Unit 1 Tutorials: Human Conception and

Genetics
INSIDE UNIT 1

Introduction to Lifespan Development

The Lifespan Perspective

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Attachment Theory and Attachment Styles
The Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Introduction to Cultural Differences in Development

Human Conception

Prenatal Development and Birth

Complications of Pregnancy and Delivery
Approaches to Childbirth
Labor and Delivery
Cultural Differences in Pregnancy and Childbirth

Genetics

The Evolutionary Perspective

Heredity and Chromosomes
Genetic Influences in Human Development
Chromosomal Abnormalities and Prenatal Testing
Culture and Prenatal Genetic Testing

The Lifespan Perspective

by Sophia

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  WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the lifespan perspective and the key principles of development.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Lifespan Perspective
1a. Development Is Lifelong
1b. Development Is Multidimensional
1c. Development Is Multidirectional
1d. Development Is Plastic
1e. Development Is Contextual
1f. Development Is Multidisciplinary
2. Culture and Development

1. The Lifespan Perspective

Lifespan development involves the exploration of the biological, cognitive, and psychosocial changes and
constancies that occur throughout the course of life. Though lifespan development has been presented as a
theoretical perspective, proposing several fundamental, theoretical, and methodological principles about the
nature of human development, an attempt by researchers has been made to examine whether research on the
nature of development suggests a specific metatheoretical worldview. Several beliefs, taken together, form the
“family of perspectives” that contribute to this particular view.

German psychologist Paul Baltes, a leading expert on lifespan development and aging, developed an approach
to studying development called the lifespan perspective. This approach is based on six key principles:

Development occurs across one’s entire life, or is lifelong.

Development is multidimensional, which means it involves the dynamic interaction of factors like physical,
emotional, and psychosocial development.
Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life.
Development is plastic, which means that characteristics are malleable or changeable.
Development is influenced by contextual and sociocultural influences.
Development is multidisciplinary.

Let’s take a look at each key principle in depth.

 TERM TO KNOW

Lifespan Development

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 Exploration of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial changes and constancies that occur throughout
the course of life.

1a. Development Is Lifelong

Lifelong development means that development is not completed in infancy, childhood, nor at any other specific
age. Instead, it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death. The study of development
traditionally focused almost exclusively on the changes occurring from conception to adolescence, as well as
the gradual decline in old age. Previously, it was believed that the 5 or 6 decades after adolescence yielded
little to no developmental change. The current view reflects the possibility that specific changes in development
can occur later in life, without having been established at birth. The early events of one’s childhood can be
transformed by later events in one’s life. This belief clearly emphasizes that all stages of the lifespan contribute
to human development.

Many diverse patterns of change, such as direction, timing, and order, can vary among individuals, and they
affect the ways in which people develop. For example, the developmental timing of events can affect
individuals in different ways because of their current level of maturity and understanding. As individuals move
through life, they are faced with many challenges, opportunities, and situations that impact their development.
Remembering that development is a lifelong process helps us gain a wider perspective on the meaning and
impact of events throughout life.

1b. Development Is Multidimensional

By multidimensionality, Baltes is referring to the fact that a complex interplay of factors influence development
across the lifespan, including biological (of and related to the natural processes of living things, like genetics),
cognitive (of and related to mental and thinking processes), and socioemotional (of and related to one’s social
and emotional health and well-being, such as understanding feelings, peer relationships, and relating to others).
Baltes argues that a dynamic interaction of these factors is what influences an individual’s development.

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 Individuals do not exist separate from other living and nonliving things; we interact with our environments to
varying degrees, which impacts our developmental trajectory.

Development, as indicated earlier, is not only a lifelong process but also multidimensional. We are developing in

various domains throughout our lives, including biological, social, emotional, physiological, psychological, and

cognitive.
Source: Adapted from birthto5matters.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Factors-which-influence-development-infographic-1024x1024.jpg

EXAMPLE Many of us have heard that the first 5 years of an individual’s life is a critical developmental
period. This is in part because of the tremendous amount of brain development during this time. The
experiences and interactions a child has with others in their environment, whether they are positive,
negative, or neutral, will impact the way the child perceives the world around them. Their language,
communication, and social skills will develop, each of which will further be impacted by the environment(s)
they are exposed to (e.g., home, school, daycare). This itself highlights the multidimensional nature of
development, as it is not restricted to a single domain but rather an interaction across all domains.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Multidimensional
A complex interplay of factors such as biological, cognitive, psychological, and environmental, which
play a role in development across the lifespan.

Biological
Of and related to the natural processes of living things (e.g., genetics).

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 Cognitive
Of and related to mental and thinking processes.

Socioemotional
Of and related to one’s social and emotional health and well-being (e.g., understanding feelings, peer
relationships, relating to others).

1c. Development Is Multidirectional

Baltes states that the development of a particular domain does not occur in a strictly linear fashion, but that
development of certain traits can be characterized as having the capacity for both an increase and decrease in
efficacy over the course of an individual’s life, which is multidirectional development. We can also understand
this from a fixed mindset versus a growth mindset lens, where development across the lifespan progresses
upward without fluctuations (fixed mindset), or development has ups and downs that are affected by and further
impact developmental outcomes throughout life (growth mindset). If we use the example of puberty, we can
see that certain domains may improve or decline in effectiveness during this time, which reflects the growth
mindset approach to development.

EXAMPLE Self-regulation (of and related to one’s ability to understand and manage an individual’s
behaviors, reactions, and thoughts, such as emotions, sleep, and eating) is one domain of puberty which
undergoes profound multidirectional changes during the adolescent period. During childhood, individuals
display difficulties in effectively regulating their actions, emotions, and behaviors, which may lead them to
behave without considering the consequences. Neuronal changes during puberty, however, help
individuals to begin regulating their emotions and impulses. This is done through changes in the prefrontal
cortex of the brain, as well as the limbic system, which lead to enhanced self-regulation skills. These
neuronal connections do not stop at puberty and will continue to develop.

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 This image illustrates that development should be viewed from a “growth mindset” lens as opposed to a “fixed

mindset” lens, because it is not unidirectional but multidirectional.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Multidirectional
The nonlinear changes that occur in development over the course of an individual’s life.

Fixed Mindset
Development is viewed as linear (from point A to point B).

Growth Mindset
Development is nonlinear, with both growth and deficits occurring over the lifespan and impacting
development.

Self-Regulation
One’s ability to understand and manage an individual’s behaviors, reactions, and thoughts, such as
emotions, sleep, eating.

1d. Development Is Plastic

Plasticity denotes intrapersonal variability, and it focuses heavily on the potentials and limits of the nature of
human development. The notion of plasticity emphasizes that there are many possible developmental
outcomes, and that the nature of human development is much more open and pluralistic than originally implied
by many traditional views. There is no single pathway that must be taken in an individual’s development across
the lifespan. Plasticity is imperative to current research, because the potential for intervention is derived from

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 the notion of plasticity in development. Undesired development or behaviors could potentially be prevented or
changed.

 TERM TO KNOW

Plasticity
Intrapersonal variations in the potential and limits of human development, with an emphasis on the
individual trajectories of developmental outcomes.

1e. Development Is Contextual

In Baltes’s theory, the paradigm of contextualism refers to the idea that three systems of biological and
environmental influences work together to influence development. Development occurs in context and varies
from person to person, depending on factors such as a person’s biology, family, school, church, profession,
nationality, and ethnicity. Baltes identified three types of influences that operate throughout the life course:

1. Normative age-graded influences: These are factors that are biological and/or environmental in nature and
are strongly related to an individual’s chronological age like menopause or puberty.
2. Normative history-graded influences: These are factors that are defined with a specific historical time
period and dictate the environmental and/or cultural context of development, such as the Chernobyl
nuclear disaster.
3. Nonnormative influences: These are factors impacting development that are unique to the individual, such
as divorce or pursuing a higher education.

Baltes wrote that these three influences operate throughout the life course, their effects accumulate with time,
and, as a dynamic package, they are responsible for how lives develop.

IN CONTEXT

Normative age-graded influences are those biological and environmental factors that have a strong
correlation with chronological age, such as puberty or menopause, or age-based social practices,
such as beginning school or entering retirement. Normative history-graded influences are associated
with a specific time period that defines the broader environmental and cultural context in which an
individual develops. For example, development and identity are influenced by historical events of the
people who experience them, such as the Great Depression, WWII, Vietnam, the Cold War, the War on
Terror, or advances in technology.

Nonnormative influences are unpredictable and not tied to a certain developmental time in a person’s
development or to a historical period. They are the unique experiences of an individual, whether
biological or environmental, that shape the development process. These could include milestones like
attending a higher educational institution, earning a master’s degree, or getting a certain job offer, or
other life events such as going through a divorce or coping with the death of a loved one.

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Contextual
Context-specific factors impact development across the lifespan.

Normative Age-Graded Influences

Factors that are biological and/or environmental in nature and are strongly related to an individual’s
chronological age.

Normative History-Graded Influences

Factors that are defined with a specific historical time period, and which dictate the environmental
and/or cultural context of development.

Nonnormative Influences
Factors impacting development that are unique to the individual.

1f. Development Is Multidisciplinary

Any single discipline’s account of development across the lifespan would not be able to express all aspects of
this theoretical framework. That is why it is suggested explicitly by lifespan researchers that a combination of
disciplines is necessary to understand development. Multidisciplinary is understanding development from
multiple disciplines, rather than from a single discipline. Psychologists, sociologists, neuroscientists,
anthropologists, educators, economists, historians, medical researchers, and others may all be interested and
involved in research related to the normative age-graded, normative history-graded, and nonnormative
influences that help shape development. Many disciplines are able to contribute important concepts that
integrate knowledge, which may ultimately result in the formation of a new and enriched understanding of
development across the lifespan.

 KEY CONCEPT

While Baltes’s lifespan development theory focuses on multidisciplinarity, it is important to understand that
interdisciplinarity is just as, if not more, important. Multidisciplinary, in the context of understanding
development, is defined as viewing the phenomenon through different disciplines without combining
disciplines and connecting the information. In contrast, interdisciplinary views development by relating the
information across disciplines to look at the concept of development from a larger lens. There are both
benefits and disadvantages to understanding development from a field-specific approach and field-
integrated approach; it all depends on what an individual is interested in learning about, as development is
so broad.

 TERM TO KNOW

Multidisciplinary
Understanding development from multiple disciplines, rather than from a single discipline.

2. Culture and Development

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 Culture is a broad term that encompasses beliefs, ideas, and practices about what is right and wrong, what to
strive for, what to eat, how to speak, what is valued, as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain
situations. Culture teaches us how to live in a society and allows us to advance, because each new generation
can benefit from the solutions found and passed down from previous generations. Culture is learned from
parents, schools, churches, media, friends, and others over the course of a lifetime. The kinds of traditions and
values that evolve in a particular culture serve to help members function in their own society and to value their
own society.

 BIG IDEA

Culture is an extremely important context for human development, and understanding development
requires being able to identify which features of development are culturally based. This understanding is
somewhat new and still being explored.
So much of what developmental theorists have described in the past has been culturally bound and can be
difficult to apply in various cultural contexts. For example, Erikson’s theory that teenagers struggle with identity
assumes that all teenagers live in a society in which they have many options and must make an individual
choice about their future. In many parts of the world, one’s identity is determined by family status or society’s
dictates. In other words, an individual has no choice, as this aspect of their identity is predetermined.

Even the most biological events can be viewed in cultural contexts that are extremely varied. Consider two very
different cultural responses to menstruation in young girls.

 DID YOU KNOW

In the United States, girls in public school often receive information on menstruation around 5th grade, get
a kit containing feminine hygiene products, and receive some sort of education about sexual health. On the
other hand, in some developing countries, menstruation is not publicly addressed, and girls on their period
are sometimes forced to miss school due to limited access to feminine products and unjust attitudes about
menstruation.
In some cultures, there are mythical tales surrounding menstruation, while in others, menstruation is believed to
be impure, unclean, and a problem. When the latter happens, women are ostracized from everyone, including
family, friends, co-workers, and loved ones, as anything that they touch is also considered impure.

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 This image illustrates the importance of understanding development from a cultural lens. By looking at the cultural
context, we become more apt at gaining insight and rationale of individual attitudes and behaviors and their

subsequent impact on developmental outcomes.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Think about your experiences with menstruation or the experiences of someone close to you. How would
this individual feel and behave if they were shunned by everyone close to them?

Now, take into consideration principles of Baltes' lifespan development, and think about how having a
negative attitude and mindset towards menstruation (a normal, biological process) can impact development
across physical, social, mental, and emotional domains.

 TERM TO KNOW

Culture
Set of beliefs, practices, and ideas that dictate how an individual behaves, thinks, speaks, eats, and
much more.

 SUMMARY

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 In this lesson you learned about the six key principles of lifespan perspective. Development is lifelong.
It is not completed in infancy, childhood, or at any specific age; it encompasses the entire lifespan, from
conception to death. Development is multidimensional. It spans different domains and factors at the
biological, cognitive, socioemotional, and physiological levels. Development is multidirectional. It does
not follow a linear trajectory but fluctuates across the lifespan. Development is plastic. It is variable at
the intrapersonal level with varying degrees of potential and limits. Development is contextual. It varies
depending on the context and setting, not to mention individual variation. Development is
multidisciplinary. It can be understood across disciplines, since it is a universal phenomenon.

In this lesson, you also learned about culture and development. Culture is extremely important for
human development, because it dictates how development is viewed. Cross-cultural similarities and
differences are necessary to recognize and highlight for a broadened understanding of development.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Tan, D. A., Haththotuwa, R., & Fraser, I. S. (2017). Cultural aspects and mythologies surrounding menstruation
and abnormal uterine bleeding. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 40, 121-133.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Biological
Of and related to the natural processes of living things (e.g., genetics).

Cognitive
Of and related to mental and thinking processes.

Contextual
Context-specific factors impact development across the lifespan.

Culture
Set of beliefs, practices, and ideas that dictate how an individual behaves, thinks, speaks, eats, and
much more.

Fixed Mindset
Development is viewed as linear (from point A to point B).

Growth Mindset

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 Development is nonlinear, with both growth and deficits occurring over the lifespan and impacting
development.

Lifespan Development
Exploration of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial changes and constancies that occur
throughout the course of life.

Multidimensional
A complex interplay of factors such as biological, cognitive, psychological, and environmental,
which play a role in development across the lifespan.

Multidirectional
The nonlinear changes that occur in development over the course of an individual’s life.

Multidisciplinary
Understanding development from multiple disciplines, rather than from a single discipline.

Nonnormative Influences
Factors impacting development that are unique to the individual.

Normative Age-Graded Influences

Factors that are biological and/or environmental in nature and are strongly related to an individual’s
chronological age.

Normative History-Graded Influences

Factors that are defined with a specific historical time period, and which dictate the environmental
and/or cultural context of development.

Plasticity
Intrapersonal variations in the potential and limits of human development, with an emphasis on the
individual trajectories of developmental outcomes.

Self-Regulation
One’s ability to understand and manage an individual’s behaviors, reactions, and thoughts, such as
emotions, sleep, and eating.

Socioemotional
Of and related to one’s social and emotional health and well-being (e.g., understanding feelings,
peer relationships, relating to others).

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 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the humanistic perspective and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Humanistic Perspective
2. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
2a. Physiological Needs
2b. Safety
2c. Love and Belonging
2d. Esteem
2e. Self-Actualization
3. Questions of the Hierarchal Structure

1. The Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective rose to prominence in the mid-20th century, in response to psychoanalytic theory
and behaviorism. Humanism emphasizes human potential and an individual’s ability to change, and it rejects
the idea of biological determinism, which is the idea that most human characteristics, physical and mental, are
determined at conception. The humanistic perspective focuses on how people develop and emphasizes an
individual’s inherent drive toward self-actualization and creativity.

Fundamental to the humanistic perspective is the notion that development is viewed as a continuous process
and is impacted more by the environmental and social circumstances of an individual, as opposed to genetics
or nature-related factors. Well-known humanistic theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, whom we
will be discussing in this lesson.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Humanism
A psychological theory that emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive toward self-actualization.
Humanism contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control
their own behavior.

Biological Determinism

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 The idea that most human characteristics, physical and mental, are determined at conception.

2. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

 PEOPLE TO KNOW

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was an American humanistic psychologist, who focused on the growth
potential of healthy individuals. He believed that people strive to become self-actualized. Self-actualized
people accept themselves and others as they are. They tend to lack inhibition and are able to enjoy
themselves and live relatively free of guilt.
Maslow is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs that motivate behavior. Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs is a psychological theory that describes a pattern through which human motivations generally move,
meaning that in order for motivation to occur at the next level, the individual must be satisfied with the previous
level.

Maslow's theories have greatly contributed to our understanding of the self. The stages of Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs include physiological needs, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Self-actualization,
according to Maslow, represents growth of an individual toward fulfillment of the highest needs.

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  TERM TO KNOW

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as
hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be mostly satisfied before
individuals are motivated to attend to higher needs.

2a. Physiological Needs

According to Maslow, the main physical requirements for human survival include maintaining body equilibrium,
food, water, sleep, shelter, and sex. Physiological needs include the need to breathe, eat, drink or sleep. The
moment we have these needs satisfied, we are motivated by the next level of needs.

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 2b. Safety
Once a person’s physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their safety begins to take precedence and
dominate behavior. We try to earn money, build up resources, and look for shelter that protects us against
danger. Once we are satisfied and feel safe, we have time to think about what we want next.

IN CONTEXT

In the absence of physical safety, due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, or
institutional racism, people may experience or re-experience post-traumatic stress disorder or
transgenerational trauma. Safety needs include the need for personal, emotional, financial, and
physical security.

In the absence of economic safety, due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities, these
safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures
for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, disability
accommodations, and more. This level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is more likely to predominate in
children, as they generally have a greater need to feel safe.

2c. Love and Belonging

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 Love and belonging includes the need for friendships, intimacy, and belonging. We desire to be close to family
and friends, and to belong to a society or join a club. The need for love and belonging is especially strong in
childhood, and it can even override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents.
Deficiencies within this level of Maslow’s hierarchy, due to hospitalization, neglect, shunning, or ostracism can
adversely affect the individual’s ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships. Moreover,
these experiences can significantly impact an individual’s development, which will be discussed in a later
tutorial.

2d. Esteem
Esteem is the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. At this stage we look for esteem, self-
confidence and respect from our peers. We want to be someone. For instance, if we have money, then we buy a
fancy watch. We have a brain, therefore we write, think, or work a lot. The motivation to perform and compete is
at its highest.

People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. Esteem needs are ego needs or status
needs. People develop a concern with getting recognition, status, importance, and respect from others. Most
humans have a need to feel respected, and this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect.

 TERM TO KNOW

Esteem
The human desire to be accepted and valued by others.

2e. Self-Actualization
The final level of Maslow’s hierarchy is self-actualization. In order to achieve the highest level, we first try to
achieve the lower level needs, including being able to eat, sleep, feel safe, belong to a group, and still feel
special. When we reach the highest level, we are able to accept facts for what they are, to relax, and to be
creative. The pressure that exists to meet specific needs is no longer there, unless any lower level needs
remain unmet or ignored.

Maslow describes self-actualization as the desire to accomplish everything that one can do, to become the
most that one can be. According to humanistic theory, self-actualization is a state of self-fulfillment in which
people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need
very specifically.

EXAMPLE One individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire
may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or inventions that
utilize their abilities and talents.

 REFLECT

Take a few minutes and reflect on your experience meeting your needs at each of the five stages of
Maslow’s hierarchy. Can you recall a time where you moved across levels of the hierarchy to satisfy your
needs? Did this happen more than once in your life?

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 Now ask one of your friends about their experiences meeting the needs highlighted in the pyramid. Do you
see any similarities or differences between your responses?

 TERM TO KNOW

Self-Actualization
A state of self-fulfillment, in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way.

3. Questions of the Hierarchal Structure

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs serves as a key foundation in understanding how drive and motivation are
correlated when discussing human behavior. Each of the needs highlighted in the levels requires motivation as
one progresses through the hierarchy. In looking at the hierarchical structure, many important questions arise.

First, there is the question of the direction of progress, as an ,individual moves within and across levels.
Originally, Maslow emphasized how lower level needs must be met before higher level needs are addressed.
From this initial concept, arose an awareness of the variability across individuals as to their perception and
importance of each basic need. For example, reproductive needs may be prioritized in some individuals but not
in others. Maslow clarified that meeting each particular need is not a criteria to achieving higher level needs.
When an individual has more-or-less achieved their basic lower level needs, the next level of needs become the
focus. It is also possible that before some lower level needs are fully met, an individual can meet higher levels
needs, such as self-actualization.

A second and related question is whether an individual moves in a unidirectional manner from the bottom of the
pyramid to the top of the pyramid. Since multiple factors can influence an individual’s needs at a certain point in
time in life, it is possible for multidirectional movement across the stages.

EXAMPLE An employee who has been thinking of starting a family (third stage of Maslow’s hierarchy),
might need to focus their attention on safety (second stage of Maslow’s hierarchy), in light of being laid off.
While this employee had previously established a sense of safety and security, unemployment would factor
into meeting needs at the second and third stages of Maslow’s hierarchy. This fluctuation is important,
because human life and development are dynamic, not static, and the hierarchy of needs makes room for
this fluctuation.

 BIG IDEA

The crux of Maslow’s theory is that individuals’ most basic needs must be met before they become
motivated to achieve higher-level needs. The goal is to achieve self-actualization.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson you learned about humanism, which emphasizes human potential and an individual’s
ability to control behavior and change, as well as the humanistic perspective that rejects the idea that

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 most human characteristics are determined at conception. You also learned about Abraham Maslow, a
humanistic psychologist famous for proposing a hierarchy of human needs that motivate behavior.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs describes five levels of human needs, including physiological needs,
safety needs, the need for love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. You also explored the
two main questions of the hierarchical structure.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990.

McLeod, S. (2007). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Simply psychology, 1(1-18).

Lazzara, J. (2020, June 26). Chapter 1: Intro to lifespan development. Lifespan Development. Retrieved
December 21, 2022, from open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/chapter/chapter-1-intro-to-lifespan-development/

 TERMS TO KNOW

Biological Determinism
The idea that most human characteristics, physical and mental, are determined at conception.

Esteem
The human desire to be accepted and valued by others.

Humanism
A psychological theory that emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive toward self-actualization.
Humanism contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and
control their own behavior.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted
as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be mostly satisfied
before individuals are motivated to attend to higher needs.

