, from superficial to deep as well as largest to smallest, is the gluteus maximus (largest),
gluteus medius (medium), and gluteus minimus (smallest). The maximus extends the hip while the medius and
minimus both abduct the hip and all three function to rotate the hip in different directions. On the lateral hip is
the tensor fascia latae (tensor, stretches; fascia, band; latus, side), a thick, squarish muscle that is a synergist for
hip flexion and abduction but also performs extension at the knee.

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 Hip and Thigh Muscles - The large and powerful muscles of the hip that move the femur generally originate on the

pelvic girdle and insert into the femur. The muscles that move the lower leg typically originate on the femur and

insert into the bones of the knee joint. The anterior muscles of the femur extend the lower leg but also aid in flexing

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 the thigh. The posterior muscles of the femur flex the lower leg but also aid in extending the thigh. A combination

of gluteal and thigh muscles also adduct, abduct, and rotate the thigh and lower leg.

The adductor muscle group includes the adductor brevis, adductor longus, adductor magnus, and pectineus.
Each of these muscles attaches the pubis bone to the femur and performs adduction, flexion, and medial
rotation of the hip when starting in the anatomical position. The adductor magnus is the largest of the
adductors, attached to an area along nearly the entire length of the femur. This wide insertion allows portions of
the muscle to extend and laterally rotate the hip from the anatomical position as well. However, if the body
begins with the leg already medially rotated in (i.e., your leg is turned so that the foot points inwards), then
activation of any adductor group muscle will cause an amount of lateral rotation.

Deep to the gluteus maximus is the lateral rotator muscle group which is composed of the piriformis, obturator
internus, obturator externus, superior gemellus, inferior gemellus, and quadratus femoris. Collectively, these
muscles attach the portions of the pelvis (obturator foramen, ischium, or sacrum) to the proximal femur,
providing lateral rotation to the hip. The piriformis because of its superior position attaching the sacrum to the
greater trochanter of the femur also performs abduction of the hip.

Table: Muscles that Move the Femur

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Iliopsoas Muscle Group

Iliacus Flexes the hip Iliac fossa of ilium Lesser trochanter of femur

Vertebral bodies and

Flexes the hip or lumbar
Psoas Major transverse process of T12– Lesser trochanter of femur
spine
L5

Gluteal Muscle Group

Gluteus Extends and laterally Iliac crest of ilium, sacrum, Iliotibial tract, gluteal tuberosity of
Maximus rotates the hip coccyx femur

Gluteus Abducts and medially

Iliac crest of ilium Greater trochanter of femur
Medius rotates the hip

Gluteus Abducts and medially

Lateral surface of ilium Greater trochanter of femur
Minimus rotates the hip

Tensor Fascia Extends the knee,

Iliac crest of ilium Iliotibial tract
Latae medially rotates the hip

Adductor Muscle Group

Adductor Adducts, flexes, and

Inferior ramus of pubis Linea aspera of femur
Brevis medially rotates the hip

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 Adductor Adducts, flexes, and
Inferior ramus of pubis Linea aspera of femur
Longus medially rotates the hip

Adductor Inferior ramus of pubis, Inferior ramus of pubis, Gluteal tuberosity, linea aspera and
Magnus ischial tuberosity ischial tuberosity supracondylar line of femur

Flexes, medially rotates,

Pectineus Superior ramus of pubis Pectineal line of femur
and adducts the hip

Lateral Rotator Muscle Group

Inferior
Laterally rotates the hip Tuberosity of ischium Greater trochanter of femur
Gemellus

Obturator Obturator foramen of coxal

Laterally rotates the hip Trochanteric fossa of femur
Externus bone

Obturator Obturator foramen of coxal

Laterally rotates the hip Greater trochanter of femur
Internus bone

Laterally rotates and

Piriformis Sacrum Greater trochanter of femur
abducts the hip

Quadratus
Laterally rotates the hip Tuberosity of ischium Intertrochanteric crest of femur
Femoris

Superior
Laterally rotates the hip Spine of ischium Greater trochanter of femur
Gemellus

 TERMS TO KNOW

Psoas Major
A muscle of the iliopsoas muscle group that flexes the hip and lumbar spine.

Iliacus
A muscle of the iliopsoas muscle group that flexes the hip.

Gluteus Maximus
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that extends and laterally rotates the hip.

Gluteus Medius
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that abducts and medially rotates the hip.

Gluteus Minimis
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that abducts and medially rotates the hip.

Tensor Fascia Latae

A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that medially rotates the hip and extends the knee.