Self-Actualization
A state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way.

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 Attachment Theory and Attachment Styles
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about attachment theory and attachment styles. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. Attachment Theory
2. Attachment Styles
2a. Secure Attachment
2b. Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment
2c. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
2d. Disorganized Attachment

1. Attachment Theory
Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and learn to understand
and manage their feelings. In social and emotional development, forming healthy attachments is very important.
It is the major social milestone of infancy, and sets the foundation for relationships later in life. Attachment is a
long-standing connection or bond with another. Developmental psychologists are interested in how infants
reach this milestone. They ask such questions as:

How do parent and infant attachment bonds form?

How does neglect affect these bonds?
What accounts for children’s attachment differences?

 DID YOU KNOW

Researchers Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies designed to answer these
questions. In the 1950s, Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys.
In a preliminary experiment, he separated newborn monkeys from their mothers. Each monkey was presented
with two surrogate mothers. One surrogate mother was made out of wire mesh, and she could dispense milk.
The other surrogate mother was softer and made from cloth, but this monkey did not dispense milk. Results
showed that the monkeys preferred the soft, cuddly cloth monkey, even though she did not provide any
nourishment. The baby monkeys spent their time clinging to the cloth monkey, and only went to the wire
monkey when they needed to be fed. Prior to this study, the medical and scientific communities generally

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 thought that babies would become attached to the source of their nourishment. However, Harlow (1958)
concluded that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are
critical components of maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.

In a modified version of the first experiment, Harlow investigated differences

in behaviors between baby monkeys with a terry cloth mother that offered
no food, and baby monkeys with a wire mother that offered food (Harlow,
1958). While monkeys in both groups had similar physical growth and milk
consumption, remarkable differences emerged in stool composition.
Specifically, baby monkeys who were raised by a terry cloth mother passed
softer stools, which was indicative of psychological involvement between
the mother and baby monkey. The fact that this was absent from monkeys
raised by a wire mother provides evidence that biologically adept monkeys
are not necessarily psychologically adept. In other words, merely receiving
milk was not sufficient and optimal for a baby monkey’s development. A
deeper affection and connection to the mother was needed. This led to
further experiments to identify how maternal behaviors and environment
impacted baby monkeys’ development.

 KEY CONCEPT

Building on the work of Harlow and others, John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He
defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). He
believed that an infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver, in order to have normal social and
emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and
continues throughout life. He used the concept of a secure base to define a healthy attachment between
parent and child (Bowlby, 1988). A secure base is a parental presence that gives children a sense of safety
as they explore their surroundings. Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: the
caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs, and the caregiver and
child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969).

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 Mutually enjoyable interactions promote the mother-infant bond.

While Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth’s research showed otherwise.
Ainsworth wanted to know if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, how. To find the answers, she
developed an experimental procedure to study attachment between mothers and their infants. The procedure,
called Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure (SSP), features a sequence of eight, staged episodes (20
minutes total) that illustrate the type of attachment between an infant and their mother (Van Rosmalen, Van der
Veer, & Van der Horst, 2015).

Episodes 1-3: the mother (or primary caregiver) and the infant are placed in a new environment (play room)
together, and then a stranger enters the room.
Episode 4: the mother (or primary caregiver) leaves the room, and the infant and stranger are left together.
Episode 5: the stranger leaves the room, and the mother (or primary caregiver) returns.

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 Episode 6: the mother (or primary caregiver) leaves again, and the infant is alone in the room.
Episode 7: the stranger returns to be with the infant in the room.
Episode 8: the mother (or primary caregiver) also returns to be with the infant and stranger.

Based on how the infants responded to the separation and reunion with their mother (or primary caregiver),
Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments: secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth & Bell,
1970). A fourth style, known as disorganized attachment, was described later (Main & Solomon, 1990).

 BIG IDEA

While Ainsworth’s research has found support in subsequent studies, it has also met criticism. Some
researchers have pointed out that a child’s temperament may have a strong influence on attachment
(Gervai, 2009; Harris, 2009).
Temperament is defined as the inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and
self-regulation, and it can be measured by a person’s typical responses to the environment. Researchers have
also noted that attachment varies from culture to culture, a factor that was not accounted for in Ainsworth’s
research (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000; van Ijzendoorn & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008). Moreover,
administering the SSP requires resources trained and certified professionals, given the rigorous research
paradigm.

Newer methods for assessing attachment styles use a technique in which a large number of behaviors are
recorded on cards, and the observer sorts the cards in a way that reflects the type of behavior that occurs
within the situation.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Psychosocial Development
Psychological and social development that occurs as children form relationships, interact with others,
and better understand their feelings.

Attachment
The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual, such as the
primary caregiver.

Secure Base
A parental presence that gives children a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure (SSP)

A sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the type of attachment between a child and their mother
(or other caregiver).

Temperament
Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation, which is
measured by the person’s typical responses to the environment.

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 2. Attachment Styles
Attachment styles vary in the amount of security and closeness felt in the relationship, and they can change
with new experiences. There are four attachment styles:

Secure attachment
Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment
Insecure-avoidant attachment
Disorganized attachment

The type of attachment fostered in parenting styles varies by culture.

EXAMPLE Stereotypically, German parents value independence and Japanese mothers are typically by
their children’s sides. As a result, the rate of insecure-avoidant attachments is higher in Germany, and
insecure-resistant attachments are higher in Japan. However, these differences reflect cultural variation
rather than true insecurity (van Ijzendoorn and Sagi, 1999).
As we explore the four styles of attachment, consider which of these attachment styles may relate to you.

2a. Secure Attachment

The most common type of attachment—also considered the healthiest—is called secure attachment. A secure
attachment is one in which the child feels confident that their needs will be met in a timely and consistent way.
Securely attached children have sensitive caregivers, who are responsive to their needs. In Ainsworth’s Strange
Situation experiment, the securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room, and
when their caregivers returned, these children were happy to see them.

In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers their parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is used as a
secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. The caregiver is the base for
exploration, providing assurance and enabling discovery.

 KEY CONCEPT

In North America, this interaction may include an emotional connection in addition to adequate care.
However, even in cultures where mothers do not talk, cuddle, and play with their infants, secure
attachments can develop (LeVine et. al., 1994). Secure attachments can form, provided the child has
consistent contact and care from one or more caregivers. Consistency of contacts may be jeopardized if the
infant is cared for in a daycare with a high turn-over of caregivers, or if institutionalized and receives only
basic physical care. Infants who have not had the opportunity to attach in infancy can form secure
attachments several years later, they may have emotional problems related to depression or anger, or they
might be overly friendly as they make adjustments (O’Connor et. al., 2003).

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 In secure attachment, the parent provides a secure base for the toddler, allowing them to explore their environment

independently.

 BIG IDEA

Secure attachment is thought to be the result of caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to the child’s
needs, which can foster independence, confidence, and trust.

 TERM TO KNOW

Secure Attachment
A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of their
caregiver.

2b. Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment

Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment is marked by insecurity and resistance to engaging in activities or
playing away from the caregiver. It is as if the child fears that the caregiver will abandon them and clings
accordingly. Keep in mind that clingy behavior can also just be part of a child’s natural disposition or
temperament, and it does not necessarily reflect some kind of parental neglect. The child may cry if separated
from the caregiver, and also cry upon their return. They seek constant reassurance that never seems to satisfy
their doubt.

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 IN CONTEXT

This type of insecure attachment might be a result of not having their needs met in a consistent or
timely manner. Consequently, the child is never sure that the world is a trustworthy place, or that they
can rely on others without some anxiety. A caregiver who is unavailable, perhaps because of marital
tension, substance abuse, or preoccupation with work, may send a message to the child that they
cannot be relied upon for having their needs met. While a caregiver who attends to a child’s frustration
can help teach them to be calm and to relax, a child who receives only sporadic attention when
experiencing discomfort may not learn how to calm down.

In Ainsworth’s Strange Situation experiment, children with resistant attachment style tended to show clingy
behavior, but then they rejected the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them. These children did not
explore the toys in the room, appearing too fearful. During separation, children with resistant attachment style
became disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returned, the children were difficult to comfort.

Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment is thought to be the result of the caregivers’ inconsistent level of

response to their child, resulting in anxiety, fear, and lack of trust.

 TERM TO KNOW

Insecure-Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment
A pattern of attachment in which an infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident.

2c. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Insecure-avoidant attachment is an attachment style marked by insecurity. This style is also characterized by a
tendency to avoid contact with the caregiver and with others. This child may have learned that needs typically
go unmet, or that the caregiver does not provide care and cannot be relied upon for comfort, even sporadically.
An insecure-avoidant child learns to be more independent and disengaged. Such a child might sit passively in a
room filled with toys until it is time to go.

Children with insecure-avoidant attachment style are unresponsive to the parent or caregiver. The child does
not use the parent as a secure base and does not care if the parent leaves. The child reacts to the parent the
same way they react to a stranger. When the parent returns, the child is slow to show a positive reaction.
Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and
inattentive to their needs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978).

 BIG IDEA

Insecure-avoidant attachment is thought to be the result of caregivers who are insensitive and inattentive to
the child’s needs, resulting in insecurity and disengagement.

 TERM TO KNOW

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

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 A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant
seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.

2d. Disorganized Attachment

Disorganized attachment represents the most insecure style of attachment. It occurs when the child is given
mixed, confused, and inappropriate responses from the caregiver. It is a type of attachment that is marked by an
infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return.

EXAMPLE A mother who suffers from schizophrenia may laugh when a child is hurting, or cry when a
child exhibits joy. The child does not learn how to interpret emotions or to connect with the unpredictable
caregiver.
How common are the attachment styles among children in the United States?

 DID YOU KNOW

It is estimated that about 65 percent of children in the United States are securely attached. Twenty percent
exhibit avoidant styles, and ten to fifteen percent are resistant. Another five to ten percent may be
characterized as disorganized.
Children with disorganized attachment behave oddly. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or
try to run away when the caregiver returns (Main & Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen most often
in children who have been abused or severely neglected. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child’s
ability to regulate their emotions.

Disorganized attachment is thought to be the result of neglect, resulting in erratic behavior and deficits in the
child’s ability to regulate emotions.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Now that you are familiar with the four different types of attachment styles, let’s apply them to divorced
families and families going through a divorce. Think about the following questions:
1. What happens when a securely attached infant is forced to separate from their primary attachment
figure?
2. Do you think the duration of separation between an infant and their primary caregiver is important? If
so, how?
3. What can families and law professionals do to ensure that child attachment is not damaged during the
divorce process?

 TERM TO KNOW

Disorganized Attachment
A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure
and return.

 SUMMARY

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 In this lesson you learned about attachment theory and the attachment styles. There are four
attachment styles: secure attachment, insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment, insecure-avoidant
attachment, and disorganized attachment.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American psychologist, 13(12), 673-685.

Ainsworth, M. D., S., & Bell, S. M. V. Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-
year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 1970, 41, 49-67.

Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the
Ainsworth Strange Situation. Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention, 1, 121-160.

Gervai, J. (2009). Environmental and genetic influences on early attachment. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
and Mental Health, 3(1), 1-12.

Harris, J. R. (2009). Attachment theory underestimates the child. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32(1), 30-30.

Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., Pott, M., Miyake, K., & Morelli, G. (2000). Attachment and culture: Security in the United
States and Japan. American Psychologist, 55(10), 1093.

van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2008). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: Universal and
contextual dimensions. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and

LeVine, R. A., Dixon, S., LeVine, S., Richman, A., Leiderman, P. H., Keefer, C. H., & Brazelton, T. B. (1994). Child
care and culture: Lessons from Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.

O'Connor, T. G., Marvin, R. S., Rotter, M., Olrich, J. T., Britner, P. A., & The English and Romanian Adoptees Study
Team. (2003). Child‐parent attachment following early institutional deprivation. Development and
Psychopathology, 15, 19‐38.

Ainsworth, B., & Blehar, M. C. Waters, & Wall (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the
Strange Situation.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure (SSP)

A sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the type of attachment between a child and their
mother (or other caregiver).

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 Attachment
The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual, such as the
primary caregiver.

Disorganized Attachment
A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s
departure and return.

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant
seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.

Insecure-Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment
A pattern of attachment in which an infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident.

Psychosocial Development
Psychological and social development that occurs as children form relationships, interact with
others, and better understand their feelings.

Secure Attachment
A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of their
caregiver.

Secure Base
A parental presence that gives children a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings.

Temperament
Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation, which
is measured by the person’s typical responses to the environment.

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 The Nature vs. Nurture Debate
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the nature versus nurture debate, and how the epigenetics
framework combines the two perspectives. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Nature vs. Nurture Debate
2. The Epigenetics Framework
3. Types of Epigenetic Changes

1. The Nature vs. Nurture Debate

 BEFORE YOU START

Think about this: are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are
because of nurture (our environment, culture, and learned behaviors)?
That question is a longstanding enigma known in psychology as the nature vs. nurture debate. For decades,
scholars have carried on the nature vs. nurture debate, which seeks to understand the extent to which our
personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and the extent to which
they are shaped by our environment, including through our experiences with our parents, peers, and culture.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Why do biological children sometimes act like their parents—is it because of genetics, or because of
the early childhood environment and what the child learned from their parents?
What about children who are adopted—are they more like their biological families or more like their
adoptive families?
How can siblings from the same family be so different?

For any particular feature, those on the nature side of the debate would argue that heredity plays the most
important role in bringing about a feature in an individual. Nativism is the extreme nature position in the debate.
Nativism is the belief that human characteristics (e.g., personality, mental abilities, as well as hair color, eye
color, skin pigmentation) are a result of evolution and variation between and across individuals is due to
genetics.

The emphasis is on heritable traits, or traits that can be passed down from parents to offspring. The connection
of a trait to nature is strengthened by when the trait appears—the earlier it appears, the more it is attributed to

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 genetics.

Those on the nurture side of the nature vs. nurture debate, however, would argue that one’s environment is
most significant in shaping the way we are. Empiricism is the extreme nurture position. Empiricism is the belief
that the human mind is a blank slate at birth (also known as tabula rasa), and an individual’s experiences fill-in
this blank slate. If we take on this position of the nature-nurture debate, then any psychological and behavioral
characteristics are a result of learning. The only biological aspect is related to maturation; otherwise, how you
are raised governs infant and child development. This debate continues in questions about what makes us
masculine or feminine (Lippa, 2002), concerns about vision (Mutti, Zadnik, & Adams, 1996), and many other
developmental issues.

 BIG IDEA

Some people argue that our traits and abilities are set before birth, because who we are is based entirely
on nature—our genetics or biological makeup. Other people assert that who we are is a result of nurture—
our social relationships with others, the cultures and environments we live in throughout our lives, and our
lifestyle choices.

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The classic debate over whether human behavior is best explained by biological programming or social
and cultural influence.

Nature
The influences of biology and genetics on behavior.

Nativism
The belief that human traits and characteristics are a result of evolution, and variation between and
across individuals is due to genetics.

Heritable Traits
Traits that can be inherited or passed down from parents to offspring.

Nurture
Environmental, social, and cultural influences on behavior.

Empiricism
The belief that human traits and characteristics are the result of environmental influences.

2. The Epigenetics Framework

Now that you are familiar with the nature versus nurture debate, you might be wondering “is there a position
that incorporates both?” There can certainly be an interaction between nature and nurture, and this perspective
is called epigenetics. Epigenetics is the study of how environmental experiences affect genetic activity, without
changing the genetic makeup of an individual. They are reversible changes, and modify how our body reads
our genetic material (like when a gene is turned on or off).

 HINT

The prefix of epigenetics is epi-, which means above, meaning that the term epigenetic means above the
genome.
In epigenetics, we recognize that while we are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents,
such as eye color, height, and certain personality traits, there is also a deep interaction between our genes and
our environment. Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are
expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment (Diamond, 2009;
Lobo, 2008). There is a reciprocal interaction between nature and nurture, as they both shape who we become,
though the debate continues as to the relative contributions of each.

Most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of
any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture, and most scholars believe that even determining the
extent to which nature or nurture impacts a human feature is difficult to answer. In fact, almost all human
features are polygenic (a result of many genes) and multifactorial (a result of many factors, both genetic and

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 environmental). It is as if one’s genetic make-up sets up a range of possibilities, which may or may not be
realized depending upon one’s environmental experiences.

EXAMPLE A person might be genetically predisposed to develop diabetes or other chronic conditions,
or the person’s lifestyle (e.g., poor diet, lack of exercise) may help bring about the disease.
Developmental psychologist Gilbert Gottlieb has suggested that genetics and environment interact to affect
gene expression and developmental outcomes. An example of this is sickle cell anemia, a genetic disorder that
causes abnormal blood oxygen levels due to red blood cell characteristics. An individual with sickle cell anemia
can experience a sickle cell crisis when oxygen deprivation occurs, which can cause health complications. The
environment of an individual with sickle cell anemia will affect that individual’s phenotype, affecting gene
expression and developmental outcomes (Gottlieb 1998, 2000, 2002).

The following illustration shows how genetics and environmental influences combine to create a unique
phenotype for each individual. Phenotype refers to an individual’s inherited physical characteristics and
observable traits, such as height, eye color and blood type. A person’s phenotype is determined by both their
genetic makeup (genotype) and environmental factors. A person’s phenotype and genotype are determined by
their chromosomes.

 KEY CONCEPT

Chromosomes are long threadlike structures found in a cell nucleus that contain genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes that control or
partially control a number of visible characteristics, known as traits, such as eye color, hair color, and so on.

 TERMS TO KNOW

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 Epigenetics
The study of how environmental experiences affect genetic activity without changing the genetic
makeup of an individual.

Polygenic
A feature that is a result of many genes.

Multifactorial
A result of many factors, both genetic and environmental.

Phenotype
An individual’s inherited physical characteristics and observable traits, such as height, eye color, and
blood type.

Genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual.

Chromosomes
Long threadlike structures found in a cell nucleus that contain genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

The molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism.

3. Types of Epigenetic Changes

There are various types of epigenetic changes that can occur. Consider these three:

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Methylation. This is a process that adds molecules called methyl groups to a
specific place on the DNA, which shuts the gene “off” because the protein that normally attaches to a
particular location within the DNA to turn the gene “on” is blocked by the newly added methyl group. In
order to turn the gene back “on,” demethylation would have to occur.
Histone Modifications. Histone is a protein that provides structural support for a chromosome. Each
chromosome contains a long molecule of DNA, which must fit into the cell nucleus. To do that, the DNA
wraps around complexes of histone proteins, giving the chromosome a more compact shape. Histones play
a role in the regulation of gene expression. Typically, DNA wraps around histone proteins. The gene is
turned “off” when DNA is inaccessible due to tightly packed histones, which lends no access to proteins
that “read” the gene. Contrarily, if histones are loosely together or DNA is exposed in some way, proteins
that “read” and thereby turn “on” the gene can do so. Certain chemicals impact the extent to which
histones are packed together, which then dictates whether DNA is accessible or not and if the gene is “on”
or “off.”
Non-Coding RNA. This is DNA that also functions to instruct the coding and non-coding of ribonucleic acid
(RNA), which is a single-stranded molecule (as opposed to the double-stranded DNA) that converts the
genetic information contained within DNA to a format used to build proteins. Non-coding RNA can break
down coding RNA so that protein production does not occur, which further helps control whether a gene is

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 “on” or “off.” In the instance of histone modification, non-coding RNA can assist with modifying histones to
alter gene expression (Centers for Disease Controls and Prevention, 2022).

When you think about your own family history, it is easy to see that there are certain personality traits,
behavioral characteristics, and medical conditions that are more common than others. This is the reason that
doctors ask you about your family medical history. While genetic or inherited predisposition is important to
consider, there are also some family members who, for a variety of reasons, seem to defy the odds of
developing these conditions. These differences can be explained in part by the effect of epigenetic (above the
genome) changes.

 TRY IT

Let’s apply the epigenetics framework to your life. First, select any two traits that you are interested in
knowing more about. It could be anything from your IQ, to height, weight, hair color, or personality. On a
piece of paper, write one of the traits at the top and create two columns—one for nature and the other for
nurture. Write down things that you know about your trait that may be attributed to genetics or the
environment. For instance, if you select IQ, then consider the IQ of your immediate family and relatives. Do
you see a pattern emerging at all? Consider environmental factors such as education, family income,
physical activity, and parental occupation and their association with IQ. After you complete this activity with
one trait, do it for your other trait. In looking at the traits you selected, was one more easier to analyze from
the nature/nurture lens?

 TERMS TO KNOW

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Methylation

A process that adds molecules called methyl groups to a specific place on the DNA, shutting the gene
off.

Histone Modifications
Changes to histone proteins that provide structural support for chromosomes, influencing the
regulation of gene expression.

Non-Coding RNA
A form of RNA that can break down coding RNA so that protein production does not occur, which
further helps control whether a gene is “on” or “off.”

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

A single-stranded molecule that converts the genetic information contained within DNA to a format
used to build proteins.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson you learned about the nature vs. nurture debate. Nativists argue that our traits and
abilities are set before birth, because who we are is based entirely on nature–our genetics or biological
makeup. Empiricists assert that who we are is a result of nurture–our social relationships with others,

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 35
 the cultures and environments we live in throughout our lives, and our lifestyle choices. You also
learned about the epigenetic framework. Epigenetics is the study of how environmental influences
affect how genetic traits are expressed.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
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REFERENCES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 15). What is epigenetics? Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention. Retrieved December 30, 2022, from www.cdc.gov/genomics/disease/epigenetics.htm

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 18). What is sickle cell disease? Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention. Retrieved December 30, 2022, from www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/facts.htm

l Diamond A. The interplay of biology and the environment broadly defined. Dev Psychol. 2009 Jan; 45(1):1-8.

Gottlieb, G. (1998). Normally occurring environmental and behavioral influences on gene activity: From central
dogma to probabilistic epigenesis. Psychological Review, 105, 792-802.

Gottlieb, G. (2000). Environmental and behavioral influences on gene activity. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 9, 93-97.

Gottlieb, G. (2002). Individual development and evolution: The genesis of novel behavior. New York: Oxford
University Press.

Lippa, R. A. (2002). Gender-related traits of heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Archives of sexual
behavior, 31(1), 83-98.