Adductor Brevis
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

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 Adductor Longus
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

Adductor Magnus
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes and extends, and medially and laterally
rotates the hip.

Pectineus
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

Piriformis
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that abducts and laterally rotates the hip.

Obturator Externus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Obturator Internus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Superior Gemellus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Inferior Gemellus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Quadratus Femoris
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify muscles of the lower limb. Specifically, you learned the gluteal
region muscles that move the femur. You learned the location and action of each of these muscles.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Adductor Brevis
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

Adductor Longus
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

Adductor Magnus

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 A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes and extends, and medially and laterally rotates
the hip.

Gluteus Maximus
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that extends and laterally rotates the hip.

Gluteus Medius
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that abducts and medially rotates the hip.

Gluteus Minimis
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that abducts and medially rotates the hip.

Iliacus
A muscle of the iliopsoas muscle group that flexes the hip.

Inferior Gemellus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Obturator Externus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Obturator Internus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Pectineus
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

Piriformis
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that abducts and laterally rotates the hip.

Psoas Major
A muscle of the iliopsoas muscle group that flexes the hip and lumbar spine.

Quadratus Femoris
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Superior Gemellus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Tensor Fascia Latae

A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that medially rotates the hip and extends the knee.

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 Appendicular Muscles of the Thigh
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of the thigh. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. Femoral Region Muscles that Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula

 BEFORE YOU START

Appendicular muscles of the thigh function to create and support movement at the knee. In this lesson, you
will learn the most prominent muscles of the thigh.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional appendicular muscles, please visit the supplemental  Appendicular
Muscles.pdf.

1. Femoral Region Muscles that Move the Femur,

Tibia, and Fibula
Deep fascia in the thigh separates it into medial, anterior, and posterior compartments. The muscles in the
medial compartment of the thigh are responsible for adducting the femur at the hip. Along with the adductor
muscle group, the strap-like gracilis adducts the thigh in addition to flexing the leg at the knee.

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 Hip and Thigh Muscles - The large and powerful muscles of the hip that move the femur generally originate on the

pelvic girdle and insert into the femur. The muscles that move the lower leg typically originate on the femur and

insert into the bones of the knee joint. The anterior muscles of the femur extend the lower leg but also aid in flexing

the thigh. The posterior muscles of the femur flex the lower leg but also aid in extending the thigh. A combination

of gluteal and thigh muscles also adduct, abduct, and rotate the thigh and lower leg.

The muscles of the anterior compartment of the thigh flex the thigh and extend the leg. This compartment
contains the quadriceps femoris muscle group, also known simply as the quadriceps, which actually comprises
four muscles that extend and stabilize the knee. The rectus femoris is on the anterior aspect of the thigh, the
vastus lateralis is on the lateral aspect of the thigh, the vastus medialis is on the medial aspect of the thigh, and
the vastus intermedius is between the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis and deep to the rectus femoris.

The tendon common to all four is the quadriceps tendon, or patellar tendon, which inserts into the patella and
continues inferior to the patella as the patellar ligament. The patellar ligament attaches to the tibial tuberosity.
In addition to the quadriceps femoris, the sartorius is a band-like muscle that extends from the anterior superior
iliac spine to the medial side of the proximal tibia.

 DID YOU KNOW

The sartorius is a versatile muscle that flexes the leg at the knee and flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates
the leg at the hip. This muscle is commonly referred to as the Figure-4 muscle because it allows us to cross

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 our legs, forming the number 4 with our legs.

The posterior compartment of the thigh includes muscles that flex the leg and extend the thigh. The three long
muscles on the back of the knee are the hamstring muscle group, which flexes the knee as well as extends and
medially rotates the hip. These are the biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus. The tendons
of these muscles form the popliteal fossa, the diamond-shaped space at the back of the knee.

Table: Muscles that Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Flexes the knee, adducts Inferior medial condyle

Gracilis Inferior ramus of pubis
and medially rotates the hip of tibia

Flexes the knee, flexes and

Sartorius Anterior superior iliac spine Tibial tuberosity of tibia
laterally rotates the hip

Quadriceps Femoris Muscle Group

Extends the knee, flexes the Anterior inferior iliac spine,

Rectus Femoris Tuberosity of tibia
hip acetabulum

Anterolateral surface, distal half

Vastus Intermedius Extends the knee Tuberosity of tibia
of linea aspera of femur

Greater trochanter, proximal half

Vastus Lateralis Extends the knee Tuberosity of tibia
of linea aspera of femur

Vastus Medialis Extends the knee Linea aspera of femur Tuberosity of tibia

Hamstring Muscle Group

Flexes the knee, extends Tuberosity of ischium, linea Head of fibula, lateral
Biceps Femoris
and medially rotates the hip aspera of femur condyle of tibia

Flexes the knee, extends Posterior surface of

Semimembranosus Tuberosity of ischium
and medially rotates the hip medial condyle of tibia

Flexes the knee, extends Inferior to medial

Semitendinosus Tuberosity of ischium
and medially rotates the hip condyle of tibia

 TERMS TO KNOW

Gracilis
A femoral region muscle that adducts the hip and flexes the knee.

Quadriceps Femoris
A group of four muscles in the anterior femoral region that extend and stabilize the knee.

Rectus Femoris

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 The anterior quadricep femoris muscle that extends the knee and flexes the hip.

Vastus Lateralis
The lateral quadriceps femoris muscle that extends the knee.

Vastus Medialis
The medial quadriceps femoris muscle that extends the knee.

Vastus Intermedius
The quadriceps femoris muscle deep to the rectus femoris that extends the knee.

Quadricep Tendon
The tendon that attaches all quadricep femoris muscles to the patella.

Sartorius
A femoral region muscle that flexes the knee and flexes and laterally rotates the hip.

Hamstring
A group of three muscles in the posterior femoral region that flex the knee and extend and medially
rotate the hip.

Biceps Femoris
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

Semitendinosus
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

Semimembranosus
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify muscles of the lower limb. Specifically, you learned the femoral
region muscles that move the femur, tibia, and fibula. You learned the location and action of each of
these muscles.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Biceps Femoris
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

Gracilis
A femoral region muscle that adducts the hip and flexes the knee.

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 Hamstring
A group of three muscles in the posterior femoral region that flex the knee and extend and medially rotate
the hip.

Quadricep Tendon
The tendon that attaches all quadricep femoris muscles to the patella.

Quadriceps Femoris
A group of four muscles in the anterior femoral region that extend and stabilize the knee.

Rectus Femoris
The anterior quadricep femoris muscle that extends the knee and flexes the hip.

Sartorius
A femoral region muscle that flexes the knee and flexes and laterally rotates the hip.

Semimembranosus
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

Semitendinosus
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

Vastus Intermedius
The quadriceps femoris muscle deep to the rectus femoris that extends the knee.

Vastus Lateralis
The lateral quadriceps femoris muscle that extends the knee.

Vastus Medialis
The medial quadriceps femoris muscle that extends the knee.

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 Appendicular Muscles of the Lower Leg
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the location and actions of the muscles of the lower limb. Specifically,
this lesson will cover:
1. Muscles That Move the Feet

 BEFORE YOU START

In this lesson, you will learn the most prominent muscles of the lower leg.

 LEARN MORE

To see more in-depth and additional appendicular muscles, please visit the supplemental  Appendicular
Muscles.pdf.

1. Muscles That Move the Feet

Similar to the thigh muscles, the muscles of the leg are divided by deep fascia into compartments, although the
leg has three: anterior, lateral, and posterior.

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 Muscles of the Lower Leg - The muscles of the anterior compartment of the lower leg are generally responsible for

dorsiflexion, and the muscles of the posterior compartment of the lower leg are generally responsible for plantar

flexion. The lateral and medial muscles in both compartments invert, evert, and rotate the foot.

The muscles in the anterior compartment of the leg are generally responsible for dorsiflexion. The primary
muscle in this group is the tibialis anterior, a long and thick muscle on the lateral surface of the tibia, which
performs dorsiflexion and inversion of the ankle.

 TRY IT

Locate your tibialis anterior.

With your ankle relaxed, place your hand on the anterior part of your lower leg (i.e., on your shin). Find your
tibia (shin bone). Moving your fingers just lateral to this bone, you’ll find a region of soft tissue. If you
dorsiflex your foot (pull your toes and foot up), that soft tissue should expand and tighten. This is the belly of
your tibialis anterior.

Relax your ankle again. Move back and forth between everting (turning out) and inverting (turning in) your
foot. Which of these movements causes the belly of your tibialis anterior to expand and tighten? Check the
table below to confirm what you feel.

The lateral compartment of the leg includes two muscles which evert and plantar flex the foot. The fibularis
longus, or peroneus longus, is the longer (longus) muscle, attaching the proximal fibula and tibia to the tarsals

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 and metatarsals. The fibularis brevis, or peroneus brevis, is the shorter (brevis) muscle, attaching the central
region of the fibula to the metatarsals.