Lobo, I. (2008) Environmental influences on gene expression. Nature Education 1(1):39

Mutti, D. O., Zadnik, K., & Adams, A. J. (1996). Myopia. The nature versus nurture debate goes on. Investigative
Ophthalmology & Visual Science. Retrieved May 03, 2011, from www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/37/6/952

National Human Genome Research Institute. (n.d.). Talking Glossary of Genomic and Genetic Terms.
Genome.gov. Retrieved January 4, 2023, from www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/

Newton, R. (n.d.). Genetics and Heredity. Human Growth and Development. Retrieved January 7, 2023, from
pressbooks.pub/mccdevpsych/chapter/2-2-genetics-and-heredity/

 TERMS TO KNOW

Chromosomes

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 Long threadlike structures found in a cell nucleus that contain genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

The molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Methylation

A process that adds molecules called methyl groups to a specific place on the DNA, shutting the
gene off.

Empiricism
The belief that human traits and characteristics are the result of environmental influences.

Epigenetics
The study of how environmental experiences affect genetic activity without changing the genetic
makeup of an individual.

Genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual.

Heritable Traits
Traits that can be inherited or passed down from parents to offspring.

Histone Modifications
Changes to histone proteins that provide structural support for chromosomes, influencing the
regulation of gene expression.

Multifactorial
A result of many factors, both genetic and environmental.

Nativism
The belief that human traits and characteristics are a result of evolution and any variations between
and across individuals is due to genetics alone.

Nature
The influences of biology and genetics on behavior.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The classic debate over whether human behavior is best explained by biological programming or
social and cultural influence.

Non-Coding RNA
A form of RNA that can break down coding RNA so that protein production does not occur, which
further helps control whether a gene is “on” or “off.”

Nurture

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 Environmental, social, and cultural influences on behavior.

Phenotype
An individual’s inherited physical characteristics and observable traits, such as height, eye color,
and blood type.

Polygenic
A feature that is a result of many genes.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

A single-stranded molecule that converts the genetic information contained within DNA to a format
used to build proteins.

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 Introduction to Cultural Differences in
Development
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about how cultural differences can impact aspects of development.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. What is Culture?
1a. Culture is a Set of Rules for Behavior
1b. Culture is a Characteristic of Groups
1c. Culture is Learned
1d. Within a Culture, Individuals are Embedded to Different Degrees
1e. Cultural Groups Borrow and Share Rules
1f. Cultural Behavior Proficiency is not Always Conscious
2. Why Study Culture & Development?

1. What is Culture?
Culture is often referred to as a blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that informs an individual's
life. It includes ideas about what is right and wrong, what to strive for, what to eat, how to speak, what is valued,
as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations. Culture teaches us how to live in a society.
Each new generation can benefit from the experiences and solutions passed down from previous generations.
Culture is learned from parents, schools, churches, media, friends, and others throughout a lifetime. The kinds
of traditions and values that evolve in a particular culture serve to help members function in a society and to
value that society.

 REFLECT

Think about the traditions you have experienced and the values that you have learned from the culture in
which you were raised. How have cultural traditions and values influenced your life?
We tend to believe that our own culture’s practices and expectations are the right ones. This belief that our own
culture is superior is called ethnocentrism and is a normal by-product of growing up in a culture. It becomes a
roadblock, however, when it inhibits understanding of cultural practices from other societies. Cultural relativity

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 is an appreciation of cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from
the standpoint of that particular culture.

Next we will explore the six essential features of culture.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s own culture is superior to other cultures.

Cultural Relativity
An appreciation for cultural differences and an understanding that cultural practices are understood
from a cultural standpoint.

1a. Culture is a Set of Rules for Behavior

Culture cannot be “seen,” because the rules are invisible. One can only see the products of culture—the
behaviors produced by the rules. Nevertheless, cultural rules do not cause behavior. Rather, they influence
people to behave similarly, in ways that help them to understand each other. Cultural rules help people know
how to hold a baby. Cultural rules shape food preferences and celebrations—they determine whether the sun or
the moon is celebrated, and whether to wear a dress or pants, or nothing at all. These rules give meaning to all
the events and experiences of life. The essence of culture is not these behaviors themselves, but the rules that
produce the behaviors.

EXAMPLE It is by understanding a culture’s rules that one knows how to greet a person younger than
oneself, older than oneself, a friend, or a stranger.

1b. Culture is a Characteristic of Groups

The rules of a culture are shared by the group, not invented by the individual. The rules of the group, which are
passed on from one generation to the next, from the core of the culture. One must remember, however, that in
addition to group cultural differences, there are individual differences. Each person develops a unique
personality as a result of his or her personal history, as they simultaneously develop in a cultural context with
some behavioral characteristics that are shared by other members of the group.

1c. Culture is Learned

No one is born acculturated (the process whereby an individual from one cultural group adopts or learns
aspects of another cultural group), rather, each person is born with a biological capacity to learn (Center for
Abuse & Treatment, 2014). What each person learns depends upon the cultural rules of the people who raised
them. Some rules are taught with words: “hold your fork in your right hand, and your knife in your left.” Other
rules are demonstrated by actions—when to smile, how close to stand when talking to someone, and so on.

 KEY CONCEPT

Because culture is learned, it is a mistake to assume a person’s culture by the way she or he looks.
Someone may be racially Black and culturally Irish. A person can also become bicultural or multicultural by
learning the rules of cultures other than his or her own primary cultural group.

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 What we eat and how we eat is behavior learned through culture.

 TERM TO KNOW

Acculturation
The process where an individual from a non-dominant cultural group adopts and/or learns aspects of
the mainstream cultural group.

1d. Within a Culture, Individuals are Embedded to Different Degrees

Culture is learned, and as children are acculturated, they usually learn the core rules of their culture, yet they
may not always learn each cultural rule equally well. Some families are more bound to tradition, others less so.
Furthermore, even though families and individuals learn the cultural rules, they may not always behave
according to what they have learned—some people are conformists while others are nonconformists.
Consequently, the behavior of members of a cultural group will vary, depending on how deeply embedded their
experiences are within the core of a culture. Thinking about behavioral variations in this way helps those who
work with individual families to understand why those from a similar culture do not share all culturally based
behaviors.

1e. Cultural Groups Borrow and Share Rules

Each cultural group has its own set of core behavioral rules and is therefore unique; yet some of the rules of
Culture A may be the same as the rules of Culture B. This happens because cultural rules evolve and change
over time, and sometimes when two groups have extensive contact with one another, they influence each other.
Thus, two groups of people may speak the same language, yet have different rules about roles for women.

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 Understanding of this concept helps to avoid confusion when a person from another culture is similar in some
ways, yet different in other ways.

The extent to which an individual borrows cultural practices, norms, etc. can be categorized in three ways:

Assimilation: Complete adoption of the mainstream cultural groups’ way of living (Boyer, 2001).
Segmented Assimilation: Aspects of cultural subgroups within the mainstream cultural group are adopted
(Xie & Greenman, 2011).
Biculturalism: Equal or mostly equal aspects of one’s own culture and another mainstream culture are
adopted (Schwartz & Unger, 2010).

 TERMS TO KNOW

Assimilation
The complete adoption of the mainstream cultural groups’ way of living.

Segmented Assimilation
An individual adopts certain aspects of cultural subgroups within the mainstream cultural group.

Biculturalism
An individual adopts equal or almost equal aspects of one’s own culture and another mainstream
culture.

1f. Cultural Behavior Proficiency is not Always Conscious

Acculturation is a natural process. As people become acculturated, they are often not conscious that their ideas
and behavior are being shaped by a unique set of rules. Just as a four-year-old who is proficient with language
cannot diagram a sentence or explain the rules of grammar, people may become thoroughly proficient with
cultural behavior, without consciously knowing that they are behaving according to rules. In the same way,
understanding acculturation explains why one cannot walk up to a person and ask him or her to explain their
culture.

 BIG IDEA

Culture is diverse and complex. Culture teaches people how to live in a society, and it helps give meaning
to the experiences of life. It is learned throughout a lifetime. The kinds of traditions and values that evolve in
a particular culture help members function in their own society and find value in their own society.

2. Why Study Culture & Development?

Culture is an extremely important context for human development, and understanding development requires
being able to identify which features of development are culturally based. This brings us to question whether
development is essentially the same for all children regardless of their culture (e.g., development is universal),
or if development is different based on the child’s environment and genetics (e.g., development is non-
universal). Is it possible that there is more overlap than not in development across cultures or are differences

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 more apparent than similarities? Most importantly, can we understand the impact of culture on a child’s behavior
or other developmental outcomes, or is it similar to nature vs. nurture where we recognize the impact but
cannot accurately quantify it?

Our understanding of cultural similarities and differences in development is a new arena. Developmental
theorists have typically described developmental phenomena from a culturally-bound lens, which indicates that
we cannot apply it to other cultural contexts.

EXAMPLE Erik Erikson, a psychologist, theorized that teenagers experience identity challenges, and all
teenagers live in societies where they have options and autonomy regarding their future. However, this is a
false assumption because in some countries identity is defined by societal norms, family status, etc.
Consequently, individual autonomy is not guaranteed for teenagers who live in these countries.
Biological events and responses to those events also differ across cultures. Let’s consider two extremely
different cultural responses to menstruation in young girls. Menstruation (also called a “period” or “menstrual
cycle”) occurs when a body disposes of the monthly buildup of the uterine lining. The lining is prepared for
pregnancy, but if pregnancy does not occur then hormone levels begin to drop and a woman’s body begins
menstruation. In the United States, public schools educate girls on menstruation around 5th grade, when they
receive a kit containing feminine hygiene products, and receive some form of sexual health education. This is in
contrast with some developing nations where menstruation is not publicly addressed, and girls may be forced
to miss school during their monthly period, due to negative stereotypes or attitudes about menstruation or
limited access to feminine products.

 BRAINSTORM

Imagine that you are a public health worker for a non-profit organization and are headed to a developing
nation where sexual health education and menstruation are not openly addressed. You recognize the
cultural limitations of addressing these topics, but one of your tasks is to create awareness among young
boys and girls, since this impacts their health, well-being, and development across the lifespan. In thinking
about your experiences, and what you have just learned about culture, answer the following questions:
Who is your target audience for this awareness and educational campaign (e.g., parents, teachers, boys
and/or girls)?
How do you plan on teaching your target audience the basics of sexual health and menstruation?
In what way will you adapt your educational materials so that they are culturally relevant?

While there are cultural differences in aspects of development, theorists have noted cultural similarities that
help illustrate universal components of development.

EXAMPLE Gleitman & Newport (1995) have found that children across the world reach language
milestones in a sequential manner. Infants begin cooing, then babbling, and then after about twelve months
they utter their first words. However, it is quite possible that depending on the environment, parenting style,
and other factors, a child can begin saying their first word(s) before or after twelve months. We see this with
bilingual children, who may utter their first words slightly later than children in a monolingual environment
(Meisel, 2004).
Some of the variations we see across universal developmental phenomena are best illustrated by motor
development in young children. Previously, researchers believed that motor development was linear and that

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 children, regardless of their cultural background, followed a specific path. However, research has shown that
the diversity in childcare practices can promote or inhibit the achievement of motor developmental milestones
(Karasik, Adolph, Tamis-LeMonda, & Bornstein, 2010).

EXAMPLE The Aché society in Paraguay spends a lot of time in the forests. Aché mothers tend to carry
their young children with them while foraging, and rarely place them down, in an effort to prevent them from
getting hurt. As a result, their children learn how to walk at around two-years-old, rather than after one year.
However, what appears to be a setback in the development of their walking abilities is actually reversed as
these children age. Since older Aché children are afforded more freedom to move about, their motor skills
have surpassed typical children in the U.S. by age 9. Aché children at this age can climb trees up to 25 feet
tall, and can use machetes to move through the forest (Kaplan & Dove, 1987).
When understanding cultural differences in development, we should view culture from a strength-based lens,
not a deficit-based lens. Each culture has its own beliefs and practices, which ultimately contribute to an
individual’s development. When we begin to compare developmental outcomes by culture, we should be
cognizant that just because something is not similar to our culture, it is not necessarily wrong. In the Aché
example above, parenting practices were different between cultures, which impacted not only the onset of
walking abilities, but also children’s behaviors later in life. Moreover, environmental exposures between the
cultures varied such that Aché children are more exposed to a forest environment, while some Western children
may not be exposed to any forest environment. Both environments, however, offer ample opportunities to
promote individual development. They are certainly different, but one is not better than the other.

IN CONTEXT

One area where we see cultural differences in developmental outcomes is sleep. We all need to
sleep, as it helps our body reset and much more. A lack of good quality sleep negatively impacts our
thoughts and behaviors. Assume that your toddler sleeps only seven hours, because she or he has a
late bedtime and needs to get up early for school. Your child is fussy in the morning and crawls back
under the blanket to sleep some more. Once your child is ready though, your child keeps yawning and
continues to do so throughout the day. Nighttime sleep impacts your child’s behaviors not only in the
morning, but also throughout the day in different settings and around different individuals.

At a glance, we can assume that an earlier bedtime would fix the issue—an earlier bedtime indicates getting up
earlier in the morning, so that the child is well-rested and ready to start his or her day. However, this may not be
culturally appropriate. In predominantly Asian countries, there are significant differences in bedtimes compared
to predominantly Caucasian countries. In a study by Mindell et al. (2010), children in Hong Kong had a bedtime
at 22:29 hours (10:29 PM) versus 19:46 hours (7:46 PM) among children in New Zealand. Bedtimes alone,
however, are not the only factor that influences sleep. Parenting practices vary, including how the child falls
asleep, co-sleeping practices, the quality and quantity of naps, and the time it takes for a child to fall asleep.
Some of these factors are dictated by an individual’s culture. For example, co-sleeping is more commonly seen
in Eastern countries than in Western countries.

In looking at the toddler in our scenario, we can see that the child is tired, but without understanding their
cultural background and family dynamics, we cannot effectively say that by educating the family to try to get

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 their child into bed earlier would solve the problem. In this family, a late bedtime might be occurring because
family members eat dinner together, and the family bonds after dinner. On the other hand, maybe the child is
not sleeping late but instead does not get to spend quality time with his or her parent(s) until the evening, and
consequently tries to postpone sleep as much as possible. The possibilities are endless, but keeping our minds
open to the meaning and importance of culture is of utmost significance, because it varies at the individual and
family level.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Universal
The belief that development is the same for all children regardless of their cultural background.

Non-Universal
The belief that development is not the same for children and varies by cultural background.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about what culture is and the characteristics of culture. You learned that
culture is a set of rules for behavior and cannot be “seen.” You also learned that culture is a
characteristic of groups of people, not individuals, and is passed down from one generation to the
next. It is a learned process and not something one knows at birth. Within a culture, individuals can be
embedded to varying degrees in a process called acculturation. Cultural groups borrow and share
rules from each other, which helps us understand how individuals and cultures evolve. It is possible that
individuals belonging to a cultural group may be proficient at cultural behavior but unable to describe
it. In why study culture and development, you learned that culture is a complex topic. While cultural
norms and expectations can dictate how we behave and more, our behaviors can also influence how
cultural practices can evolve. You were also introduced to development as a universal and non-
universal phenomenon. Culture is a lens we can use to understand development, and how cultural
practices enhance an individual’s developmental trajectory.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

REFERENCES

Boyer, P. (2001). Cultural assimilation. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 3032-
3035.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Improving Cultural Competence (2014). Rockville MD: Substance Abuse
and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series No. 59. Introduction to
Cultural Competence. Retrieved January 11, 2023 from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK248431/

Esquivel, K., Elam, E., Paris, J., & Tafoya, M. (n.d.). Chapter 12: The importance of culture. Infant Toddler
Development. Retrieved January 7, 2023, from wtcs.pressbooks.pub/infanttoddlerdev/chapter/chapter-12-the-

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 45
 importance-of-culture/

Gleitman, L. R., & Newport, E. L. (1995). The invention of language by children: Environmental and biological
influences on the acquisition of language. An invitation to cognitive science, 1, 1-24.

Kaplan, H., & Dove, H. (1987). Infant development among the Ache of eastern Paraguay. Developmental
Psychology, 23(2), 190-198.

Karasik, L. B., Adolph, K. E., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Bornstein, M. H. (2010). WEIRD walking: Cross-cultural
research on motor development. The Behavioral and brain sciences, 33(2-3), 95.

Lazzara, J. (2020, June 26). Chapter 1: Intro to lifespan development. Lifespan Development. Retrieved January
7, 2023, from open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/chapter/chapter-1-intro-to-lifespan-development/

Meisel, J. (2004). The Bilingual Child. In T. Bhatia & W. Ritchie (Eds.), The Handbook of Bilingualism. pp 91-113.
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Mindell, J. A., Sadeh, A., Wiegand, B., How, T. H., & Goh, D. Y. (2010). Cross-cultural differences in infant and
toddler sleep. Sleep medicine, 11(3), 274-280.

Schwartz, S. J., & Unger, J. B. (2010). Biculturalism and context: What is biculturalism, and when is it adaptive?:
Commentary on Mistry and Wu. Human development, 53(1), 26.

Xie, Y., & Greenman, E. (2011). The social context of assimilation: Testing implications of segmented assimilation
theory. Social science research, 40(3), 965-984.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Acculturation
The process where an individual from a non-dominant cultural group adopts and/or learns aspects
of the mainstream cultural group.

Assimilation
The complete adoption of the mainstream cultural groups’ way of living.

Biculturalism
An individual adopts equal or almost equal aspects of one’s own culture and another mainstream
culture.

Cultural Relativity
An appreciation for cultural differences and an understanding that cultural practices are understood
from a cultural standpoint.

Ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s own culture is superior to other cultures.

Non-Universal

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 The belief that development is not the same for children and varies by cultural background.

Segmented Assimilation
An individual adopts certain aspects of cultural subgroups within the mainstream cultural group.

Universal
The belief that development is the same for all children regardless of their cultural background.

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 Prenatal Development and Birth
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about conception, prenatal development, and factors that influence birth.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Prenatal Development
1a. The Germinal Period (Weeks 1-2)
1b. The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3-8)
1c. The Fetal Period (Weeks 9-40)
2. Prenatal Exposures Impacting Development

1. Prenatal Development
People endure quite an incredible journey before they are born. Think about it—when the timing and conditions
are just right, a tiny egg is released through the process of ovulation and unites with a single sperm out of
hundreds of millions to begin the process of fertilization. Genetic material from the mother and father join
together to form a completely new organism. This new organism has to continue to travel and implant in the
uterine wall in order to continue to grow and thrive. It is not an easy feat. It must grow and develop for
approximately 268 days before beginning life outside of the womb.

 DID YOU KNOW

Babies actually cry before birth, while they are in the mother’s womb (Chamberlain, 1989).
Today we have more knowledge and technology than ever before that has an impact on this process. We are
privy to tests that can give us a wealth of information even before we conceive. We have the ability to know the
genetic make-up of an embryo, before it is implanted in the womb. If you could choose all of the features of
your future baby, would you? What are the pros and cons? New parents also have the choice of the prenatal
care that they receive and how to prepare for labor and delivery. As you can see, the choices that are made
along the way, and the unforeseen surprises, make for a unique pregnancy and birth story.

Let’s explore this journey and start with some of the changes that take place during each of the three periods of
prenatal development:

The germinal period

The embryonic period

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 The fetal period

1a. The Germinal Period (Weeks 1-2)

Conception occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote, which begins as a one-cell structure.
The mother and father’s DNA is passed on to the child at the moment of conception. The genetic makeup and
sex of the baby are also set at this point. The germinal period, the first period of prenatal development (about
14 days in length), lasts from conception to implantation of the zygote (fertilized egg) in the lining of the uterus.

During the first week after conception, the zygote divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two
cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so on. The process of cell division is called mitosis. After the fourth
division, differentiation of the cells begins to occur as well. Differentiated cells become more specialized,
forming different organs and body parts. After 5 days of mitosis, there are 100 cells, and after 9 months there
are billions of cells.

 KEY CONCEPT

Mitosis is a fragile process, which occurs not only during pregnancy with the developing embryo but also
throughout our lives.
After the zygote divides for about 7-10 days, and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and implants
itself in the lining of the uterus. It’s estimated that about 60 percent of natural conceptions fail to implant in the
uterus. The rate is higher for in vitro conceptions (a sperm and egg are fertilized outside of the body in a
laboratory dish). Once the zygote attaches to the uterus, the next stage begins.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Conception
The initial step of pregnancy, in which a sperm fertilizes an egg..

Germinal Period
The first period of prenatal development, which lasts about 14 days.

Zygote

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 A one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge.

Mitosis
The process of cell division.

In Vitro Conception
A sperm and egg are fertilized outside of the body in a laboratory dish.

1b. The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3-8)

The embryonic period begins once the zygote is implanted in the uterine wall. It lasts from the third through the
eighth week after conception. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now blood
vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides
nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. The placenta also
carries away waste.

 KEY CONCEPT

During the embryonic period, cells continue to differentiate. Basic structures of the embryo start to develop
into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to
beat and organs form and begin to function. At 22 days after conception, the neural tube forms along the
back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain.

Growth during prenatal development occurs in two major directions: from head to tail (cephalocaudal
development) and from the midline outward (proximodistal development). This means that those structures
nearest the head develop before those nearest the feet, and those structures nearest the torso develop
before those away from the center of the body (such as hands and fingers).
The head develops in the fourth week, and the precursor to the heart begins to pulse. In the early stages of the
embryonic period, gills and a tail are apparent. But by the end of this stage, they disappear and the organism
takes on a more human-like appearance. At this point, the embryo is approximately 1 inch in length and weighs
about 4 grams. The embryo can now move and respond to touch.

 KEY CONCEPT

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 About 20 percent of organisms fail during the embryonic period, usually due to gross chromosomal
abnormalities. As in the case of the germinal period, often the mother does not yet know that she is
pregnant. It is during this stage that the major structures of the body are taking form, making the embryonic
period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to
harmful substances. Potential mothers are not often aware of the risks they introduce to the developing
child during this time.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Embryo
A multi-celled organism between two and eight weeks after fertilization.

Placenta
A structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing embryo
from the mother via the umbilical cord.

Cephalocaudal Development
Direction of growth during the embryonic period from head to tail.

Proximodistal Development
Direction of growth during the embryonic period from midline outward.

1c. The Fetal Period (Weeks 9-40)

When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus (an unborn human baby from nine
weeks after conception until birth). At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take
on the recognizable form of a human being, as the “tail” begins to disappear. From this point onward, a fetus
undergoes immense growth as it develops organs, and dramatically increases in length and weight.