 TRY IT

Locate your fibularis longus and brevis.

Place your hand on the lateral portion of your lower leg (i.e., the side of your shin). Starting from a
dorsiflexed, plantar flexed, and relaxed ankle, evert your foot (i.e., turn the sole of your foot out) and find the
tissue on the lateral shin that expands and tightens in all three positions. On the proximal lower leg, this is
your fibularis longus. On the distal lower leg, this is your fibularis brevis.

The superficial muscles in the posterior compartment of the leg all insert onto the calcaneal tendon (Achilles
tendon), a strong tendon that inserts into the calcaneal bone of the ankle. The muscles in this compartment are
large and strong and keep humans upright. The most superficial and visible muscle of the calf is the
gastrocnemius which has two heads (medial and lateral). Deep to the gastrocnemius is the wide, flat soleus.
Both of these muscles function to plantar flex the ankle. However, the gastrocnemius only functions when the
knee is extended due to its origination on the femur (flexion of the knee shortens the gastrocnemius and
reduces its force at the ankle). Therefore, both muscles function to plantar flex the ankle when the knee is
extended, but the soleus takes over once the knee is flexed. The plantaris runs obliquely between the two and
aids in plantar flexion of the ankle and extension of the knee.

 DID YOU KNOW

Some people may have two plantaris muscles, whereas no plantaris is observed in about 7% of the
population. The plantaris tendon is a desirable substitute for the fascia lata in hernia repair, tendon
transplants, and repair of ligaments.
The deep posterior compartment of the leg contains additional muscles. The popliteus crosses inferomedially
across the popliteal region (posterior knee) to connect the femur and tibia, allowing for medial rotation of the
lower leg and flexion of the knee. The tibialis posterior connects the tibia and fibula to the tarsal and metatarsal
bones, performing plantar flexion, adduction, and inversion of the ankle.

Table: Muscles that Move the Feet and Toes

Muscle Action Origin Insertion

Anterior Compartment of the Lower Leg

Dorsiflexes and inverts the Lateral condyle and 1st metatarsal bone and
Tibialis Anterior
ankle proximal shaft of tibia medial cuneiform bone

Lateral Compartment of the Lower Leg

Everts and plantar flexes the

Fibularis Brevis Shaft of fibula 5th metatarsal bone
ankle

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 Fibularis Everts and plantar flexes the Lateral condyle of tibia, 1st metatarsal bone and
Longus ankle head and shaft of fibula medial cuneiform bone

Posterior Compartment of the Lower Leg

Plantar flexes and inverts the

Gastrocnemius Condyles of femur Calcaneus (calcaneal tendon)
foot, flexes the knee

Plantar flexes the ankle, flexes

Plantaris Lateral condyle of femur Calcaneus
the knee

Medially rotates tibia, flexion

Popliteus Lateral condyle of femur Proximal shaft of tibia
of knee

Head and proximal shaft of

Soleus Plantar flexes the ankle Calcaneus (calcaneal tendon)
fibula, shaft of tibia

Tibialis Adducts, inverts, and plantar

Shaft of tibia and fibula Tarsal and metatarsal bones
Posterior flexes the ankle

 TERMS TO KNOW

Tibialis Anterior
A muscle of the anterior lower leg that dorsiflexes and inverts the ankle.

Fibularis Longus
A long muscle of the lateral lower leg that everts and plantar flexes the ankle.

Fibularis Brevis
A short muscle of the lateral lower leg that everts and plantar flexes the ankle.

Calcaneal Tendon
The connective tissue that connects the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles to the calcaneus.

Gastrocnemius
A superficial muscle of the posterior lower leg that plantar flexes and inverts the ankle and flexes the
knee.

Soleus
A muscle of the posterior lower leg, deep to the gastrocnemius, that plantar flexes the ankle.

Plantaris
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that plantar flexes the ankle and flexes the knee.

Popliteus
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that medially rotates the tibia and flexes the knee.

Tibialis Posterior
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that adducts, inverts, and plantar flexes the ankle.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 147
  SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned to identify muscles that move the feet. You learned the location and action of
each of these muscles.

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM OPENSTAX "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2E" AT
openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e

 TERMS TO KNOW

Calcaneal Tendon
The connective tissue that connects the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles to the calcaneus.

Fibularis Brevis
A short muscle of the lateral lower leg that everts and plantar flexes the ankle.

Fibularis Longus
A long muscle of the lateral lower leg that everts and plantar flexes the ankle.

Gastrocnemius
A superficial muscle of the posterior lower leg that plantar flexes and inverts the ankle and flexes the knee.

Plantaris
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that plantar flexes the ankle and flexes the knee.

Popliteus
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that medially rotates the tibia and flexes the knee.

Soleus
A muscle of the posterior lower leg, deep to the gastrocnemius, that plantar flexes the ankle.

Tibialis Anterior
A muscle of the anterior lower leg that dorsiflexes and inverts the ankle.

Tibialis Posterior
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that adducts, inverts, and plantar flexes the ankle.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 148
 Terms to Know
A-band
The region of a sarcomere where thick filaments exist.

Abductor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that abducts the thumb.

Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
An enzyme that degrades and inactivates acetylcholine.

Actin
The primary protein that forms the thin filament.

Adductor Brevis
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

Adductor Longus
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

Adductor Magnus
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes and extends, and medially and
laterally rotates the hip.

Aerobic Respiration
The process by which glucose or other nutrients are broken down in the presence of oxygen
(O₂) to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Agonist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction is the principal cause of a given body movement.

Anaerobic Respiration

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 The process by which glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP and
pyruvic acid.

Anal Triangle
The posterior portion of the perineum that includes the anus.

Anconeus
A muscle of the posterior forearm that extends the elbow.

Antagonist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction opposes the agonist in a given body movement.

Aponeurosis
A broad tendon-like sheet of connective tissue which attaches a skeletal muscle to a bone or
other structure.

Appendicular Muscles
Muscles of the arms and legs.

Axial Muscles
Muscles of the trunk and head.

Axon Terminal
The distal end of an axon which forms a synapse with another cell.

Belly
The large central mass or body of a muscle between the insertion and origin.

Biceps Brachii
The two-headed muscle of the anterior arm that flexes and supinates the elbow while flexing
the shoulder.

Biceps Femoris
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

Bipennate

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 A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are located on both sides of
the tendon.

Brachialis
A muscle of the anterior arm that flexes the elbow.

Brachioradialis
A muscle of the anterior forearm that flexes the elbow.

Brevis
The Latin/Greek term for ‘short”.

Buccinator
A muscle of the cheek which compresses the cheek.

Calcaneal Tendon
The connective tissue that connects the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles to the calcaneus.

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

A condition in which a nerve is compressed in the anterior wrist causing pain, numbness, and
tingling sensations in the hand.

Circular
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are arranged concentrically
around a body or organ opening.

Complete Tetanus
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases to its maximum due to
successive stimulations with no time for relaxation.

Concentric Contraction
An isotonic contraction in which the muscle shortens.

Contraction Phase
The second phase of a muscle contraction during which tension increases.

Convergent

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 A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles expand widely over a sizable
area on one end but then come together at a single, common attachment point on the other.

Coracobrachialis
A deep muscle of the anterior brachial region which adducts and flexes the shoulder.

Corrugator Supercilii
A muscle in the forehead which depresses and medially pulls the eyebrows.

Creatine Phosphate
A molecule that can store energy from ATP in its phosphate bonds and release it to produce
ATP.

Crossbridge
A bond between a myosin head and an actin subunit.

Deltoid
The superficial muscle of the shoulder which flexes, extends, medially and laterally rotates,
and abducts the shoulder.

Depolarize
The change in a cell’s membrane potential when it becomes less negative.

Diaphragm
A thoracic muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is the primary
control of the change in volume of the thoracic cavity during breathing.

Eccentric Contraction
An isotonic contraction in which the muscle lengthens.

Effort
An external force, or muscle contraction.

Endomysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle fiber.

Epicranial Aponeurosis

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 The tendon connecting the frontal and occipital bellies of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

Epimysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle.

Erector Spinae Group

A large collective of muscles of the back which perform extension, lateral flexion, and
rotation of the spine and/or neck.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The concept that the excitation of a muscle fiber is linked to its contraction.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis

A forearm muscle that extends the wrist.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus

A forearm muscle that extends and abducts the wrist.

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris

A forearm muscle that extends and adducts the wrist.

Extensor Digiti Minimi

A forearm muscle that extends digit 5.

Extensor Digitorum
A forearm muscle that extends digits 2–5.

Extensor Indicis
A forearm muscle that extends and adducts the joints of digit 2.

Extensor Pollicis Brevis

A forearm muscle that extends the proximal joint of digit 1.

Extensor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that extends the distal joint of digit 1.

Extensor Retinaculum

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 A band of connective tissue which extends over the posterior wrist.

External
The Latin/Greek term for “superficial”.