IN CONTEXT

Between 9-12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the 12th week, the fetus has all its body
parts including external genitalia. In the following weeks, the fetus will develop hair, nails, teeth, and

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 the excretory and digestive systems will continue to develop. At the end of the 12th week, the fetus is
about 3 inches long and weighs about 28 grams.

At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed,
and fingerprints are visible. At this point, the fetus can kick, urinate, and swallow, and the taste buds
are developing.

During months 4-6, the eyes become more sensitive to light and hearing develops. Teeth, hair, fingernails,
eyebrows, and eyelashes begin to develop around the 5th month. At the same time the respiratory system and
reflexes such as sucking, swallowing and hiccuping continue to develop. Cycles of sleep and wakefulness start
to become present as well.

Throughout the fetal stage, the brain continues growing, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28. The
majority of the neurons in the brain have developed by 24 weeks although they are still rudimentary, and the
glial or nerve cells that support neurons continue to grow.

 KEY CONCEPT

The first chance of survival outside the womb, known as the age of viability, is reached at about 22 to 26
weeks (Moore & Persaud, 1998). By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks),
it weighs up to 1.4 pounds. The hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds but cannot feel
pain (Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1997). The internal organs, such as the lungs, heart,
stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to
survive outside of the mother’s womb.
Between months 7-9, the fetus is primarily preparing for birth. It is exercising its muscles, lungs begin to expand
and contract, teeth have formed under its gums, and development of fat layers under the skin starts to occur.
The fetus gains about 5 pounds and 7 inches during this last trimester of pregnancy which includes a layer of fat
gained during the 8th month. This layer of fat serves as insulation and helps the baby regulate body
temperature after birth.

Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long,
and by week 37, all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the
mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight
and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and
birth becomes imminent. In preparation for birth the fetus turns upside down.

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Fetus
An unborn human baby from nine weeks after conception until birth.

Age of Viability
The first chance of a fetus surviving outside of the mother’s womb.

2. Prenatal Exposures Impacting Development

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 Prenatal development is a critical and sensitive period of time for both the mother and the developing fetus.
There are many factors, positive and negative, that can impact development at any of the stages. It is outside
the scope of this tutorial to identify and highlight all of the possible factors that influence prenatal development
and birth due to their quantity, quality, and diversity.

Therefore, we focus on several considerations in determining the type and amount of damage that might result
from exposure to a particular teratogen (Berger, 2004). Teratogens are factors that can contribute to birth
defects which include some maternal diseases, drugs, alcohol, and stress. These exposures can also include
environmental and occupational exposures.

 KEY CONCEPT

Today, we know many factors that can jeopardize the health of the developing child with teratogen-caused
birth defects being potentially preventable.

The timing of the exposure. Structures in the body are vulnerable to the most severe damage when they
are forming. If a substance is introduced during a particular structure’s critical period (time of development),
the damage to that structure may be greater. For example, the ears and arms reach their critical periods at
about 6 weeks after conception so if a mother exposes the embryo to certain substances during this period,
the arms and ears may be malformed.

The amount of exposure. Some substances are not harmful unless the amounts reach a certain level. The
critical level depends in part on the size and metabolism of the mother.

Genetics. Genetic make-up also plays a role in the impact a particular teratogen might have on the child.
This is suggested by fraternal twin studies who are exposed to the same prenatal environment, yet do not
experience the same teratogenic effects. The genetic make-up of the mother can also have an effect; some
mothers may be more resistant to teratogenic effects than others.

Being male or female. Males are more likely to experience damage due to teratogens than are females. It is
believed that the Y chromosome, which contains fewer genes than the X, may have an impact.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 54
 Source: Adapted from pressbooks.pub/mccdevpsych/chapter/2-3-prenatal-development/

 TERM TO KNOW

Teratogen
A factor that can contribute to birth defects, which include some maternal diseases, drugs, alcohol, and
stress, among others.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson you learned about prenatal development and the three stages or periods of prenatal
development: the germinal period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period. The germinal period
(Weeks 1-2) is when conception has occurred and the zygote undergoes mitosis so that specialized
cells can later develop into different organs and body parts. Once the zygote attaches to the uterine
wall, the next prenatal stage begins. During the embryonic period (Weeks 3-8) development is
proximodistal and cephalocaudal. The head, heart, chest, and abdomen are beginning to develop. Not
only that, but the embryo is approximately 1 inch long and weighs 4 grams. During the fetal period

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 (Weeks 9-40) the fetus will develop its organs such as the eyes and brain, kick, swallow, and urinate
among other things. Most importantly, the fetus will start preparing for birth and turn upside down.

In this lesson you also learned about prenatal exposures impacting development. There are four
specific factors that determine the impact of teratogens on the developing child: exposure timing,
exposure level, genetics, and gender.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

U.S. National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). In vitro fertilization (IVF): Medlineplus medical encyclopedia.
MedlinePlus. Retrieved January 4, 2023, from medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007279.htm

Newton, R. (2022, October 28). 2.3 prenatal development. Human Growth and Development. Retrieved January
4, 2023, from pressbooks.pub/mccdevpsych/chapter/2-3-prenatal-development/

Lazzara, J. (2020, June 26). Chapter 2: Genetics and prenatal development. Lifespan Development. Retrieved
January 4, 2023, from open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/chapter/chapter-2-genetics-and-prenatal-development/

Moore, K. L., & Persaud, T. V. (1998). Before we are born (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. (1997). Fetal awareness: Review of research and
recommendations. Retrieved from www.rcog.org.uk/media/xujjh2hj/rcogfetalawarenesswpr0610.pdf Rome, E.
(1998). Anatomy and physiology of sexuality and reproduction. In The New Our Bodies, Ourselves (pp. 241-258).
Carmichael, CA: Touchstone Books.

Berger, K. S. (2005). The developing person through the life span (6th ed.). New York: Worth.

Chamberlain, D. B. (1989). Babies remember pain. Pre-and Perinatal Psychology Journal, 3(4), 297-310.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Age of Viability
The first chance of a fetus surviving outside of the mother’s womb.

Cephalocaudal Development
Direction of growth during the embryonic period from head to tail.

Conception
The initial step of pregnancy, in which a sperm fertilizes an egg.

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 Embryo
A multi-celled organism between two and eight weeks after fertilization.

Fetus
An unborn human baby from nine weeks after conception until birth.

Germinal Period
The first period of prenatal development, which lasts about 14 days.

In Vitro Conception
A sperm and egg are fertilized outside of the body in a laboratory dish.

Mitosis
The process of cell division.

Placenta
A structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing
embryo from the mother via the umbilical cord.

Proximodistal Development
Direction of growth during the embryonic period from midline outward.

Teratogen
A factor that can contribute to birth defects, which include some maternal diseases, drugs, alcohol,
and stress, among others.

Zygote
A one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge.

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 Complications of Pregnancy and Delivery
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about certain complications that can occur during pregnancy and delivery.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Common Pregnancy Symptoms
2. Major Complications During Pregnancy
3. Maternal Mortality
4. Miscarriage

1. Common Pregnancy Symptoms

There are a number of common symptoms of pregnancy. Not everyone experiences all of these, nor do women
experience them to the same degree and duration. And although they are considered “minor” these problems
are potentially very uncomfortable and could even be fatal depending on individual health and well-being.
These symptoms may include nausea (particularly during the first 3-4 months of pregnancy as a result of higher
levels of estrogen in the system; also referred to as ‘morning sickness’), heartburn, gas, hemorrhoids, backache,
leg cramps, insomnia, constipation, shortness of breath and varicose veins (as a result of carrying a heavy load
on the abdomen).

2. Major Complications During Pregnancy

There are many serious complications related to pregnancy that can pose health risks for the mother and child,
and which often require special care.

Gestational diabetes is when a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during
pregnancy.
Hyperemesis gravidarum is the presence of severe and persistent vomiting, which causes dehydration and
weight loss. It is more severe than the more common morning sickness.
Preeclampsia is gestational hypertension. Severe preeclampsia involves blood pressure over 160/110, with
additional signs. Eclampsia could mean seizures for a patient.
Deep vein thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs.

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 A pregnant woman is more susceptible to infections. This increased risk is caused by an increased immune
tolerance in pregnancy to prevent an immune reaction against the fetus.
Peripartum cardiomyopathy is a decrease in heart function which occurs in the last month of pregnancy, or
up to six months post-pregnancy.
Too little or too much amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus can be due to diabetes, incompatible mother-
baby blood types, birth defects, or uncontrolled diabetes. Excessive amniotic fluid increases pressure on
the uterus and can be a precursor to preterm labor. Too little fluid, on the other hand, may indicate growth
abnormalities, birth defects, or even stillbirth.
Ectopic pregnancy occurs when the zygote becomes attached to the fallopian tube before reaching the
uterus. About 1 in 50 pregnancies in the United States are tubal pregnancies, and this number has been
increasing because of higher rates of pelvic inflammatory disease and chlamydia (Carroll, 2007). Abdominal
pain, vaginal bleeding, nausea and fainting are symptoms of ectopic pregnancy.
Toxemia or blood poisoning due to kidney malfunction is experienced by 6 to 7 percent of women during
their last months of pregnancy. If untreated, toxemia can lead to preeclampsia or swelling and
hypertension, or even progress to eclampsia which can involve coma or death.

Maternity leave, as defined by the American Pregnancy Association, is the period of time that the new mother
takes off from work post-birth of her baby. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) affords certain employees
up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave per year, without being fired or laid-off, while maintaining their health benefits.
These play a significant role for expectant mothers, because pregnancy and its complications can occur at any
time and impact a mother’s ability to work. The same is also true for when work conditions impact pregnancy.

 DID YOU KNOW

Despite these assurances in place, the United States is the only country out of 41 similar nations that does
not require nationally paid maternity leave (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), 2018).
The graph below highlights the vast differences in nationally mandated leaves, with Estonia having the highest
at 83 paid weeks (includes maternity leave, paternity leave, and parental leave entitlements). However, only six
countries have allocated all of the paid leave toward maternity leave - Canada, Costa Rica, Israel, New Zealand,
Slovakia, and Switzerland.

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 Source: World Health Organization, UNICEF, United Nations Population Fund and The World Bank, Trends in Maternal Mortality: 1990 to 2015,

WHO, Geneva, 2015

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  THINK ABOUT IT

In looking at the graph and comparing and contrasting paid leave statistics for new parents, why do you
think the U.S., despite being a highly developed country, does not have such a mandate in place?

Pick another country on the list and research their parental leave. What are some things that stand out to
you (e.g., do both parents get a leave or just one parent, what is included in the parental leave)?

 TERMS TO KNOW

Gestational Diabetes
When a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy.

Hyperemesis Gravidarum
The presence of severe and persistent vomiting, causing dehydration and weight loss during
pregnancy.

Preeclampsia
Gestational hypertension that involves blood pressure over 160/110, with additional warning signs.

Deep Vein Thrombosis

The formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs.

Peripartum Cardiomyopathy
A decrease in heart function that occurs in the last month of pregnancy, or up to six months post-
pregnancy.

Ectopic Pregnancy
When the zygote becomes attached to the fallopian tube before reaching the uterus.

Toxemia
Blood poisoning due to kidney malfunction.

Maternity Leave
The period of time that the new mother takes off from work post-birth of her baby.

3. Maternal Mortality
 DID YOU KNOW

Maternal mortality is unacceptably high worldwide. About 295,000 women died during and following
pregnancy and childbirth in 2017. The vast majority of these deaths (94%) occurred in low-resource settings,
and most could have been prevented.
The high number of maternal deaths in some areas of the world reflects inequalities in access to quality health
services, and highlights the gap between rich and poor. The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in low-income
countries in 2017 was 462 per 100,000 live births, versus 11 per 100,000 live births in high-income countries.

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 The high number of maternal deaths in some areas of the world reflects inequities in access to health services
and highlights the gap between rich and poor.

 KEY CONCEPT

Women in less developed countries have, on average, many more pregnancies than women in developed
countries, and their lifetime risk of death due to pregnancy is higher. A woman’s lifetime risk of maternal
death is the probability that a 15-year-old woman will eventually die from a maternal cause. In high-income
countries, this is 1 in 5400, versus 1 in 45 in low-income countries. Every day in 2017, approximately 810
women died from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth.

Source: World Health Organization, UNICEF, United Nations Population Fund and The World Bank, Trends in Maternal Mortality: 1990 to 2015,

WHO, Geneva, 2015

Even though maternal mortality in the United States is relatively rare today because of advances in medical
care, it is still an issue that needs to be addressed. The number of reported pregnancy-related deaths in the
United States steadily increased from 7.2 deaths per 100,000 live births in 1987 to 23.8 deaths per 100,000 live
births in 2020 (Hoyert, 2022). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention define a pregnancy-related
death as the death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year of the end of a pregnancy—regardless of the

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 outcome, duration, or site of the pregnancy—from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its
management, but not from accidental or incidental causes.

MMR is not the same across the board as we observe differences by race, age, and ethnicity. The Division of
Vital Statistics reported that MMR among non-Hispanic Black women was 55.3 deaths which was significantly
greater in comparison to non-Hispanic White and Hispanic women in 2020. Similarly, mortality rates increase
with age so 13.8 among women under 25 and 107.9 among women 40-years and older.

Source: World Health Organization, UNICEF, United Nations Population Fund and The World Bank, Trends in Maternal Mortality: 1990 to 2015,

WHO, Geneva, 2015

 TERMS TO KNOW

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 Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR)
The ratio of the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births.

Pregnancy-Related Death
Death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year of the end of a pregnancy—regardless of the
outcome, duration, or site of the pregnancy—from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy
or its management, except from accidental or incidental causes.

4. Miscarriage
Pregnancy loss or spontaneous abortion is experienced in an estimated 20-40 percent of undiagnosed
pregnancies and in another 10 percent of diagnosed pregnancies. Usually, the body aborts due to chromosomal
abnormalities and this typically happens before the 12th week of pregnancy. Cramping and bleeding result and
normal periods should return after several months. Or it may be necessary to have a surgical procedure called
dilation and evacuation (D&E). Some women are more likely to have repeated miscarriages due to
chromosomal, amniotic, or hormonal problems; but miscarriage can also be a result of defective sperm (Carrell
et al., 2003).

 KEY CONCEPT

In the U.S., a pregnancy loss before the 20th week of pregnancy is referred to as a miscarriage, while the
term stillbirth refers to the loss of a baby after 20 weeks’ gestation. A woman must still go through labor or
a c-section to deliver her baby. Stillbirth affects about 1 in 160 births, and each year about 24,000 babies are
stillborn in the United States. That is about the same number of babies that die during the first year of life
and it is more than 10 times as many deaths as the number that occur from Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
(SIDS).
As you can see, what may seem like a simple process is in fact a beautiful and delicate journey. Each pregnancy
and birth story is unique and comes with surprises and sometimes challenges. As medical technology has
rapidly improved, women are empowered with more information and more choices when it comes to their
pregnancy and birth. However, just because interventions are available does not mean that this is the path for
all mothers. As we will learn later on, there are many cultural influences on pregnancy and birth-related
decisions.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Spontaneous Abortion
Loss of pregnancy.

Dilation and Evacuation (D&E)

A surgical abortion procedure.

Miscarriage
Loss of pregnancy before 20 weeks.

Stillbirth

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 Loss of pregnancy at or after 20 weeks.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson you learned about common pregnancy symptoms. There are a number of common
symptoms associated with pregnancy that may vary depending on the person, including nausea, gas,
heartburn, leg cramps, shortness of breath, and much more. There can be major complications during
pregnancy such as gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, deep vein thrombosis, and others that can pose
health risks to both the mother and the child. These can also impact maternal mortality, which you
learned was especially high among women in developing countries. Moreover, you learned how age,
race, and ethnicity can differentially impact maternal mortality here in the United States. You also
learned about miscarriage, and the likelihood of experiencing a miscarriage or stillbirth.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Carroll, J. L. (2007). Sexuality now: Embracing diversity (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson.

Lazzara, J. (2020, June 26). Genetics and prenatal development. Lifespan Development. Retrieved January 20,
2023, from open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/chapter/chapter-2-genetics-and-prenatal-development/

Maternal mortality rates and statistics. UNICEF DATA. (2022, July 12). Retrieved January 20, 2023, from
data.unicef.org/topic/maternal-health/maternal-mortality/

Carrell, D. T., Wilcox, A. L., Lowry, L., Peterson, C. M., Jones, K. P., & Erikson, L. (2003). Elevated sperm
chromosome aneuploidy and apoptosis in patients with unexplained recurrent pregnancy loss. Obstetrics and
Gynecology, 101(6), 1229-1235.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Deep Vein Thrombosis

The formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs.

Dilation and Evacuation (D&E)

A surgical abortion procedure.

Ectopic Pregnancy
When the zygote becomes attached to the fallopian tube before reaching the uterus.

Gestational Diabetes
When a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 65
 Hyperemesis Gravidarum
The presence of severe and persistent vomiting, causing dehydration and weight loss during
pregnancy.

Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR)

The ratio of the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births.

Maternity Leave
The period of time that the new mother takes off from work post-birth of her baby.

Miscarriage
Loss of pregnancy before 20 weeks.

Peripartum Cardiomyopathy
A decrease in heart function which occurs in the last month of pregnancy, or up to six months post-
pregnancy.

Preeclampsia
Gestational hypertension that involves blood pressure over 160/110, with additional warning signs.

Pregnancy-Related Death
Death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year of the end of a pregnancy—regardless of the
outcome, duration, or site of the pregnancy—from any cause related to or aggravated by the
pregnancy or its management, except from accidental or incidental causes.

Spontaneous Abortion
Loss of pregnancy.

Stillbirth
Loss of pregnancy at or after 20 weeks.

Toxemia
Blood poisoning due to kidney malfunction.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 66
 Approaches to Childbirth
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the various approaches to childbirth and locations for childbirth.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Approaches to Childbirth
1a. HypnoBirthing
1b. The Lamaze Method
1c. The Bradley Method
1d. Nurse-Midwives
1e. Water Birth
2. Locations for Childbirth
2a. Hospital Birth
2b. Home Birth
2c. Birthing Centers

1. Approaches to Childbirth
Prepared childbirth refers not only to being physically in good condition to help provide a healthy environment
for the baby to develop, but also to helping a couple to prepare to accept their new roles as parents. It also
refers to gathering information and providing training that will assist them in delivery and life with the baby as
much as possible. The more a couple can learn about childbirth and the newborn, the better prepared they will
be for the adjustment they must make to a new life. Nothing can prepare a couple for this completely. Once a
couple finds that they are expecting a child, they begin to conjure up images of what they think the experience
will involve. Once the child is born, they must reconcile those images with reality (Galinsky, 1987). Knowing more
of what to expect helps a couple in forming more realistic images, thus making the adjustment easier. Let’s
explore some of the methods of prepared childbirth.

 DID YOU KNOW

There is only one disposable organ, and it is called the placenta! Cells from the sperm and egg make both
the baby and the placenta. The placenta functions to nourish and support the baby while in the uterus. After
birth, there is no need for the placenta, so it is expelled through the vagina after delivery.

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  TERM TO KNOW

Prepared Childbirth
An approach to labor and delivery in which the parents are prepared for labor and delivery as well as
parenting roles through education and training.

1a. HypnoBirthing
Grantly Dick-Read was an English obstetrician and pioneer of prepared childbirth in the 1930s. In his book
Childbirth Without Fear, he suggests that the fear of childbirth increases tension and makes the process of
childbearing more painful. He believed that if mothers were educated, fear and tension would be reduced, and
the need for medication could frequently be eliminated. The Dick-Read method emphasizes the use of
relaxation and proper breathing with contractions, as well as family support and education (Dick-Read, 2004).
Today, this method is known as the Mongan Method, or HypnoBirthing (birthing while under hypnosis through a
calm state with visualizations). Women using this method report feeling like they are lost in a daydream but
focused and in control.

 DID YOU KNOW

In the term “HypnoBirthing,” notice that the prefix is “hypno,” which is derived from the Greek word hypnos,
who is the ancient Greek god of sleep. HypnoBirthing is birthing while under hypnosis. Hypnosis is a
trancelike state in which a person becomes more aware and focused on particular thoughts, feelings,
images, sensations, or behaviors. While under hypnosis, a person may feel calm, relaxed, and more
responsive to guidance or suggestion.

 TERM TO KNOW

HypnoBirthing
A birthing method where the mother is placed under hypnosis to induce a calm state with visualizations.

1b. The Lamaze Method

The emphasis of the Lamaze Method is on teaching the woman to be in control in the process of delivery. This
method originated in Russia and was brought to the United States in the 1950s by Fernand Lamaze. It includes
learning muscle relaxation, breathing through contractions, having a focal point (usually a picture to look at)
during contractions, and having a support person who goes through the training process with the mother and
serves as a coach during delivery. The Lamaze Method is still the most commonly taught birthing method in the
U.S. today.

 TERM TO KNOW

Lamaze Method
An educational practice that teaches a woman to be in control in the process of delivery.

1c. The Bradley Method

The Bradley Method is a birthing method that includes a series of courses that emphasize excellent nutrition
and exercise, relaxation techniques to manage pain, and the involvement of the partner as a coach. This

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 method originated in the late 1940s and helps women deliver naturally, with few or no drugs. Expecting parents
are educated on birth services and are in a better position to make decisions with regards to birth location, birth
attendants, and any birth procedures. In turn, this will lead to keeping mothers healthy and low risk in order to
avoid complications that may lead to medical intervention.

 TERM TO KNOW

Bradley Method
An educational practice that focuses on teaching expecting parents about nutrition and exercise,
relaxation techniques to manage pain, and involvement of the partner as a coach.

1d. Nurse-Midwives
A midwife is a person who is not a physician but assists women during childbirth. Historically in the United
States, most babies were born under the care of lay midwives. Lay midwives are midwives who are not formally
educated or trained. In the 1920s, middle-class women were increasingly using doctors to assist with childbirth,
but rural women were still being assisted by lay midwives. The nursing profession began educating nurse-
midwives to assist these women. Nurse-midwives continued to assist most rural women with delivery until the
1970s and 1980s when their growth was thought to have posed a threat to the medical profession (Weitz, 2007).

IN CONTEXT

Nurse-midwives are healthcare practitioners who work with women through pregnancy, childbirth, and
the postpartum period, including care of the newborn and gynecological concerns. Nurse-midwives
perceive the woman not simply as a patient. They seek to understand the woman’s physiological
health and the larger context of who they are. A nurse-midwife better understands the pregnancy from
the mother’s lens, her fears, why she is making certain decisions or not, her worries beyond
pregnancy, etc. Women who are at low risk for birth complications can successfully deliver under the
care of nurse-midwives (Kennedy, 1995).

Gynecology is a branch of medicine that specializes in women’s health issues, including the care of women
during pregnancy and childbirth, and in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the female reproductive
organs. An obstetrician and gynecologist (also referred to as an OBGYN) is a doctor who specializes in women’s
health and is not limited to pregnancy.

 KEY CONCEPT

While some hospitals give privileges to nurse-midwives to deliver babies within the hospital facility, they
may also deliver babies at home or in birthing centers. A nurse-midwife should not be confused with a
doula because while both nurse-midwives and doulas provide support during pregnancy, labor, and
postpartum care, a doula provides more emotional, social, physical, and informational support. Most
importantly, a doula is a staunch presence with the mother throughout childbirth and immediately
afterwards.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 69
  THINK ABOUT IT

If you were going to give birth, or help a friend or relative who is going to give birth, which approach would
you want to use or recommend to your friend or relative—HypnoBirthing, Lamaze, or Bradley? Would you
want a doctor, a nurse-midwife, or a doula to assist you? Why?

 TERMS TO KNOW

Midwife
A person who is not a physician who assists women during childbirth.

Lay Midwife
A midwife who is not formally educated or trained.

Nurse-Midwife
A healthcare professional who works with women through pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum
period, including care of the newborn and gynecological concerns.

Doula
A trained professional who offers consistent social, emotional, physical, and informational support to
empower the mother throughout her labor, delivery, and postpartum care.

1e. Water Birth

Laboring and/or giving birth in a warm tub of water (water birth) can help a woman relax. The buoyancy of the
water can help alleviate discomfort and pressure for the mother. Many hospitals have birthing tubs that allow
women to labor in them. However, only some hospitals allow for the birth to take place in the water. Some
believe that water birth gives a more calm and tranquil transition for the baby from the womb. Water births are
more common to occur at home or in birthing centers.

 TERM TO KNOW

Water Birth
Labor and/or delivery that occurs in a warm tub of water.

2. Locations for Childbirth

One of the many decisions that a mother must decide during her pregnancy is where she will deliver her baby.
Some of the approaches to childbirth may be limited based on the type of professional(s) available, their training
and experience, and resources available for childbirth. We will now discuss three locations where childbirth may
occur: hospital setting, at home, and/or a birthing center.

2a. Hospital Birth

Most births in the U.S. occur in hospitals. In most cases, mothers have the choice to have a medicated or
unmedicated delivery. Some women do fine with “natural methods” of pain relief alone. Many women blend

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 “natural methods” with medications and medical interventions that relieve pain. Building a positive outlook on
childbirth and managing fear may also help some women cope with the pain. Labor pain is not like pain due to
illness or injury. Instead, it is caused by contractions of the uterus that are pushing the baby down and out of the
birth canal. In other words, labor pain has a purpose.

 KEY CONCEPT

The most common pain relief method used during labor and delivery is an epidural. An epidural is a
procedure that involves placing a tube into the lower back, into a small space outside the spinal cord. Small
doses of medicine can be given through the tube as needed throughout labor. With an epidural, pain relief
starts 10 to 20 minutes after the medicine has been administered. The degree of numbness felt can be
adjusted. An epidural can prolong the first and second stages of labor, which will be discussed below. If
given late in labor or if too much medicine is used, then it might be hard to push the baby out when the time
comes.
Another form of pharmacologic pain relief available for laboring mothers is inhaled nitrous oxide (laughing gas).
This is typically a 50/50 mixture of nitrous oxide with air that is an inhaled analgesic and anesthetic. Nitrous
oxide has been used for pain management in childbirth since the late 1800s. The use of inhaled analgesia is
commonly used in the UK, Finland, Australia, Singapore, and New Zealand, and is gaining in popularity in the
United States.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Labor Pain
Pain that is caused by uterine contractions and pushes the baby down and out of the birth canal.

Epidural
A procedure involving placement of a tube into the lower back and administration of small doses of
medicine, as needed, throughout labor.

Inhaled Nitrous Oxide

Also known as laughing gas; a type of gas that provides pain relief.

2b. Home Birth

Because one out of every 20 births involves a complication, most medical professionals recommend that
delivery take place in a hospital. However, some couples choose to have their baby at home (this is called a
home birth) for many different reasons (e.g., cultural beliefs, privacy, familiar environment).

 DID YOU KNOW

About 1% of births occur outside of a hospital in the United States. Two-thirds of these are home births, and
more than half of these are assisted by midwives.
In 2017, women in the United States with out-of-hospital births were less likely to have risk factors such as
smoking during pregnancy, obesity, and teen births (MacDorman & Declercq, 2019). Furthermore, non-Hispanic
White women had the most out-of-hospital births.

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 Recent data shows a steady increase in home births from 2019 to 2021 (1.03% to 1.41%, respectively) in the
United States (Gregory, Osterman, & Valenzuela, 2022). This shift towards more at-home births has been, in
part, due to the coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemic, which has led more mothers to give birth in places other than
the hospital.

 TERM TO KNOW

Home Birth
Birth that occurs at home.

2c. Birthing Centers

A birthing center presents a more homelike environment than a hospital labor ward, typically with more options
during labor: food/drink, music, and the attendance of family and friends, if desired. Other characteristics can
also include noninstitutional furniture such as queen-sized beds, large enough for both mother and father, and
perhaps birthing tubs or showers for water births. The decor is meant to emphasize the normality of birth.

The amount of time a mother and her newborn spend at a birthing center is less than the amount of time a
mother and her newborn would spend at a hospital. At birthing centers, some mothers and babies require as
little as six hours of post-delivery care.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Since the amount of time a mother and her newborn spend at the birthing center is less, sometimes just six
hours post-delivery, do you think this can present any issues for the new family? Given that it may depend
on the family, mother, and baby, are six hours enough to get adjusted to such an important life transition
while also assessing the mother and baby’s health?
In a birthing center, women are free to act more spontaneously during their birth, such as squatting, walking, or
performing other postures that assist in labor. Active birth is encouraged.

One-third of out-of-hospital births occur in freestanding clinics, birthing centers, or in physicians' offices or other
locations. In 2010, hospital births comprised 98.8% of births in the United States, and 0.3% of births occurred at
birthing centers. In birthing centers, nurse-midwives and midwives provided care as opposed to a physician in
the hospital. The following pie charts illustrate the distribution of births based on place of delivery (Martin et al.,
2012).

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 72
  TERM TO KNOW

Birthing Center
A birthing facility with a more homelike environment than a hospital labor ward, offering amenities such
as music, food, drink, and attendance of family and friends.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about different approaches to childbirth, including HypnoBirthing, the
Lamaze method, the Bradley method, nurse-midwives, and water birth. You then learned about
different locations where childbirth can occur, such as a hospital birth, which is the most common type
of birth in the United States. At hospitals, mothers have more pain management options, such as an
epidural and inhaled nitrous oxide, which may not be available in home births. Other places where
childbirth occurs are at home and at birthing centers.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Dick-Read, G. (2004). Childbirth without fear: the principles and practice of natural childbirth. Pinter & Martin
Publishers.

Galinsky, E. (1987). The six stages of parenthood. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub.

Gregory ECW, Osterman MJK, Valenzuela CP. Changes in home births by race and Hispanic origin and state of
residence of mother: United States, 2019–2020 and 2020–2021. National Vital Statistics Reports; vol 71 no 8.
Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2022.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 73
 Kennedy, H. P. (1995). The essence of nurse‐midwifery care: the woman's story. Journal of Nurse‐Midwifery,
40(5), 410-417.

MacDorman, M. F., & Declercq, E. (2019). Trends and state variations in out‐of‐hospital births in the United
States, 2004‐2017. Birth, 46(2), 279-288.

Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Ventura SJ, et al. Births: Final data for 2010. National Vital Statistics Reports. 2012;16.
Available at: www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_01.pdf

Weitz, R. (2007). The sociology of health, illness, and health care: A critical approach, (4th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Thomson.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Birthing Center
A birthing facility with a more homelike environment than a hospital labor ward, offering amenities
such as music, food, drink, and attendance of family and friends.

Bradley Method
An educational practice that focuses on teaching expecting parents about nutrition and exercise,
relaxation techniques to manage pain, and involvement of the partner as a coach.

Doula
A trained professional who offers consistent social, emotional, physical, and informational support
and empower the mother throughout her labor, delivery, and postpartum care.

Epidural
A procedure involving placement of a tube into the lower back and administration of small doses of
medicine, as needed, throughout labor.

Home Birth
Birth that occurs at home.

HypnoBirthing
A birthing method where the mother is placed under hypnosis to induce a calm state with
visualizations.

Inhaled Nitrous Oxide

Also known as laughing gas; a type of gas that provides pain relief.

Labor Pain
Pain that is caused by uterine contractions and pushes the baby down and out of the birth canal.

Lamaze Method
An educational practice that teaches a woman to be in control in the process of delivery.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 74
 Lay Midwife
A midwife who is not formally educated or trained.

Midwife
A person who is not a physician who assists women during childbirth.

Nurse-Midwife
A healthcare professional who works with women through pregnancy, childbirth, and the
postpartum period, including care of the newborn and gynecological concerns.

Prepared Childbirth
An approach to labor and delivery in which the parents are prepared for labor and delivery as well
as parenting roles through education and training.

Water Birth
Labor and/or delivery that occurs in a warm tub of water.

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 Labor and Delivery
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the stages of labor and the process of labor and delivery. Specifically,
this lesson will cover:
1. The Three Stages of Labor
1a. The First Stage of Labor
1b. The Second Stage of Labor
1c. The Third Stage of Labor
2. The Process of Delivery
2a. Vaginal Birth
2b. Cesarean Section
2c. Vaginal Birth After Cesarean (VBAC)
2d. Induction

 WATCH

The journey of life is one filled with many ups, downs, twists, and turns. View this video to join Anais on her
journey of life.

1. The Three Stages of Labor

Knowing where to give birth and how to give birth is an important step in preparing for childbirth. A mother can
choose how and where to give birth or she may have to make a sudden decision based on the health and well-
being of her baby and resources available and accessible to her. But when does the mother know that she is
ready to deliver? What are the signs that her body is telling her that the baby is ready to come out?

 HINT

Labor is called labor because it is a lot of work!

1a. The First Stage of Labor

The first stage of labor is typically the longest. The first stage of labor begins with uterine contractions that may
initially last about 30 seconds and be spaced 15 to 20 minutes apart. These increase in duration and frequency
to more than a minute in length and about 3 to 4 minutes apart. Typically, doctors advise that they should be

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 called when contractions are coming about every 5 minutes. Some women experience false labor or Braxton-
Hicks contractions, especially with the first child. These may come and go and tend to diminish when the
mother begins walking around. Real labor pains tend to increase with walking.

During this stage, the cervix or opening to the uterus dilates to 10 centimeters or just under 4 inches. This may
take around 12-16 hours for first children or about 6-9 hours for women who have previously given birth. It takes
one in nine women over 24 hours to dilate completely. Labor may also begin with a discharge of blood or
amniotic fluid. If the amniotic sack breaks, which happens for one out of eight pregnancies, labor will be
induced if necessary to reduce the risk of infection.

Source: This illustration was authored by OpenStax College

 TERMS TO KNOW

First Stage of Labor

The longest stage of labor, which begins with uterine contractions that last about 30 seconds and are
spaced 15-20 minutes apart.

Braxton-Hicks Contractions
Contractions that may come and go but diminish with walking.

1b. The Second Stage of Labor

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 The second stage of labor involves the passage of the baby through the birth canal. This stage takes about 10-
40 minutes. Contractions usually come about every 2-3 minutes. The mother pushes and relaxes as directed by
the medical staff. Normally the head is delivered first. The baby is then rotated so that one shoulder can come
through and then the other shoulder. The rest of the baby quickly passes through. Once the baby is born, the
baby’s mouth and nose are suctioned out and the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.

Source: This illustration was authored by OpenStax College

 TERM TO KNOW

Second Stage of Labor

The stage of labor where the baby is passed through the birth canal and lasts 10-40 minutes with
contractions every 2-3 minutes.

1c. The Third Stage of Labor

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 The third stage of labor is generally less painful, at least when compared to the other stages. During this stage,
the placenta or afterbirth is delivered. This typically occurs within 20 minutes after the delivery of the baby. If
the vagina has torn during birth, then the tear may be stitched at this time.

Source: This illustration was authored by OpenStax College

 TERM TO KNOW

Third Stage of Labor

The last stage of labor where the placenta is delivered and occurs within 20 minutes of delivery.

2. The Process of Delivery

The main goal of pregnancy is to successfully deliver the baby. While some mothers prefer to plan ahead with
how they will deliver their baby, who will help deliver their baby, and/or who will be with them during labor and
delivery, other mothers do not plan to that extent. It is also normal for mothers to go into labor and then change
their mind on how they want to deliver their baby. Or, in some situations, a medical complication that presents
danger to mother or baby can require a change in how a mother envisioned the delivery process. In this
section, we will discuss four methods to deliver the baby: vaginal birth, Cesarean section, vaginal birth after
cesarean, and induced labor.

2a. Vaginal Birth

Vaginal birth is birthing the baby through the vagina. It is the most common process for delivering a baby and
usually the safest for both the mother and her baby. A vaginal birth typically occurs under spontaneous labor or
when labor is induced in complicated pregnancies or post-term pregnancies (Desai & Tsukerman, 2022). It is

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 79
 not recommended in situations including, but not limited to, mother presenting an infection (e.g., genital
herpes), atypical positioning of the placenta (e.g., placenta is lower in the uterus), and breech positions (e.g.,
footling breech).

 KEY CONCEPT

The key characteristic of vaginal birth is the consistent and timed ‘pushing’ that the mother is encouraged
to do so that the baby is brought down the vaginal canal. Post-delivery, the vaginal canal is examined for
tears which can happen during the birthing process.
Some of us may have heard people around us mention ‘breech birth’ at some point in our lives. What does it
mean when a baby is born breech or is in a breech position? During childbirth, the baby is usually in a vertex
position where his or her head is down so that the head is delivered first followed by the torso, legs, and feet. In
a breech birth, the baby’s position is reversed so that the feet or buttocks are pointed downward and would be
delivered first.

IN CONTEXT

Breech birth can present challenges and cause stress in both the mother and the professional
overseeing the delivery process. There might be a fear that the umbilical cord is wrapped around the
baby’s neck so the baby cannot breathe. A breech position can impact the mother’s birthing plan and
delivery overall. This situation can create a stressful environment for both the mother and the baby,
therefore, it is critical that the mother receives sufficient support and information from the people
around her to be able to deliver her baby safely.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Vaginal Birth
The process of delivering a baby through the vagina.

Breech Birth
When the baby’s position is reversed so that the feet or buttocks are pointed downward and would be
delivered first.

2b. Cesarean Section

Cesarean section, also known as C-section, or cesarean delivery, is the use of surgery to deliver a baby or
babies. A cesarean section is often necessary when a vaginal delivery would put the baby or mother at risk (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2021). There are many reasons why a C-section would be
performed including, but not limited to, twin pregnancies, breech birth, issues with the umbilical cord or
placenta, and mother’s existing health conditions. An important factor impacting the likelihood of a C-section is
the shape of the pelvis, as well as a previous C-section delivery. In the latter case, a vaginal birth after C-section
(which we will discuss in the next section) may be performed. C-sections are typically performed due to medical
reasons, however, a mother can also request a cesarean delivery and discuss the risks and benefits of doing so
with her healthcare provider.

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  TERM TO KNOW

Cesarean Section
The use of surgery to deliver a baby; also called a C-section.

2c. Vaginal Birth After Cesarean (VBAC)

Vaginal birth after cesarean (VBAC) refers to delivering a baby vaginally after having a C-section for the first
baby. Historically, women who had C-sections for their first child would also have a C-section for other children.
However, due to safety and other risks, a trial of vaginal birth after C-section was deemed more appropriate in
some situations. The benefits of VBAC include no surgical incisions, reduced risk of infection, and quicker
recovery (American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists, 2010; 2011).

 KEY CONCEPT

Although there are benefits to having vaginal births after cesarean births, VBAC is not recommended for
everyone, especially if the risks outweigh the benefits for mother, baby, or both.
Maternal and newborn death during labor and delivery is a global public health concern. According to the World
Health Organization (WHO), approximately 830 women die every day from preventable causes related to
pregnancy and childbirth. Additionally, around 2.4 million newborns die within the first 28 days of life each year
(World Health Organization, 2019; 2020). Efforts to improve access to healthcare, education, and resources for
pregnant women and their families can help to reduce these statistics.

 TRY IT

Countries around the world have varying rates for delivery methods (e.g., vaginal birth, C-section, etc.).
Factors such as geographical location (rural vs. urban), number of clinics, and access to healthcare
personnel impact how a baby is delivered.

Select a country, outside of the one where you are currently living in, where you would like to know more
about this topic. Take a piece of paper and on the left side write the country you are living in (e.g., United
States, Canada, etc.) and on the right side write the country that you are interested in researching further
(e.g, Sudan, Bolivia, Argentina, etc.).

Now, research both countries and compare and contrast their delivery methods. In researching your
countries, think about the following:
What are the rates of the different types of delivery (vaginal birth, C-section, VBAC, and
scheduled/unscheduled induction)?
Explain the different rates (e.g, why is vaginal birth higher than C-section and VBAC or why are VBAC
rates lower than vaginal birth)?
Did you find information about factors surrounding the decision to deliver vaginally or not? What were
those factors, if any?
What is one surprising fact that you learned about either country? Why was it surprising?
Did you notice more similarities or differences between both countries? Why or why not?

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  TERM TO KNOW

Vaginal Birth After Cesarean (VBAC)

A birth that occurs when the first-born is delivered using a cesarean section and the second child is
birthed vaginally.

2d. Induction
Contractions are a sign that the baby is almost ready to be delivered and can occur naturally or be induced.
Induced labor is defined as initiating labor through the use of medications, rupturing the amniotic sac, and other
methods. It can be scheduled or unscheduled depending on certain circumstances. A scheduled induction
occurs when the mother, in accordance with her gynecologist and/or healthcare provider, plans exactly when
labor will occur. This may happen due to personal and/or family preferences. An unscheduled induction, on the
other hand, usually occurs due to medical reasons where the health of mother and baby is at stake. A
gynecologist can opt for induction if the baby is past the due date, if the mother’s water breaks but labor does
not begin, or an infection.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Induced Labor
Initiation of labor through methods such as rupturing of the amniotic sac or medications.

Scheduled Induction
A pre-planned date where labor will begin to occur.

Unscheduled Induction
Labor is initiated, particularly due to medical reasons involving the health and safety of mother and/or
baby.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson you learned about the three stages of labor and how to differentiate among them (e.g.,
length and duration of contractions). During the first stage of labor the cervix dilates. During the
second state of labor birth occurs and the baby is delivered. During the third stage of labor the
placenta detaches and is expelled from the mother’s body. Every pregnancy and delivery is unique,
therefore the time that a woman spends in each stage can and will vary. You were also introduced to
the four processes of delivery. Delivery processes include vaginal birth, Cesarean section, vaginal
birth after Cesarean, and scheduled induction. The decision to choose either of these methods for
delivery rests upon the mother and the delivering healthcare provider. Ultimately, the goal is to deliver
a baby without presenting any risk or harm to the mother and her baby.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 82
 REFERENCES

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. (2010; reaffirmed 2017). ACOG practice bulletin no. 115:
Vaginal birth after previous cesarean delivery. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 116(2 Part 1), 450–463. Retrieved
January 11, 2023, from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20664418

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. (2011). FAQ: Vaginal birth after cesarean delivery:
Deciding on a trial of labor after cesarean delivery. Retrieved January 11, 2023, from
www.acog.org/Patients/FAQs/Vaginal-Birth-After-Cesarean-Delivery

Clinical management guidelines for obstetrician gynecologists. (n.d.). Retrieved January 31, 2023, from medi-
guide.meditool.cn/ymtpdf/952D113A-E18B-95C6-4450-BCBD6EF9154C.pdf

Desai, N. M., & Tsukerman, A. (n.d.). Vaginal Delivery. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved January 12, 2023,
from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559197/

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2021, February 22). Labor and birth. Office on Women's
Health. Retrieved January 22, 2023, from www.womenshealth.gov/pregnancy/childbirth-and-beyond/labor-
and-birth

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). What is vaginal birth after cesarean (VBAC)? Eunice
Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved January 11, 2023, from
www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/labor-delivery/topicinfo/vbac

World Health Organization. (2019, September 19). Maternal Mortality. World Health Organization. Retrieved
January 22, 2023, from www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality

World Health Organization. (2020, September 19). Newborns: Improving survival and well-being. World Health
Organization. Retrieved January 22, 2023, from www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/newborns-
reducing-mortality

 TERMS TO KNOW

Braxton-Hicks Contractions
Contractions that may come and go but diminish with walking.

Breech Birth
When the baby’s position is reversed so that the feet or buttocks are pointed downward and would
be delivered first.

Cesarean Section
The use of surgery to deliver a baby; Also called a C-section.

First Stage of Labor

The longest stage of labor, which begins with uterine contractions that last about 30 seconds and
are spaced 15-20 minutes apart.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 83
 Induced Labor
Initiation of labor through methods such as rupturing of the amniotic sac or medications.

Scheduled Induction
A pre-planned date where labor will begin to occur.

Second Stage of Labor

The stage of labor where the baby is passed through the birth canal and it lasts 10-40 minutes with
contractions every 2-3 minutes.

Third Stage of Labor

The last stage of labor where the placenta is delivered and occurs within 20 minutes of delivery.

Unscheduled Induction
Labor is initiated, particularly due to medical reasons involving the health and safety of mother
and/or baby.

Vaginal Birth
The process of delivering a baby through the vagina.

Vaginal Birth After Cesarean

A birth that occurs when the first-born is delivered using a Cesarean section and the second child
is birthed vaginally.

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 Cultural Differences in Pregnancy and Childbirth
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the different cultural norms and practices surrounding pregnancy
and childbirth.
1. Cultural Experiences of Pregnancy and Childbirth
2. Cultural Views About the Placenta

 WATCH

View this video to learn about cultural differences in childbirth.