External Intercostals
Superficial intercostal muscles that elevate the ribs and expand the thoracic cavity.

External Oblique
The superficial muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

Fast Glycolytic Fiber

A muscle fiber which produces fast muscle contractions and primarily uses anaerobic
respiration.

Fast Oxidative Fiber

An intermediate muscle fiber which produces fast muscle contractions and primarily uses
aerobic respiration.

Fibularis Brevis
A short muscle of the lateral lower leg that everts and plantar flexes the ankle.

Fibularis Longus
A long muscle of the lateral lower leg that everts and plantar flexes the ankle.

First-Class Lever
A lever system that has the fulcrum in between the load and effort.

Fixator Muscle
A muscle whose contraction stabilizes the origin of the agonist of a given body movement.

Flexor Carpi Radialis

A forearm muscle that flexes and abducts the wrist.

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

A forearm muscle that flexes and adducts the wrist.

Flexor Digitorum Profundus

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 A forearm muscle that flexes the distal joints of digits 2–5.

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis

A forearm muscle that flexes the proximal joints of digits 2–5.

Flexor Pollicis Longus

A forearm muscle that flexes digit 1.

Flexor Retinaculum
A band of connective tissue which extends over the anterior wrist.

Frontalis
The frontal belly of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

Fulcrum
A fixed point that allows the lever to pivot.

Fusiform
Spindle-shaped; tapered.

Gastrocnemius
A superficial muscle of the posterior lower leg that plantar flexes and inverts the ankle and
flexes the knee.

Gluteus Maximus
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that extends and laterally rotates the hip.

Gluteus Medius
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that abducts and medially rotates the hip.

Gluteus Minimis
A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that abducts and medially rotates the hip.

Glycolysis
The chemical reaction which breaks down glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP
and pyruvic acid.

Gracilis

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 A femoral region muscle that adducts the hip and flexes the knee.

Graded Muscle Response

The ability of muscle contractions to be modified based on input from the nervous system.

H-zone
The region of a sarcomere that contains thick filaments only.

Hamstring
A group of three muscles in the posterior femoral region that flex the knee and extend and
medially rotate the hip.

Hypertonia
Abnormally high muscle tone.

Hypertrophy
An increase in tissue size.

Hypotonia
Abnormally low muscle tone.

I-band
The region of a sarcomere that contains thin filaments only.

Iliacus
A muscle of the iliopsoas muscle group that flexes the hip.

Iliocostalis Group
Lateral muscles of the erector spinae group.

Incomplete Tetanus
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases to just below its maximum due
to successive stimulations with little time for relaxation.

Inferior Gemellus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Infrahyoid Muscles

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 Muscles of the neck located below the hyoid bone.

Infraspinatus
A muscle in the infraspinous fossa of the scapula which laterally rotates the shoulder.

Innermost Intercostals
Deep intercostal muscles that act as synergists to the internal intercostals.

Insertion
The end of a skeletal muscle that moves during a contraction.

Internal
The Latin/Greek term for “deep”.

Internal Intercostals
Intermediate intercostal muscles that depress the ribs and compress the thoracic cavity.

Internal Oblique
The intermediate muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

Ischiococcygeus
A synergist muscle of the pelvic diaphragm that pulls the coccyx anteriorly.

Isometric Contraction
A contraction in which the muscle produces tension without changing the angle of a skeletal
joint.

Isotonic Contraction
A contraction in which the tension in the muscle stays constant and the muscle changes
length as the load moves.

Lactic Acid
The product of pyruvic conversion following glycolysis.

Latent Period
The first phase of a muscle contraction during which excitation and contraction are being
coupled but contraction has yet to occur.

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 Lateral Pterygoid
A muscle of the cheek that depresses, protrudes, and laterally shifts the mandible.

Latissimus Dorsi
A broad superficial muscle of the inferior back which extends, adducts, and medially rotates
the shoulder.

Levator Ani
The primary muscle of the pelvic diaphragm.

Lever
A simple machine that transfers force and consists of a rigid structure placed over a fulcrum
for the purpose of moving a load.

Linea Alba
The anterior midline of the abdomen formed by the joining of rectus sheaths.

Load
An object that has weight and mass.

Longissimus
The Latin/Greek term for “longest”.

Longissimus Group
Intermediate muscles of the erector spinae group.

Longus
The Latin/Greek term for “long”.

M-line
The point of attachment for thick filaments.

Masseter
A muscle of the cheek which elevates and protrudes the mandible.

Mastication
The anatomical term for chewing.

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 Maximus
The Latin/Greek term for “largest”.