1. Cultural Experiences of Pregnancy and

Childbirth
 BRAINSTORM

When you read or hear the term ‘childbirth,’ what are some things that come to your mind? Take a piece of
paper and write down your thoughts about childbirth. Now take a look at what you wrote and see if you
notice any patterns. Are you associating childbirth with emotions, feelings, normalcy? Do you have a
definition of ‘normal childbirth’? Write down your thoughts about what ‘normal childbirth’ means to you.
Childbirth is a broad term that encompasses different events that occur throughout labor and delivery. Some
describe childbirth as beautiful, a miracle, and a rite of passage. Others may think of pain, fear, and discomfort.
Labor and delivery is not an easy feat!

Culture plays a very important role in pregnancy and childbirth. There are similarities and differences in
childbirth practices across cultures. This lesson does not cover all cultures throughout the world. Rather, it
provides a glimpse into the topic with examples. Regardless of culture, behaviors and practices during
pregnancy and childbirth influence postpartum behaviors. For these reasons pregnancy and childbirth are
inextricably linked.

We know that cultures, to some extent, are defined by their geographical location. Therefore, we can expect
differences and evolving cultural practices as they relate to childbirth. This is supported by research looking at
mothers in seven nations (Chalmers, 2012):

North America: United States and Canada

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 Western Europe: United Kingdom
Eastern Europe: Moldova, and Lithuania
Eastern Europe/Western Asia: Azerbaijan
Northern Asia: Russia

The results of Chalmers’ research indicated varying rates of induced labor, C-sections, and partner presence
during labor.
Induced labor was more common (between 33 percent and 55 percent of all labors) in all countries except
for Moldova and Lithuania where less than 20 percent of labors were induced.
C-sections were also more likely in Western countries as opposed to Moldova, Azerbaijan, and Lithuania.
With the exception of the United States, the United Kingdom, and Lithuania, a partner’s presence during
labor was uncommon.

 KEY CONCEPT

There are many factors that impact the likelihood of a C-section and induced labor like available and
accessible healthcare providers, trained healthcare providers, and sterilized equipment. However, cultural
perceptions towards ‘outside help’ and anything that deviates from a natural birth are just as important.
Whether or not a culture accepts these forms of childbirth methods and a mother’s perceptions of these
methods interact to form the matrix highlighted below.

In the table above, cultural practices and/or norms towards pregnancy and childbirth are categorized across the
top. Along the left side of the table the mother’s perceptions or willingness to utilize those methods are
categorized. When there is complete alignment between a mother and the cultural norms there is no
discrepancy. Both agree or both disagree. In this case we assume that there is little to no problem. However,
this is not always the case. In some instances, an important issue may arise in which the mother and the culture
do not agree on a practice even though from a medical perspective, the practice can be life-saving for mother
and/or the baby.

EXAMPLE Women in Zambia are expected to not cry and shout during childbirth, otherwise the baby
could die.
A similar situation arises when both mother and culture agree on a practice but it is counterintuitive and may do
more harm than good. In other words, something is being practiced but rationally and/or through evidence we
know it should not be done because it can potentially harm a mother and her baby. When this happens, cultural

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 practices should evolve, to a certain degree, to align with best care practices so that the health of mother, baby,
and society are not further compromised.

EXAMPLE Zambian women utilize different methods to speed up labor (e.g., placing a finger or cooking
stick in mother’s mouth so she gags which results in opening the uterus) or removing the placenta by
placing the hand into the vagina (Maimbolwa, Yamba, Diwan, & Ransjö-Arvidson, 2003).
We cannot definitively say that one type of disconnect between a mother’s perspective and cultural perspective
—whether they agree or disagree on a practice—causes more harm than the other. As we can see from the
examples above, it depends on the type of practice and individual-level factors.

Let’s now consider the discrepancy occurring where either the mother finds a childbirth method appealing or
necessary, and the culture goes against it, or vice versa. We assume that this conflict also significantly impacts a
mother’s and baby’s health on many levels.

EXAMPLE Asian-Indian culture is rooted in many traditions that impact a pregnant woman and her baby.
These range from forbidden foods (e.g., papaya) to a required at-home rest period postpartum with
restrictions on who has access to mother and baby (Cousik & Hickey, 2016; Goyal, 2016; Grewal et al.,
2008; Naser et al., 2012; Wells & Dietsch, 2014). To highlight this further, a mother and her newborn are not
allowed to have outside visitors and cannot go outside of the house for the first forty-days. From a cultural
perspective, this is to protect the mother and baby from negative influences (or the ‘evil eye’ as it is
sometimes culturally referred to). But, let’s think about it from a mother’s point of view. She has just given
birth to her baby and is not allowed outside her house and cannot invite many people over who may be
able to support her during this sensitive period. A mother is overcome with emotions that she may need the
support of her family, friends, relatives, and neighbors but is not allowed to do so. She may want to take a
breath of fresh air and expose her baby to nature and its beauty, but again, it is highly frowned upon
depending on the family and their belief systems.
For immigrant Asian-Indians, there is a clash between the U.S. and Indian cultures when it comes to what a
pregnant woman can and cannot do (George, Shin, & Habermann, 2022). Indian mothers are expected to rest,
limit strenuous activity, and only do light work if necessary. This is in comparison to mothers in the U.S. who are
encouraged to remain active and go about their daily activities as much as possible.

When this conflict arises, it places the mother in a precarious position - should she do what she feels is best or
should she follow her root culture even if she is uncomfortable and disagrees with it? If she goes against the
dominant culture’s practices, then she might be socially ostracized by the other culture. We can ask many
questions around this scenario but in the end, the mother faces the consequences of her actions. This is not to
say that every Asian-Indian immigrant mother shares the same experiences.

IN CONTEXT

Tibetan culture also offers us an exceptional example of how culture impacts pregnancy and childbirth
(Craig, 2009). Sienna R. Craig is an anthropologist who immerses herself in Tibetan culture and ways
of living. She provides an account of a mother and illustrates her in-depth experiences while also
analyzing this in the larger global health context. In Craig’s paper, a woman who goes by the
pseudonym Lhakpa Droma describes her four pregnancies of which only two children survived.

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 Lhakpa expresses her inner conflict because she has to work, otherwise she will be perceived weak,
and a weak mother cannot effectively deliver a baby. She delivered her youngest child in a corner of
her home with only her husband at her side. She used a knife to cut her baby’s umbilical cord and
washed the knife afterwards. Why afterwards? Because childbirth blood is considered defiled
according to Tibetan culture, therefore instead of sanitizing the knife beforehand, it is sanitized
afterwards.

Lhakpa’s experiences are rooted in how Tibetan culture views pregnancy and childbirth. A mother’s perception
of things happening around her and with her are key to her well-being. Throughout her discourse with the
anthropologist, Lhakpa appears uncomfortable to discuss details involving pregnancy and how she told her
husband about their baby in her third or fourth month. In Tibetan culture, it is common to avoid telling others
that you are pregnant because mothers who have difficulty conceiving may become jealous or harbor negative
feelings. However, from a public health and medical lens, not divulging you are pregnant indicates that you do
not have access to resources and knowledge to help you throughout your pregnancy, especially in the early
stages. It may also indicate that you might not exert caution when necessary in your daily activities.

Lhakpa had a home birth and was hesitant about delivering at a clinic or hospital. While more Westernized
nations and industrialized cities have birthing centers and hospitals, access to such facilities is problematic in
rural areas. Pregnant women living in rural, hilly, or mountainous areas must consider transportation and
financial issues if they need to deliver outside of the home. This is coupled with the fact that in Tibetan culture,
it is believed that the presence of strangers can impact the baby’s soul.

 REFLECT

Imagine what must be going on in a mother’s mind if she needs to deliver at a hospital but she has so many
cultural considerations telling her otherwise.

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 Tibetan culture offers us an exceptional example of how culture
impacts pregnancy and childbirth.

Culturally, Tibet is not known for having midwives and formalized birth attendants since female relatives are
usually with the mother during childbirth or the mother delivers by herself with no one to help her (Craig, 2009).
An at-home birth can occur anywhere, including in an animal pen. Worldwide, when communities do not have
access to formalized healthcare settings and personnel, community health workers and midwives are
accessible. They can provide the mother with knowledge, tools, and other resources to enhance her pregnancy
experience and improve maternal and baby outcomes. While Tibetans have a traditional medical practitioner
called an Amchi, this individual is not typically present during childbirth, especially if this individual is male.
Therefore, adding on to lack of facilities and personnel to help deliver a baby, there is also a gender preference
for who can help during labor and delivery.

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  BRAINSTORM

Given what you just learned about Tibetan culture, what are some actions that society can take to improve
maternal health during pregnancy and childbirth in rural areas? Brainstorm a list of actions a society could
take and the outcomes that could be achieved.

 TERM TO KNOW

Childbirth
A broad term that encompasses different events that occur throughout labor and delivery.

2. Cultural Views About the Placenta

The placenta often plays an important role in various cultures, with many societies conducting rituals regarding
its disposal. In the Western world, the placenta is most often incinerated.

In some cultures the placenta is buried for various reasons.

The Māori of New Zealand traditionally bury the placenta from a newborn child to emphasize the
relationship between humans and the earth.
The Navajo bury the placenta and umbilical cord at a specially chosen site, particularly if the baby dies
during birth.
In Cambodia and Costa Rica, burial of the placenta is believed to protect and ensure the health of the baby
and the mother.
If a mother dies in childbirth, the Aymara of Bolivia bury the placenta in a secret place so that the mother’s
spirit will not return to claim her baby’s life.

In some cultures the placenta is believed to have power over the lives of the baby or its parents.

The Kwakiutl of British Columbia bury girls’ placentas to give the girl skill in digging clams, and expose
boys’ placentas to ravens to encourage future prophetic visions.
In Turkey, the proper disposal of the placenta and umbilical cord is believed to promote devoutness in the
child later in life.
In Transylvania and Japan, interaction with a disposed placenta is thought to influence the parents’ future
fertility.

In some cultures the placenta is believed to be alive or have been alive, often a relative of the baby.

The Nepalese think of the placenta as a friend of the baby.

Malaysian Orang Asli regard the placenta as the baby’s older sibling.
Native Hawaiians believe that the placenta is a part of the baby and traditionally plant it with a tree that can
then grow alongside the child.

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 Various cultures in Indonesia, such as Javanese (people from the island of Java), believe that the placenta
has a spirit and needs to be buried outside the family house.

The placenta provides nutrients and oxygen to an embryo or fetus and it carries away waste through blood vessels. In

some cultures there are beliefs about the placenta and rituals surrounding its disposal.

In some cultures, the placenta is eaten, a practice known as placentophagy. In some eastern cultures, such as
China, the dried placenta (ziheche, literally “purple river car”) is thought to be a healthful restorative and is
sometimes used in preparations of traditional Chinese medicine and various health products. The practice of
human placentophagy has become a more recent trend in western cultures and is not without controversy.
Some cultures have alternative uses for placenta that include the manufacturing of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals,
and food.

 TERM TO KNOW

Placentophagy
A practice of eating the placenta.

 SUMMARY

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 In this lesson, you learned that there are similarities and differences across cultural experiences of
pregnancy and childbirth. A matrix was introduced to conceptually understand the mother-culture
relationship when it comes to pregnancy- and childbirth-related practices. You also learned that when
there is a disconnect between a mother’s preferences and cultural norms, a mother questions many
things because it ultimately impacts her and her baby’s well-being. Finally, you learned about cultural
views about the placenta, which plays an important role in various cultures, with many societies
conducting rituals regarding its disposal.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

REFERENCES

Chalmers, B. (2012). Childbirth across cultures: research and practice. Birth, 39(4), 276-280.

Cousik R., Hickey M. (2016). Pregnancy and childbirth practices among immigrant women from India: “Have a
healthy baby.” The Qualitative Report, 21(4), 727–743. Retrieved January 12, 2023 from
nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss4/9

Craig, S. R. (2009). Pregnancy and childbirth in Tibet: Knowledge, perspectives, and practices. Childbirth Across
Cultures, 145-160.

George, G. M., Shin, J. Y., & Habermann, B. (2022). Immigrant Asian Indian Mothers’ Experiences With
Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Infant Care in the United States. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 33(3), 373-380.

Goyal D. (2016). Perinatal practices & traditions among Asian Indian women. MCN: The American Journal of
Maternal/child Nursing, 41(2), 90–97. Retrieved January 12, 2023 from
doi.org/10.1097/NMC.0000000000000222

Grewal S. K., Bhagat R., Balneaves L. G. (2008). Perinatal beliefs and practices of immigrant Punjabi women
living in Canada. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing, 37(3), 290–300. Retrieved January 12,
2023 from doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6909.2008.00234.x

Lazzara, J. (n.d.). Chapter 3: Birth and the newborn child. Lifespan Development. Retrieved January 12, 2023,
from open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/chapter/chapter-3-birth-and-the-newborn-child/

Maimbolwa, M. C., Yamba, B., Diwan, V., & Ransjö‐Arvidson, A. B. (2003). Cultural childbirth practices and beliefs
in Zambia. Journal of advanced nursing, 43(3), 263-274.Cousik R., Hickey M. (2016). Pregnancy and childbirth
practices among immigrant women from India: “Have a healthy baby.” The Qualitative Report, 21(4), 727–743.
Retrieved January 12, 2023 from nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss4/9

Naser E., Mackey S., Arthur D., Klainin-Yobas P., Chen H., Creedy D. K. (2012). An exploratory study of traditional
birthing practices of Chinese, Malay and Indian women in Singapore. Midwifery, 28(6), Article e871. Retrieved
January 12, 2023 from doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2011.10.003

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 Wells Y. O., Dietsch E. (2014). Childbearing traditions of Indian women at home and abroad: An integrative
literature review. Women and Birth, 27(4), e1–e6. Retrieved January 12, 2023 from
doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2014.08.006

 TERMS TO KNOW

Childbirth
A broad term that encompasses different events that occur throughout labor and delivery.

Placentophagy
A practice of eating the placenta.

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 The Evolutionary Perspective
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about genes, chromosomes, and the importance of genetic variation and
inheritance. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Evolutionary Perspective and How It Relates to Lifespan Development
2. Lifespan Development and Evolutionary Psychology

1. The Evolutionary Perspective and How It

Relates to Lifespan Development
When we say or hear the term evolution some of us may think about our ancestors and how they used to be
hunters and gatherers. Others may associate evolution to genetics and how we inherit certain traits. Evolution
refers to the process by which living organisms change over time through changes in the genome, which is the
entire set of DNA instructions found in a cell (National Human Genome Research Institute, 2023).

Our genetic information comes from both the mother and father when a tiny egg is fertilized by a single sperm.
This newly formed organism implants into the uterine wall to grow for approximately 258 days, at which point it
begins life outside of the womb. The mother’s ovaries release an egg monthly, but only when fertilization occurs
will the egg become an embryo in the uterus. If the egg and sperm do not unite, then menstruation starts to
shed the uterine lining that was preparing the body for a pregnancy that did not occur. The figure below
illustrates the female reproductive organs involved in the processes of fertilization and menstruation.

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  KEY CONCEPT

The evolutionary perspective is an approach that seeks to identify behavior that is the result of genetic
inheritance. It is a complex and interdisciplinary subject matter. We cannot discuss inherited traits without
explaining genes, their formation, and their subsequent role in development across the lifespan.
Evolutionary psychology is the study of how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have
evolved over time. For example, evolutionary psychology examines the connection between biological
adaptation and preferences in mate selection. Variations in cognition and behavior would make individuals
more or less successful in reproducing and passing those genes to their offspring. Evolutionary psychologists
study a variety of psychological phenomena that may have evolved as adaptations. These include the fear
response, food preferences, mate selection, and cooperative behaviors (Confer et al., 2010). Cognition is the
process by which people become aware of and understand things, and form knowledge through thinking.

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 IN CONTEXT

Many think of evolution as the development of traits and behaviors that allow us to survive this “dog-
eat-dog” world, like strong leg muscles to run fast, or fists to punch and defend ourselves. However,
physical survival is only important if it eventually contributes to successful reproduction. That is, even if
you live to be 100 years old, if you fail to mate and produce children, then your genes will die with
your body. Thus, reproductive success, not survival success, is the engine of evolution by natural
selection.

 PEOPLE TO KNOW

Charles Darwin (1809-1882), a leading evolutionary psychologist, was an

English naturalist and biologist who is best known for his theory of evolution by
natural selection, which he outlined in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.
Darwin defined natural selection as the "principle by which each slight variation
[of a trait], if useful, is preserved" (Darwin, 1859).

Charles Darwin describes this process as the theory of evolution by natural selection. In simple terms, the
theory states that organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce. Meanwhile,
organisms that are poorly suited for their environment will die off. This concept of the theory of evolution by
natural selection is often referred to as “survival of the fittest,” but its applicability to modern-day preferences is
questionable.

There is a growing interest in applying the principles of evolutionary psychology to better understand lifespan
development in humans. Using Darwin’s arguments, evolutionary approaches claim that an individual’s genetic
inheritance determines both physical traits (e.g., skin and eye color) and certain personality traits and social
behaviors.

EXAMPLE Some evolutionary developmental psychologists suggest that shyness and jealousy may be
a result of genetic inheritance. Why? Because they helped increase the survival rates of humans’ ancient
relatives.
There is a general acceptance that Darwin’s evolutionary theory provides an accurate description of basic
genetic processes, and the evolutionary perspective has become increasingly visible in the field of lifespan
development. However, applications of the evolutionary perspective have been criticized. Some developmental
psychologists are concerned about too much emphasis on genetic and biological aspects of behavior. They
suggest that the evolutionary perspective does not sufficiently account for environmental and social factors
involved in producing children’s and adults’ behavior. Other critics argue that there is no good way to
experimentally test theories derived from this approach because humans evolved so long ago.

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  BIG IDEA

The end product of the theory of evolution by natural selection is successful survival and reproduction.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Evolution
The process by which living organisms change over time through changes in the genome.

Genome
The entire set of DNA instructions found in a cell.

Evolutionary Perspective
An approach that seeks to identify behavior that is the result of genetic inheritance.

Evolutionary Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have
evolved over time.

Reproductive Success
Successful mating and reproduction so that an individual’s genes continue to be passed down from one
generation to the next; key to evolution by natural selection.

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

A theory presented by Charles Darwin that states that organisms that are better suited for their
environment will survive and reproduce, while poorly suited organisms will die off.

2. Lifespan Development and Evolutionary

Psychology
When studying development from conception through the lifespan, there are many opportunities to understand
the contributions of evolutionary psychology. For example, women and men differ in their preferences for a few
key qualities in long-term mating, because of somewhat distinct adaptive concerns.

Adaptation, a key concept in evolutionary psychology, is defined as the ability to adapt to one’s environment
and/or surroundings (Peck & Waxman, 2018). One of the underlying notions behind adaptiveness is that our
environments change over time, therefore, we also need to adapt to meet our various needs.

IN CONTEXT

Modern women have inherited the evolutionary trait to desire mates who possess resources, have
qualities linked with acquiring resources (e.g., ambition, wealth, industriousness), and are willing to
share those resources with them. On the other hand, men more strongly desire youth and health in

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 women, as both are cues to fertility. These male and female differences have historically been
universal in humans.

Just because a psychological adaptation was advantageous in our history, however, does not mean that it is still
useful today. For instance, women may have preferred men with resources in previous generations. However,
our modern society has advanced so that these preferences no longer apply. Nonetheless, it is important to
consider how our evolutionary history has shaped our automatic or “instinctual” desires and reflexes of today so
that we can better shape them for the future ahead.

 REFLECT

How can the theory of natural selection and the concepts of evolutionary psychology enlighten our
understanding of why some automatic reflexes or instinctual desires are more common than others?

Can you think of some ways that the ultimate goal of reproductive success affects our selection of a mate?
How about the way we parent young children? Or why we are motivated to achieve certain goals? What
differentiates families with traditionally longer lifespans?
In order to achieve reproductive success, the theory of evolution by natural selection states that organisms
should be suited to their environment. How do different environments or cultures require different traits for
successful survival and reproduction?

 THINK ABOUT IT

In earlier times, people had certain preferences for partners. This would include being able to go out and
hunt for food, provide for the family, be in optimal health, etc. Can you think of some ways that we may be
changing to be better suited to our changing culture?

Now, consider a completely opposite perspective where the goal of finding a partner is not for reproduction
(e.g., you want to have many children). How can an individual’s decision to not reproduce fit into the theory
of evolution? If someone is childless by choice or unable to conceive a child, how does that impact survival
and reproduction?

 TERM TO KNOW

Adaptation
The ability to adapt to an individual’s or organism’s environment or surroundings.

 SUMMARY

In this tutorial, you learned about how the evolutionary perspective is associated with lifespan
development. You also learned about evolutionary psychology and Darwin’s theory of natural
selection, and analyzed how survival of the fittest may not be the modern-day preference.

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 Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Chandros Hull, S. (2023, January 20). Evolution. National Human Genome Research Institute. Retrieved
February 2, 2023, from www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Evolution.

Confer, J. C., Easton, J. A., Fleischman, D. S., Goetz, C. D., Lewis, D. M., Perilloux, C., & Buss, D. M. (2010).
Evolutionary psychology: Controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations. American Psychologist, 65(2), 110.

Darwin, C (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or Preservation of Favoured Races in
the Struggle for Life. London, John Murray, 1859.

Peck, J. R., & Waxman, D. (2018). What is adaptation and how should it be measured? Journal of Theoretical
Biology, 447, 190-198.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Adaptation
The ability to adapt to an individual’s or organism’s environment or surroundings.

Evolution
The process by which living organisms change over time through changes in the genome.

Evolutionary Perspective
An approach that seeks to identify behavior that is the result of genetic inheritance.

Evolutionary Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes
have evolved over time.

Genome
The entire set of DNA instructions found in a cell.

Reproductive Success
Successful mating and reproduction so that an individual’s genes continue to be passed down from
one generation to the next; key to evolution by natural selection.

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

A theory presented by Charles Darwin that states that organisms that are better suited for their
environment will survive and reproduce while poorly suited organisms will die off.

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 Heredity and Chromosomes
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about genes, chromosomes, and the importance of genetic variation and
inheritance. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Heredity and Chromosomes
1a. Gametes
1b. Chromosomes
1c. Genotypes and Phenotypes
2. Determining the Sex of the Child
3. Genetic Variation & Inheritance
3a. Gene Mutations

1. Heredity and Chromosomes

Heredity involves more than the passing of genetic information from our parents. According to evolutionary
psychology, our genetic inheritance comes from the most adaptive genes of our ancestors. The gene is
considered the basic unit of inheritance. Genes are passed from parents to offspring. They contain the
information needed to specify physical and biological traits. Most genes code for specific proteins, or segments
of proteins, which have differing functions within the body (National Human Genome Research Institute, 2023).

 HINT

Adaptive genes are genes that help us adapt to our environment the best way. Our ancestors passed down
the 'best genes' because through generations, they have helped us to survive.
Recall the nature versus nurture debate we explored in the first challenge of this unit. Heredity is the ‘nature’
aspect of the debate. It can help us better understand, to some degree, why some of our features such as
height, weight, personality, health, etc. may be similar across family members.

To figure out the genetic contributions of this phenomenon, we need to take a step back and ask ourselves,
where does this process take place initially? In other words, how and when is our genetic material born - at
conception or at birth?

 TERM TO KNOW

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 Heredity
Passing of genetic information from parents to their offspring.

1a. Gametes
There are two types of sex cells or gametes involved in reproduction:

The male gametes, or sperm

The female gametes, or ova

The male gametes are produced in the testes through a process called spermatogenesis, which begins at
about 12 years of age. The female gametes, which are stored in the ovaries, are present at birth but are
immature. Each ovary contains about 250,000 ova but only about 400 of these will become mature eggs
(Mackon & Fauser, 2000). Beginning at puberty, one ovum ripens and is released about every 28 days, a
process called oogenesis.
After the ovum, or egg, ripens and is released from the ovary, it is drawn into the fallopian tube and reaches the
uterus in 3 to 4 days. It is typically fertilized in the fallopian tube and continues its journey to the uterus. At
ejaculation, millions of sperm are released into the vagina, but only a few reach the egg and typically, only one
fertilizes the egg. Once a single sperm has entered the wall of the egg, the wall becomes hard and prevents
other sperm from entering. After the sperm has entered the egg, the tail of the sperm breaks off and the head
of the sperm, containing the genetic information from the father, unites with the nucleus of the egg. As a result,
a new cell is formed. This cell, containing the combined genetic information from both parents, is referred to as
a zygote.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Gamete
A male or female reproductive cell.

Spermatogenesis
The production of male gametes in the testes; begins around 12 years old.

Oogenesis
The production or ripening of an ovum and its release every 28 days; begins at puberty.

1b. Chromosomes
While other normal human cells have 46 chromosomes (or 23 pairs), gametes contain 23 chromosomes. A
chromosome is a DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. Chromosomes are long
threadlike structures found in a cell’s nucleus that contain genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an
organism.

The following illustration of a DNA molecule shows how DNA is made up of two linked strands that wind in a
spiral resembling a twisted ladder, forming a helix-like shape. Attached to and joining the strands are a series of
nucleotide base pairs: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or thymine (T). The two strands are connected by

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 chemical bonds between the nucleotide base pairs. Notice that the nucleotide base pairs are combinations of
either adenine bonded with thymine or cytosine bonded with guanine.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs. Sequences of DNA make

up genes.

 KEY CONCEPT

In each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes that control or partially control a number of visible
characteristics, known as traits, such as eye color, hair color, and so on. A single gene may have multiple
possible variations or alleles. An allele is a specific version of a gene. So, a given gene may code for the
trait of hair color, and the different alleles of that gene affect which hair color an individual has.
In a process called meiosis, segments of the chromosomes from each parent form pairs.

 DID YOU KNOW

Genetic segments are exchanged as determined by chance. Because of the unpredictability of this
exchange, the likelihood of having offspring that are genetically identical (and not twins) is one in trillions
(Gould & Keeton, 1997). Genetic variation is important because it allows a species to adapt so that those
who are better suited to the environment will survive and reproduce. This is an important factor in natural
selection.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Trait

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 A specific characteristic of an individual that can be determined by genes, environmental factors, or a
combination of both.

Allele
A specific version of a gene.

Meiosis
A process where parts of the chromosomes from each parent form pairs and genetic segments are
exchanged by chance.

1c. Genotypes and Phenotypes

When a sperm and an egg come together, their 23 chromosomes pair up and create a zygote with 23 pairs of
chromosomes. Therefore, each parent contributes half the genetic information carried by the offspring. The
resulting physical characteristics of the offspring (called the phenotype) are determined by the interaction of
genetic material supplied by the parents (called the genotype) as well as environmental factors.

 HINT

A person’s genotype is the genetic makeup of that individual. Phenotype, on the other hand, refers to the
individual’s inherited physical characteristics and observable traits.
As you see your reflection in the mirror you might question what determines whether or not genes are
expressed? Maybe you have a gene for a certain eye color but then you end up getting a different eye color.
Was it a coincidence? Actually, this is quite complicated. Some features follow the additive pattern, which
means that many different genes contribute to a final outcome. Height and skin tone are examples. In other
cases, a gene might either be turned on or off depending on several factors, including the gene with which it is
paired or the inherited epigenetic markers.

 TRY IT

Look in the mirror. Write down the characteristics or things you are seeing reflect back at you. What do you
see, your genotype or your phenotype?

2. Determining the Sex of the Child

Twenty-two of the chromosomes from each parent are similar in length to a corresponding chromosome from
the other parent. However, the remaining chromosome, the 23rd pair, looks like an X or a Y.

 KEY CONCEPT

Half of the male’s sperm contain a Y chromosome and half contain an X. All of the female’s ova contain X
chromosomes. If the child receives the combination of XY, the child will be genetically male. If the child
receives the XX combination, the child will be genetically female.
Some potential parents have a clear preference for having a boy or a girl and would like to determine the sex of
the child. Through the years, a number of tips have been offered for the potential parents to maximize their
chances for having either a son or daughter as they prefer.

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 EXAMPLE It has been suggested that sperm which carry a Y chromosome are more fragile than those
carrying an X. So, if a couple desires a male child, they can take measures to maximize the chance that the
Y sperm reaches the egg. This involves having intercourse 48 hours after ovulation, which helps the Y
sperm have a shorter journey to reach the egg; douching to create a more alkaline environment in the
vagina because sperm thrive under alkaline conditions; and having the female reach orgasm first so that
sperm are not pushed out of the vagina due to the contractions that occur during orgasm.
Today there is new technology available that makes it possible to isolate sperm containing either an X or a Y,
depending on the preference. That sperm can be used to fertilize a mother’s egg. Preimplantation genetic
diagnosis (PGD) can be used to select only embryos of the desired sex to be implanted during in-vitro
fertilization (IVF). IVF is the joining of the egg and sperm outside of the body, in a lab petri dish. After the egg is
fertilized in the laboratory, it is implanted in a woman’s uterus or frozen for future use. PGD is controversial and
fertility centers and medical organizations discourage it if there is no real medical reason to select the sex of the
child.

 TERM TO KNOW

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)

A procedure where selected embryos of the desired sex are implanted during in-vitro fertilization.

3. Genetic Variation & Inheritance

Genetic variation, the genetic difference between individuals, is what contributes to a species’ adaptation to its
environment. In humans, genetic variation begins with an egg, several million sperm, and fertilization. The egg
and sperm each contain 23 chromosomes, which make up our genes. A single gene may have multiple possible
variations or alleles (a specific version of a gene), resulting in a variety of combinations of inherited traits.

Genetic inheritance of traits for humans is based upon Gregor Mendel’s model of inheritance. For genes on an
autosome (any chromosome other than a sex chromosome), the alleles and their associated traits are
autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive. In this model, some genes are considered dominant because
they will be expressed. Others, termed recessive, are only expressed in the absence of a dominant gene. Some
characteristics which were once thought of as dominant-recessive, such as eye color, are now believed to be a
result of the interaction between several genes (McKusick, 1998). Dominant traits include curly hair, facial
dimples, normal vision, and dark hair. Recessive characteristics include red hair, pattern baldness, and
nearsightedness.

Sickle cell anemia is an autosomal recessive disease; Huntington disease is an autosomal dominant disease.
Other traits are a result of partial dominance or codominance in which both genes are influential.

EXAMPLE If a person inherits both recessive genes for cystic fibrosis, the disease will occur. But if a
person has only one recessive gene for the disease, the person would be a carrier of the disease but would
not have symptoms of the disease itself.
In the example depicted in the table below, the normal (dominant) gene is referred to as “N,” and the recessive
gene for cystic fibrosis is referred to as “c.” The normal gene is dominant, which means that having the

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 dominant allele either from one parent (Nc) or both parents (NN) will always result in the phenotype associated
with the dominant allele.

When someone has two copies of the same allele, they are said to be homozygous for that allele.
When someone has a combination of alleles for a given gene, they are said to be heterozygous.

For example, cystic fibrosis is a recessive disease which means that an individual will only have the disease if
they are homozygous for that recessive allele (cc). Imagine that a woman who is a carrier of the cystic fibrosis
gene has a child with a man who also is a carrier of the same disease. What are the odds that their child would
inherit the disease? Think about these facts:
Both the woman and the man are heterozygous for this gene (Nc).
We can expect the offspring to have a 25% chance of having cystic fibrosis (cc), a 50% chance of being a
carrier of the disease (Nc), and a 25% chance of receiving two normal copies of the gene (NN).

 TERMS TO KNOW

Genetic Variation
The genetic difference between individuals.

Mendel’s Model of Inheritance

A model that helps explain how human traits are inherited.

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 Autosome
Any chromosome except for a sex chromosome.

Autosomal Dominant
A gene that is expressed.

Autosomal Recessive
A gene that is expressed only in the absence of the dominant gene.

Homozygous
Having two copies of the same allele for a given gene.

Heterozygous
A combination of alleles for a given gene.

3a. Gene Mutations

Where do harmful genes that contribute to diseases like cystic fibrosis come from? Gene mutations provide one
source of harmful genes. A mutation is a sudden, permanent change in a gene. Many mutations can be harmful
or lethal. Once in a while a mutation benefits a person by giving that person an advantage over those who do
not have the mutation.

Recall the theory of evolution. It asserts that individuals best adapted to their particular environments are more
likely to reproduce and pass on their genes to future generations. In order for this process to occur, there must
be competition - more technically, there must be variability in genes (and resultant traits). This allows for
variation in adaptability to the environment.

 BIG IDEA

If a population consisted of identical individuals, then any dramatic changes in the environment would affect
everyone in the same way. There would be no variation in selection. In contrast, diversity in genes and
associated traits allows some individuals to perform slightly better than others when faced with
environmental change. This creates a distinct advantage for individuals best suited for their environments in
terms of successful reproduction and genetic transmission.

 TERM TO KNOW

Mutation
A sudden, permanent change in a gene.

 SUMMARY

In this tutorial, you learned about heredity and chromosomes which form the basis of genetic
information differentiated between genotypes (the genetic makeup of an individual) and phenotypes
(the inherited physical characteristics and observable traits, such as height, eye color and blood type).
You also learned that there are two types of sex cells or gametes involved in reproduction: the male
gametes, or sperm, and the female gametes, or ova. You then learned how chromosomes play a role in

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 determining the sex of the child with a female having a XX combination and a male having a XY
combination. You learned about the importance of genetic variation to the environment along with
Mendel’s model of inheritance, with the latter being applied to various health conditions such as sickle
cell anemia and cystic fibrosis. Finally, you learned that a gene mutation, which is a sudden, permanent
change in a gene, can be harmful, lethal, or sometimes beneficial.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Gould, J. L. (1997). Biological science. New York: Norton.

Green, E. (2023, January 20). Gene. National Human Genome Research Institute. Retrieved January 24, 2023,
from www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Gene.

Mackon, N., & Fauser, B. (2000). Aspects of ovarian follicle development throughout life. Hormone Research,
52, 161-170.

McKusick, V. A. (1998). Mendelian inheritance in man: A catalog of human genes and genetic disorders.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Allele
A specific version of a gene.

Autosomal Dominant
A gene that is expressed.

Autosomal Recessive
A gene that is expressed only in the absence of the dominant gene.

Autosome
Any chromosome except for a sex chromosome.

Gamete
A male or female reproductive cell.

Genetic Variation
The genetic difference between individuals.

Heredity

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 Passing of genetic information from parents to their offspring.

Heterozygous
A combination of alleles for a given gene.

Homozygous
Having two copies of the same allele for a given gene.

Meiosis
A process where parts of the chromosomes from each parent form pairs and genetic segments are
exchanged by chance.

Mendel’s Model of Inheritance

A model that helps explain how human traits are inherited.

Mutation
A sudden, permanent change in a gene.

Oogenesis
The production or ripening of an ovum and its release every 28 days; begins at puberty.

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)

A procedure where selected embryos of the desired sex are implanted during in-vitro fertilization.

Spermatogenesis
The production of male gametes in the testes; begins around 12-years-old.

Trait
A specific characteristic of an individual that can be determined by genes, environmental factors, or
by a combination of both.

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 Genetic Influences in Human Development
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the interactions between genetics and the environment, and you will
compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Behavioral Genetics
2. The Epigenetic Framework
3. Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
3a. Conjoined Twins
3b. Vanishing Twins
4. Twin Studies

1. Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics is the scientific study of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior.
Behavioral geneticists studies how individual differences arise in the present through the interaction of genes
and the environment.

 HINT

Behavioral genetics is an empirical science. Empirical science is based on actual scientific experiments and
observations exploring how or why things happen.
Behavioral geneticists study human behavior. They often use twin and adoption studies to research questions
of interest.

A twin study compares the rates that a given behavioral trait is shared among identical and fraternal twins.
An adoption study compares the rates that a given behavioral trait is shared among biologically related
relatives and adopted relatives.

Both approaches provide some insight into the relative importance of genes and environment for the
expression of a given trait. One way we can observe behavioral genetics is through an adoption study. When
children are adopted, the parents who give birth to them do not raise them. Children are not assigned to
random adoptive parents in order to suit the particular interests of a scientist, but adoption still tells us some
interesting things, or at least confirms some basic expectations.

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  THINK ABOUT IT

If the biological child of tall parents were adopted into a family of short people, do you suppose the child’s
growth would be affected? What about the biological child of a Spanish-speaking family adopted at birth
into an English-speaking family? What language would you expect the child to speak? And what might
these outcomes tell you about the difference between height and language in terms of nature and nurture?

 TERMS TO KNOW

Behavioral Genetics
The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior.

Twin Study
A behavior genetic research method that involves a comparison of the similarity of identical
(monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins.

Adoption Study
A behavior genetic research method that involves the comparison of adopted children to their adoptive
and biological parents.

2. The Epigenetic Framework

As you may recall, you learned about the epigenetic framework in the first Challenge of this Unit. The term
epigenetic has been used in developmental psychology to describe the impact the environment and our
experiences on gene expression. It is the result of an ongoing, bi-directional interchange between these two
factors.

Developmental psychologists Gilbert Gottlieb and Erik Erikson have contributed to this field in various ways.
Gottlieb suggests an analytic framework for the nature versus nurture debate that recognizes the relationship
between the environment, behavior, and genetic expression (Gottlieb 1998; 2000; 2002). This bi-directional
relationship suggests that the environment can affect the expression of genes just as genetic predispositions
can impact a person’s potentials. Likewise, environmental circumstances can trigger symptoms of a genetic
disorder.

EXAMPLE A person genetically predisposed for type 2 diabetes may trigger the disease through poor
diet and little exercise.
Erikson also wrote of an epigenetic principle in his 1968 book Identity: Youth and Crisis. He emphasized that we
develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and
surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our
socio-cultural settings is done in stages of psychosocial development, where “progress through each stage is in
part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages” (Erikson, 1968).

In many human families, children’s biological parents raise them, so it is very difficult to differentiate whether
children act like their parents due to genetic (nature) or environmental (nurture) reasons. Nevertheless, despite

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 our restrictions on setting up human-based experiments, we do see real-world examples of nature vs. nurture at
work in the human sphere - though they only provide partial answers to our many questions.

 EVENTS TO KNOW

The Chernobyl nuclear disaster is a significant event in recent history. The nuclear power plant meltdown in
Chernobyl, Ukraine, occurred in April 1986 and exposed everyone and everything in the surrounding region
to disastrous levels of radiation. Researchers have looked at health outcomes among the workers, their
families, duration of exposure, etc. There have been longitudinal studies that have followed pregnant
women during the time of the disaster, the birth of their children, and maternal and child outcomes in the
years after that. One finding among many is the change in genome damage among children who were
exposed to extremely high levels of radiation when compared to the general public (Fucic et al., 2016). The
damage on the genome is present in both children who were evacuated and continually exposed to the
radiation. This is a key finding as there is an association between damage on the genome, birth anomalies,
and cancer risk in this population to this day, more than thirty years later. The Chernobyl disaster, while
unfortunate, provides us with immense insight into epigenetics where a single environmental radiation
exposure impacted genes and their role in development of disease(s).

3. Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins

Another option for observing nature versus nature in humans involves twin studies. To analyze the nature-
nurture interaction using twins, we compare the similarity of monozygotic and dizygotic pairs.

Monozygotic (one egg identical) twins occur when a single zygote or fertilized egg splits apart in the first two
weeks of development. The result is the creation of two separate but genetically identical offspring. About one-
third of twins are monozygotic twins. Consider these facts:

Monozygotic twins occur in birthing at a rate of about 3 in every 1,000 deliveries worldwide (about 0.3% of
the world population).
Monozygotic twins are genetically nearly identical and they are always the same sex unless there has been
a mutation during development.
The children of monozygotic twins test genetically as half-siblings (or full siblings, if a pair of monozygotic
twins reproduces with another pair of identical twins or with the same person), as opposed to first cousins.
In the uterus, a majority of monozygotic twins (60–70%) share the same placenta but have separate
amniotic sacs (a fluid-filled sac that protects and contains the fetus in the uterus, also known as aminos.)
In 18–30% of monozygotic twins, each fetus has a separate placenta and a separate amniotic sac.
A small number (1–2%) of monozygotic twins share the same placenta and amniotic sac.

Sometimes two eggs or ova are released and fertilized by two separate sperm. The result is dizygotic (two
eggs, not identical) or fraternal twins. Consider these facts:
About two-thirds of twins are dizygotic.

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 Dizygotic twins share the same amount of genetic material as would any two children from the same
mother and father.
Older mothers are more likely to have dizygotic twins than are younger mothers.
Couples who use fertility drugs are also more likely to give birth to dizygotic twins. Consequently, there has
been an increase in the number of fraternal twins in recent years (Bortolus et al., 1999).
In-vitro fertilization (IVF) techniques are also more likely to create dizygotic twins. For IVF deliveries, there
are nearly 21 pairs of twins for every 1,000.
Fraternal twins each have their own placenta and own amniotic sac.

 BIG IDEA

Identical twins (monozygotic) come from one egg dividing and usually share the same placenta. Fraternal
twins (dizygotic) come from two separate eggs, each with its own placenta.

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 Monozygotic twins come from a single zygote and generally share the same placenta, although some (18-30%) have

separate placentas. Dizygotic twins come from two separately fertilized eggs and have their own placentas and

amniotic sacs.

Monozygotic twins can be categorized into four types depending on the timing of the separation and
duplication of cells. The categorization of monozygotic twins depends on various types of chorionicity (the
number of placenta) and amnionicity (the number of amnions or inner membranes that encircle the fetus).

Monozygotic twins are a result of when and how the fertilized egg divides. This is known as placentation (the
formation or arrangement of the placenta in a woman's uterus). The following diagram shows four ways
monozygotic twins are formed, depending on the timing of the separation and duplication of cells.

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 1. Morula with cleavage at days 1 to 3 and results in dichorionic / diamniotic formation (separate placenta,
separate amnion).
2. Blastocyst with cleavage at days 4 to 8 which results in monochorionic / diamniotic formation (sharing the
same placenta but having separate amnions).
3. Implanted blastocyst with cleavage at days 8 to 13 results in monochorionic / mono amniotic (shared
placenta and shared amnions).
4. Formed embryonic disc with cleavage at days 13 to 15 which in this figure leads to conjoined twins (shared
placenta, shared amnions, and bodies fused).

 TERMS TO KNOW

Monozygotic
Derived from a single ovum.

Amniotic Sac
A fluid-filled sac that protects and contains the fetus in the uterus.

Dizygotic
Derived from two separate ova.

Chorionicity
The number of placenta.

Amnionicity
How the baby’s amniotic sac looks.

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 Placentation
The connection between the fetus and the mother’s uterus.

3a. Conjoined Twins

Conjoined twins are monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during pregnancy. This occurs when
the zygote starts to split after day 12 following fertilization and fails to separate completely. This condition
occurs in about 1 in 50,000 human pregnancies, however, actual incidence is estimated at 1 in 250,000 births
(Spitz, Kiely, & Pierro, 2018).

Most conjoined twins are now evaluated for surgery to attempt to separate them into separate functional
bodies. The degree of difficulty rises if a vital organ or structure is shared between twins, such as the brain,
heart, pelvis, or liver.

 KEY CONCEPT

Conjoined twins are usually categorized based on the site of adjoining or the area of the body which the
twins share. These are the eight categories of conjoined twins and the shared organs and/or body parts
(Spitz, Kiely, & Pierro, 2018):
1. Parapagus (lower abdomen, umbilical region, pelvis, and genitourinary)
2. Thoracopagus (upper abdomen, thorax, and heart)
3. Omphalopagus (upper abdomen with no sharing of the heart)
4. Cephalopagus (head and thorax)
5. Ischiopagus (pelvic bones, gastrointestinal tract, and genitourinary)
6. Pygopagus (sacrum, pelvic bones, and coccyx)
7. Craniopagus (skull, sinuses, and meninges)
8. Rachipagus (neural tube)

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  DID YOU KNOW

The first incident of symmetrically conjoined twins was illustrated in a stone carving that is dated to 80 BC.

 TERM TO KNOW

Conjoined Twins
Monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during pregnancy.

3b. Vanishing Twins

Researchers suspect that as many as 1 in 8 pregnancies start out as multiples, but only a single fetus is brought
to full term because the other fetus has died very early in the pregnancy and has not been detected or
recorded. Early obstetric ultrasonography exams sometimes reveal an “extra” fetus, which fails to develop and
instead disintegrates and vanishes in the uterus. There are several reasons for the “vanishing” fetus, including it
being embodied or absorbed by the other fetus, placenta or the mother. This is known as vanishing twin
syndrome. Also, in an unknown proportion of cases, two zygotes may fuse soon after fertilization, resulting in a
single chimeric embryo, and, later, fetus.