Medial Pterygoid
A muscle of the cheek that elevates and medially rotates the mandible.

Medius
The Latin/Greek term for “medium-sized”.

Membrane Potential
A difference in electrical charge across a cell membrane.

Minimus
The Latin/Greek term for “smallest”.

Motor End Plate

The portion of the sarcolemma that participates in the neuromuscular junction.

Motor Unit
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates.

Multipennate
A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles wrap around the tendon.

Muscle Contraction Cycle

A repetitive series of events which lead to the shortening of a muscle.

Muscle Fascicle
A bundle of muscle fibers.

Muscle Tension
The force generated by the contraction of a muscle.

Muscle Tone
The level of muscle contraction that occurs at rest.

Myoblast

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 An embryonic stem cell which fuses to form skeletal muscle fibers.

Myofibril
A cylindrical organelle of muscle fibers composed of myofilaments.

Myofilaments
Protein filaments

Myogram
A representation of the amount of tension produced in a muscle over time.

Myosin
The protein that forms the thick filament.

Myosin Head
The bulbous region of a myosin molecule.

Myosin Neck
The flexible hinge that connects the myosin head and tail together.

Myosin Tail
The long, twisted portion of a myosin molecule.

Neuromuscular Junction
The synapse formed between the axon terminal of a neuron and the motor end plate of a
muscle fiber.

Neurotransmitter
A chemical messenger released from axon terminals to bind to receptors on a target cell.

Oblique
The Latin/Greek term for “at an angle”.

Obturator Externus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Obturator Internus

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 A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Occipitalis
The occipital belly of the occipitofrontalis muscle.

Occipitofrontalis
The muscle of the scalp which elevates the eyebrows, forehead, and retracts the scalp.

Orbicularis Oculi
The muscle around the eye which closes the eye.

Orbicularis Oris
The muscle around the mouth which shapes the lips.

Origin
The end of a skeletal muscle that remains fixed during a contraction.

Oxygen Debt
The amount of oxygen needed to compensate for ATP produced without oxygen during
muscle contraction.

Palmaris Longus
A forearm muscle that flexes the wrist.

Parallel
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are arranged in the same
direction as the long axis of the muscle.

Pectineus
A muscle of the adductor muscle group that adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the hip.

Pectoralis Major
A fan-shaped superficial muscle of the anterior thorax which flexes, adducts, and medially
rotates the shoulder.

Pectoralis Minor
A deep muscle of the anterior thorax which rotates the scapula, depressing the shoulder.

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 Pelvic Diaphragm
A muscle sheet in the pelvic floor which resists internal pressure.

Pennate
A pattern of muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles blend into a tendon that runs
through the central region of the muscle for its whole length.

Perimysium
A sheet of connective tissue which is wrapped around a muscle fascicle.

Perineum
The diamond-shaped space between the pubic symphysis, coccyx, and the ischial
tuberosities, just inferior to the pelvic diaphragm.

Piriformis
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that abducts and laterally rotates the hip.

Plantaris
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that plantar flexes the ankle and flexes the knee.

Popliteus
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that medially rotates the tibia and flexes the knee.

Powerstroke
The action of myosin pulling on actin, resulting in the shortening of the sarcomere.

Pronator Quadratus
A muscle of the distal forearm that pronates the elbow.

Pronator Teres
A muscle of the proximal forearm that pronates the elbow.

Psoas Major
A muscle of the iliopsoas muscle group that flexes the hip and lumbar spine.

Pyruvic Acid

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 A byproduct of glycolysis which can convert into lactic acid or be used by aerobic
respiration.

Quadratus Femoris
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Quadratus Lumborum
A muscle of the posterior abdomen which supports posture by performing lateral flexion of
the spine.

Quadricep Tendon
The tendon that attaches all quadricep femoris muscles to the patella.

Quadriceps Femoris
A group of four muscles in the anterior femoral region that extend and stabilize the knee.

Recruitment
The increasing activation of motor units in a muscle contraction.

Rectus
The Latin/Greek term for “straight”.

Rectus Abdominis
A pair of long, linear muscles of the anterior abdomen; sit-up muscles.

Rectus Femoris
The anterior quadricep femoris muscle that extends the knee and flexes the hip.

Rectus Sheath
The abdominal aponeuroses of the transversus abdominis and abdominal obliques.

Relaxation Phase
The third phase of a muscle contraction during which tension decreases.

Rhomboid Major
A deep muscle of the posterior thorax which adducts and inferiorly rotates the scapula;
inferior rhomboid muscle.

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 Rhomboid Minor
A deep muscle of the posterior thorax which adducts and inferiorly rotates the scapula;
superior rhomboid muscle.

Rotator Cuff
The circle of tendons around the shoulder.

Sarcolemma
The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber.

Sarcomere
The repeating unit of a muscle fiber that runs from Z-line to Z-line.

Sarcoplasm
The cytoplasm of a skeletal muscle fiber.

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
The specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which stores, releases, and retrieves calcium
ions.

Sartorius
A femoral region muscle that flexes the knee and flexes and laterally rotates the hip.

Second-Class Lever
A lever system that has the load in between the effort and fulcrum.

Semimembranosus
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

Semitendinosus
A hamstring muscle that flexes the knee and extends and medially rotates the hip.

Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Skeletal muscle cells.

Sliding Filament Model

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 A molecular model of a muscle contraction which explains how thin and thick filaments slide
relative to one another to cause a muscle to shorten or lengthen.

Slow Oxidative Fiber

A muscle fiber which produces slow, sustained muscle contractions and primarily uses
aerobic respiration.

Soleus
A muscle of the posterior lower leg, deep to the gastrocnemius, that plantar flexes the ankle.

Spinalis Group
Medial muscles of the erector spinae group.

Splenius Group
Muscles of the posterior neck which perform extension, lateral flexion and rotation of the
head and neck.

Sternocleidomastoid
A muscle of the anterior neck which performs flexion and rotation of the head and neck.

Subclavius
The muscle located underneath the clavicle that stabilizes and depresses the clavicle.

Subscapularis
A muscle in the subscapular fossa of the scapula which medially rotates the shoulder.

Superior Gemellus
A muscle of the lateral rotator muscle group that laterally rotates the hip.

Supinator
A muscle of the proximal forearm that supinates the elbow.

Suprahyoid Muscles
Muscles of the neck located above the hyoid bone.

Supraspinatus
A muscle in the supraspinous fossa of the scapula which abducts the shoulder.

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 Synaptic Cleft
A small space between two cells that neurotransmitter diffuses across in order to transfer an
electrochemical signal.

Synergist Muscle
A muscle whose contraction supports the agonist of a given body movement.

Temporalis
A muscle located superficial to the temporal bone which retracts and laterally shifts the
mandible.

Tensor Fascia Latae

A muscle of the gluteal muscle group that medially rotates the hip and extends the knee.

Teres Major
An inferior scapular muscle which extends and medially rotates the shoulder.

Teres Minor
An inferior scapular muscle which laterally rotates and adducts the shoulder.

Thick Filament
A myofilament composed of myosin.

Thin Filament
A myofilament composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.

Third-Class Lever
A lever system that has the effort in between the fulcrum and load.

Tibialis Anterior
A muscle of the anterior lower leg that dorsiflexes and inverts the ankle.

Tibialis Posterior
A deep muscle of the posterior lower leg that adducts, inverts, and plantar flexes the ankle.

Titin
An elastic protein connecting the thick filament to the Z-line.

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 Transverse Tubules
Invaginations in the sarcolemma which surround the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Transversus Abdominis
The deep muscle of the anterolateral wall of the abdomen.

Trapezius
A superficial muscle of the posterior thorax which stabilizes the scapula.

Treppe
A muscle contraction cycle in which muscle tension increases stepwise due to successive
stimulations with nearly full time for relaxation.

Triad
A formation of one transverse tubule with a portion of sarcoplasmic reticulum on either side.

Triceps Brachii
The three-headed muscle of the posterior arm that extends the elbow while extending and
abducting the shoulder.

Tropomyosin
A long, thin regulatory protein that covers the myosin binding site of actin when a muscle is
at rest.

Troponin
A regulatory protein that binds tropomyosin to actin.

Twitch
An isolated muscle contraction.

Unipennate
A pennate muscle fascicle arrangement in which the fascicles are located on one side of the
tendon.

Urogenital Triangle
The anterior portion of the perineum that includes the external genitals.

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 Vastus Intermedius
The quadriceps femoris muscle deep to the rectus femoris that extends the knee.

Vastus Lateralis
The lateral quadriceps femoris muscle that extends the knee.

Vastus Medialis
The medial quadriceps femoris muscle that extends the knee.

Wave Summation
The increase in muscle tension due to the effects of successive motor neuron signaling.

Z-line
The point of attachment for thin filaments.

Zone of Overlap
The region where thin and thick filaments overlap.

Zygomaticus
A muscle of the cheek which elevates and laterally pulls the lips.

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