 TERM TO KNOW

Vanishing Twins
A fetus that fails to develop during pregnancy and disintegrates.

4. Twin Studies
Let’s now look at how nature and nurture apply through twin studies, using the features of height and spoken
languages. Unsurprisingly, identical twins are almost perfectly similar for height. The heights of fraternal twins,
however, are like any other sibling pairs: more similar to each other than to people from other families, but
hardly identical. This contrast between twin types gives us a clue about the role genetics plays in determining
height.

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 Now consider spoken language. If one identical twin speaks Spanish at home, the co-twin with whom she or he
is raised almost certainly does too. But the same would be true for a pair of fraternal twins raised together. In
terms of spoken language, fraternal twins are just as similar as identical twins, so it appears that the genetic
match of identical twins does not make much difference.

IN CONTEXT

Twin studies and adoption studies are two instances of a much broader class of methods for
observing nature-nurture called quantitative genetics—the scientific discipline in which similarities
among individuals are analyzed based on how biologically related they are. We can do these studies
with siblings and half-siblings, cousins, and twins who have been separated at birth and raised
separately (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, & Tellegen, 1990). Such twins are very rare and play a
smaller role than is commonly believed in the science of nature–nurture (Plomin, DeFries, Knopik, &
Neiderhiser, 2013).

It would be satisfying to be able to say that nature-nurture studies have given us conclusive and complete
evidence about where traits come from, with some traits clearly resulting from genetics and others almost
entirely from environmental factors, such as child-rearing practices and personal will; but that is not the case.
Instead, everything has turned out to have some footing in genetics. The more genetically-related people are,
the more similar they are - for everything: height, weight, intelligence, personality, mental illness, etc.

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  BIG IDEA

Adopted children resemble their biological parents even if they have never met them, and identical twins
are more similar to each other than are fraternal twins. And while certain psychological traits, such as
personality or mental illness (e.g., schizophrenia), seem reasonably influenced by genetics, it turns out that
the same is true for political attitudes, how much television people watch (Plomin, Corley, DeFries, & Fulker,
1990), and whether or not they get divorced (McGue & Lykken, 1992).

 TERM TO KNOW

Quantitative Genetics
Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the
degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson you learned that behavioral genetics is the empirical science of how genes and
environments combine to generate behavior. This is often done through twins studies and adoption
studies. When we focus on the bi-directional interchange between genes and the environment, we are
looking through an epigenetic framework. In twin studies, we often look at monozygotic twins and
dizygotic twins, the difference between them being the number of eggs from which a fetus arises. You
then learned that conjoined twins are monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during
pregnancy and that vanishing twins usually involve a fetus that fails to develop and disintegrates. You
also learned about twin studies and that contrasts between twins give clues about the role of genetics
in development.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Bortolus, R., Parazzini, F., Chatenoud, L., Benzi, G., Bianchi, M. M., & Marini, A. (1999). The epidemiology of
multiple births. Human Reproduction Update, 5, 179-187.

Bouchard Jr, T. J., Lykken, D. T., McGue, M., Segal, N. L., & Tellegen, A. (1990). Sources of human psychological
differences: The Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Science, 250(4978), 223-228.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

Fucic, A., Aghajanyan, A., Druzhinin, V., Minina, V., & Neronova, E. (2016). Follow-up studies on genome damage
in children after Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident. Archives of toxicology, 90(9), 2147-2159.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 119
 Gottlieb, G. (1998). Normally occurring environmental and behavioral influences on gene activity: From central
dogma to probabilistic epigenesis. Psychological Review, 105, 792-802.

Gottlieb, G. (2000). Environmental and behavioral influences on gene activity. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 9, 93-97.

Gottlieb, G. (2002). Individual development and evolution: The genesis of novel behavior. New York: Oxford
University Press

McGue, M., & Lykken, D. T. (1992). Genetic influence on risk of divorce. Psychological Science, 3(6), 368-373.

Plomin, R., Corley, R., DeFries, J. C., & Fulker, D. W. (1990). Individual differences in television viewing in early
childhood: Nature as well as nurture. Psychological Science, 1(6), 371-377.

Spitz, L., Kiely, E., & Pierro, A. (2018). Conjoined twins. In Rickham's Neonatal Surgery (pp. 457-474). Springer,
London.

Newton, R. (2022, October 28). 2.2 genetics and Heredity. Human Growth and Development. Retrieved
February 9, 2023, from pressbooks.pub/mccdevpsych/chapter/2-2-genetics-and-heredity/

Lazzara, J. (2020, June 26). Genetics and prenatal development. Lifespan Development. Retrieved February 9,
2023, from open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/chapter/chapter-2-genetics-and-prenatal-development/

 TERMS TO KNOW

Adoption Study
A behavior genetic research method that involves the comparison of adopted children to their
adoptive and biological parents.

Amnionicity
How the baby’s amniotic sac looks.

Amniotic Sac
A fluid-filled sac that protects and contains the fetus in the uterus.

Behavioral Genetics
The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior.

Chorionicity
The number of placenta.

Conjoined Twins
Monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during pregnancy.

Dizygotic
Derived from two separate ova.

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 Monozygotic
Derived from a single ovum.

Placentation
The connection between the fetus and the mother’s uterus.

Quantitative Genetics
Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on
the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.

Twin Study
A behavior genetic research method that involves a comparison of the similarity of identical
(monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins.

Vanishing Twins
A fetus that fails to develop during pregnancy and disintegrates.

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 Chromosomal Abnormalities and Prenatal Testing
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how different chromosomal abnormalities are formed and the role of
prenatal testing to help identify these abnormalities during pregnancy. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. Chromosomal Abnormalities
2. Prenatal Testing
2a. Prenatal Screening
2b. Prenatal Diagnosis

1. Chromosomal Abnormalities
Chromosomes, as you may recall, are long, threadlike structures that are found in a cell’s nucleus and contain
genetic information called DNA. Typically, we have 22 pairs of chromosomes and an additional pair of sex
chromosomes totaling 46 chromosomes. An image of these chromosomes, called a karyotype, is obtained
through a laboratory procedure and helps identify any abnormalities.

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 Image of a karyotype.

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 The 22 chromosomes in a male.

A chromosomal abnormality occurs when a child inherits too many or too few chromosomes.

 DID YOU KNOW

The most common cause of chromosomal abnormalities is the age of the mother. A 20-year-old woman has
a 1 in 800 chance of having a child with a common chromosomal abnormality. A woman of 44, however, has
a 1 in 16 chance. It is believed that the problem occurs when the ovum is ripening prior to ovulation each
month. As the mother ages, the ovum is more likely to suffer abnormalities at this time.
Another common cause of chromosomal abnormalities occurs because the gametes do not divide evenly when
they are forming. Therefore, some cells have more than 46 chromosomes. In fact, it is believed that close to half
of all zygotes have an odd number of chromosomes. Most of these zygotes fail to develop and are
spontaneously aborted by the body. If the abnormal number occurs on pair #21 or #23, however, the individual
may have certain physical or other abnormalities.

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 An altered chromosome structure may take several different forms, and result in various disorders or cancerous
growth:

Chromosome Deletions: A portion of the chromosome is missing or deleted. Known disorders in humans
include Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4;
and Jacobsen syndrome, also called the terminal 11q deletion disorder.
Chromosome Duplications: A portion of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material.
Known human disorders include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A, which may be caused by duplication
of the gene encoding peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) on chromosome 17.
Chromosome Translocations: A portion of one chromosome is transferred to another chromosome. There
are two main types of translocations:
Chromosome Reciprocal Translocation: Segments from two different chromosomes have been
exchanged.
Chromosome Robertsonian Translocation: An entire chromosome has attached to another at the
centromere - in humans, these only occur with chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.
Chromosome Inversions: A portion of the chromosome has broken off, turned upside down, and
reattached, therefore the genetic material is inverted.
Chromosome Insertions: A portion of one chromosome has been deleted from its normal place and
inserted into another chromosome.
Chromosome Rings: A portion of a chromosome has broken off and formed a circle or ring. This can
happen with or without loss of genetic material.
Isochromosome: Formed by the mirror image copy of a chromosome segment including the centromere.

The two major two-chromosome mutations: insertion (1) and translocation (2).

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 The three major single-chromosome mutations: deletion (1), duplication (2), and inversion (3).

 KEY CONCEPT

One of the most common chromosomal abnormalities is on pair #21. Trisomy 21 comprises 95% of
individuals with Down syndrome (DS), and occurs when there are three rather than two chromosomes on
the 21st chromosome. An individual with DS has distinct facial features, developmental delay, and
oftentimes congenital heart, gastrointestinal, and thyroid disorders.
The extent to which DS manifests can vary from person to person and can range from mild to severe. With early
intervention, the life expectancy of individuals with DS has increased in recent years. Keep in mind that there is
as much variation in people with DS as in most populations and those differences need to be recognized and
appreciated.

IN CONTEXT

Besides Trisomy 21, there are two additional types of DS: Translocation and Mosaic. In Translocation
Down syndrome, as the name implies, an extra part or even the entire chromosome 21 is latched to
another chromosome. Only about 3% of individuals with DS are diagnosed with Translocation.
Meanwhile, Mosaic Down syndrome occurs in 2% of individuals with DS and is marked by some cells
having three copies and other cells having two copies of chromosome 21. One of the marked
differences between Mosaic DS and Trisomy 21 are the physical and cognitive differences due to cells
with the typical number of chromosomes.

When the chromosomal abnormality is on pair #23, the result is a sex-linked chromosomal abnormality. A
person might have XXY, XYY, XXX, XO, or 45 or 47 chromosomes as a result. Two of the more common sex-
linked chromosomal disorders are Turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome.

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 Turner’s syndrome occurs in 1 of every 2,500 live female births (Carroll, 2007) when an ovum which lacks a
chromosome is fertilized by a sperm with an X chromosome. The resulting zygote has an XO composition.
Fertilization by a Y sperm is not viable. Turner syndrome affects cognitive functioning and sexual maturation.
The external genitalia appear normal, but breasts and ovaries do not develop fully and the woman does not
menstruate. Turner’s syndrome also results in short stature and other physical characteristics.

Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) occurs in 1 out of 700 live male births and results when an ovum containing an extra
X chromosome is fertilized by a Y sperm. The Y chromosome stimulates the growth of male genitalia, but the
additional X chromosome inhibits this development. An individual with Klinefelter syndrome has some breast
development, infertility (this is the most common cause of infertility in males), and low levels of testosterone.

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 Image of the chromosomes for Klinefelter’s syndrome.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Karyotype
An image of chromosomes.

Chromosomal Abnormality
When a child inherits too many or too few chromosomes.

Chromosome Deletions

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 When a portion of the chromosome is missing or deleted. Known disorders in humans include Wolf-
Hirschhorn syndrome.

Chromosome Duplications
When a portion of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material. Known human
disorders include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A.

Chromosome Translocations
When a portion of one chromosome is transferred to another chromosome. There are two main types of
translocations, reciprocal translocation and Robertsonian translocation.

Chromosome Reciprocal Translocation

When segments from two different chromosomes have been exchanged.

Chromosome Robertsonian Translocation

When an entire chromosome has attached to another at the centromere - in humans, these only occur
with chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.

Chromosome Inversions
When a portion of the chromosome has broken off, turned upside down, and reattached, therefore the
genetic material is inverted.

Chromosome Insertions
When a portion of one chromosome has been deleted from its normal place and inserted into another
chromosome.

Chromosome Rings
When a portion of a chromosome has broken off and formed a circle or ring. This can happen with or
without loss of genetic material.

Isochromosome
A chromosome that is formed by the mirror image copy of a chromosome segment including the
centromere.

Trisomy 21
One of the most common chromosomal abnormalities that occurs on pair #21. It comprises 95% of
individuals with Down syndrome (DS), and occurs when there are three rather than two chromosomes
on the 21st chromosome.

Translocation Down Syndrome

When an extra part or even the entire chromosome 21 is latched to another chromosome. Only about
3% of individuals with DS are diagnosed with Translocation.

Mosaic Down Syndrome

Is marked by some cells having three copies and other cells having two copies of chromosome 21. It
occurs in 2% of individuals with DS.

Sex-Linked Chromosomal Abnormality

When the chromosomal abnormality is on pair #23.

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 Turner’s Syndrome
When an ovum which lacks a chromosome is fertilized by a sperm with an X chromosome. The resulting
zygote has an XO composition.

Klinefelter Syndrome
When an ovum containing an extra X chromosome is fertilized by a Y sperm. The Y chromosome
stimulates the growth of male genitalia, but the additional X chromosome inhibits this development.

2. Prenatal Testing
Prenatal testing consists of prenatal screening and prenatal diagnosis, which are aspects of prenatal care that
focus on detecting problems with the pregnancy as early as possible. These may be anatomic and physiologic
problems with the health of the zygote, embryo, or fetus, either before gestation even starts or as early in
gestation as practical.

2a. Prenatal Screening

Prenatal screening focuses on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive
methods. The most common screening procedures are routine ultrasounds, blood tests, and blood pressure
measurement.

IN CONTEXT

Screening can detect conditions such as neural tube defects, anatomical defects, chromosome
abnormalities, and gene mutations that would lead to genetic disorders and birth defects, such as
spina bifida, cleft palate, Down syndrome, Tay-Sachs disease, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, cystic
fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, and fragile X syndrome. Some tests are designed to discover problems
which primarily affect the health of the mother, such as PAPP-A to detect pre-eclampsia or glucose
tolerance tests to diagnose gestational diabetes. Screening can also detect anatomical defects such
as hydrocephalus, anencephaly, heart defects, and amniotic band syndrome.

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  TERM TO KNOW

Prenatal Screening
Screening that focuses on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive
methods. The most common screening procedures are routine ultrasounds, blood tests, and blood
pressure measurement.

2b. Prenatal Diagnosis

Prenatal diagnosis, on the other hand, focuses on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular
problem has been found, and can sometimes be more invasive. Common prenatal diagnosis procedures
include amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS), both of which require inserting a needle to collect a
sample of amniotic fluid and placenta, respectively. Because of the miscarriage and fetal damage risks
associated with amniocentesis and CVS procedures, many women prefer to first undergo screening so they can
find out if the fetus’ risk of birth defects is high enough to justify the risks of invasive testing. Screening tests
yield a risk score which represents the chance that the baby has the birth defect; the most common threshold
for high-risk is 1:270. A risk score of 1:300 would, therefore, be considered low-risk by many physicians.
However, the trade-off between the risk of birth defects and risk of complications from invasive testing is
relative and subjective; some parents may decide that even a 1:1000 risk of birth defects warrants an invasive
test while others would not opt for an invasive test even if they had a 1:10 risk score.

There are three main purposes of prenatal diagnosis: (1) to enable timely medical or surgical treatment of a
condition before or after birth, (2) to give the parents the chance to abort a fetus with the diagnosed condition,
and (3) to give parents the chance to prepare psychologically, socially, financially, and medically for a baby with
a health problem or disability, or for the likelihood of a stillbirth. Having this information in advance of birth
means that healthcare staff, as well as parents, can better prepare themselves for the delivery of a child with a
health problem. For example, Down syndrome is associated with cardiac defects that may need intervention
immediately upon birth.

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  KEY CONCEPT

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) guidelines currently recommend that all
pregnant women, regardless of age, should be informed and offered prenatal genetic testing to obtain a
definitive diagnosis of certain birth defects. Therefore, most physicians offer diagnostic testing to all their
patients, with or without prior screening and let the patient decide. If a patient proceeds with prenatal
screening in the first trimester, then only one screening approach is recommended. During the second
trimester, mothers have the option of doing an ultrasound to identify any fetal structural abnormalities.
Depending on results, genetic counseling may be necessary so that the family can make the best-informed
decision on how to move forward with the pregnancy.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Imagine that you are going to become a parent. List some reasons why you would opt for prenatal genetic
testing and why not?

Now, let’s select one reason why you move forward with genetic testing. What happens next? Follow this
reason and its subsequent reasons by continually asking yourself “then what.”

For example, if you opt for genetic testing because you want to prepare yourself for your baby, then what
happens if the results come back positive for a condition. What would you do? Maybe you might seek
genetic counseling. Then what would you do? Follow through with this logic for as long as you can and then
look at your thought process.

 TERM TO KNOW

Prenatal Diagnosis
Screening that focuses on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular problem has been
found; can sometimes be more invasive.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson you learned about chromosomal abnormalities and that two of the most common causes
of chromosomal abnormality are a mother’s age and gametes not evenly dividing when they are
formed. You learned that there were many ways that a chromosome may be altered, including but not
limited to deletions, duplications, translocations, insertions, and inversions. One of the common genetic
abnormalities you learned about was Down syndrome and its three forms: Trisomy 21, Translocation,
and Mosaic. You also identified sex-linked chromosomal abnormalities which occur on the sex
chromosome and include Turner’s syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome.

You also learned about prenatal testing and the importance of prenatal screening for genetic

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 conditions so that, ultimately, a prenatal diagnosis could help a new family be better informed of their
baby’s health.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. ACCESS
FOR FREE AT https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS
ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Carroll, J. L. (2007). Sexuality now: Embracing diversity (2nd ed.). Thomson Learning.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, November 18). Facts about down syndrome. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved January 30, 2023, from
www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/downsyndrome.html

Current ACOG guidance. ACOG. (n.d.). Retrieved January 30, 2023, from www.acog.org/advocacy/policy-
priorities/non-invasive-prenatal-testing/current-acog-guidance

 TERMS TO KNOW

Chromosomal Abnormality
When a child inherits too many or too few chromosomes.

Chromosome Deletions
When a portion of the chromosome is missing or deleted. Known disorders in humans include Wolf-
Hirschhorn syndrome.

Chromosome Duplications
When a portion of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material. Known human
disorders include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A.

Chromosome Insertions
When a portion of one chromosome has been deleted from its normal place and inserted into
another chromosome.

Chromosome Inversions
When a portion of the chromosome has broken off, turned upside down, and reattached, therefore
the genetic material is inverted.

Chromosome Reciprocal Translocation

When segments from two different chromosomes have been exchanged.

Chromosome Rings

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 When a portion of a chromosome has broken off and formed a circle or ring. This can happen with
or without loss of genetic material.

Chromosome Robertsonian Translocation

When an entire chromosome has attached to another at the centromere - in humans, these only
occur with chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.

Chromosome Translocations
When a portion of one chromosome is transferred to another chromosome. There are two main
types of translocations, reciprocal translocation and Robertsonian translocation.

Isochromosome
A chromosome that is formed by the mirror image copy of a chromosome segment including the
centromere.

Karyotype
An image of chromosomes.

Klinefelter Syndrome
When an ovum containing an extra X chromosome is fertilized by a Y sperm. The Y chromosome
stimulates the growth of male genitalia, but the additional X chromosome inhibits this development.

Mosaic Down Syndrome

Marked by some cells having three copies and other cells having two copies of chromosome 21. It
occurs in 2% of individuals with DS.

Prenatal Diagnosis
Screening that focuses on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular problem has
been found, and can sometimes be more invasive.

Prenatal Screening
Screen that focuses on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive
methods. The most common screening procedures are routine ultrasounds, blood tests, and blood
pressure measurement.

Sex-Linked Chromosomal Abnormality

When the chromosomal abnormality is on pair #23.

Translocation Down Syndrome

When an extra part or even the entire chromosome 21 is latched to another chromosome. Only
about 3% of individuals with DS are diagnosed with Translocation.

Trisomy 21
One of the most common chromosomal abnormalities that occurs on pair #21. It comprises 95% of
individuals with Down syndrome (DS), and occurs when there are three rather than two
chromosomes on the 21st chromosome.

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 Turner’s Syndrome
When an ovum which lacks a chromosome is fertilized by a sperm with an X chromosome. The
resulting zygote has an XO composition.

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 Culture and Prenatal Genetic Testing
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the impact of culture on genetic testing through a patient-provider
perspective. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Patient-Provider Relationship
2. Cultural Competency
3. Informed Consent
4. Communication
5. Decision-Making Abilities

1. Patient-Provider Relationship
 THINK ABOUT IT

Imagine that you are an expecting parent from a cultural background different from Western culture. You
attend with your spouse, partner, or significant other as many prenatal appointments you can and, on one of
those occasions, the OBGYN talks about genetic testing. What are some questions that come to your mind
that you would like to ask the OBGYN?
When discussing the role of culture on genetic and chromosomal testing, we need to recognize that there are
multiple aspects of this topic. Firstly, we can try to look at how different cultures approach genetic testing (e.g.,
is it acceptable or not, who makes these decisions, are there any religious restrictions, etc.). Secondly, we can
think about this from a patient-provider lens where the relationship between expecting parent(s) and their
OBGYN forms the foundation of understanding and moving forward with genetic testing. While we cannot detail
every single aspect of genetic testing within these contexts, we will try to take a patient-provider approach with
cultural examples to highlight key concepts.

The relationship a patient has with his/her primary care provider or, in this case, their OBGYN or family physician
and vice versa, serves as a foundation to maintaining good health throughout pregnancy. Regardless of the
culture, the patient has certain expectations from their OBGYN.

EXAMPLE A pregnant mother believes that her OBGYN knows about her racial-ethnic background,
culture, and family situation. Similarly, her OBGYN also has an expectation that her patient will inform her of
relevant information regarding her pregnancy. Key factors to having an effective relationship between a

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 mother and her OBGYN include, but are not limited to, trust, clear communication, honesty, empathy, and
shared decision-making skills.
When it comes to prenatal genetic testing, genetic counselors are often sought as they are specialists who
counsel women on the risk of genetic abnormalities. They are well-versed in offering information about the
types of prenatal genetic tests, their timing, and interpreting the results. They are invaluable when it comes to
addressing genetic concerns. However, they are not always available and may be expensive. This shifts the
burden of genetic testing for expecting mothers to the family physician or OBGYN.

IN CONTEXT

The Sephardi Jewish community presents us with a case study of a population having valid and ethical
concerns regarding genetic testing. The term “Jewish Genetic Disorders “or JGDs has been used to
identify a group of conditions that impact individuals from the Ashkenazi heritage from eastern Europe
(Gross, Pletcher, & Monaghan, 2008). There is much stigma in this population surrounding genetic
testing for disorders such as Tay-Sachs disease because this may impact the prospects of getting
married. This reluctance is culturally appropriate but from a medical perspective, determining the
likelihood of having a child with Tay-Sachs is just as important, if not more. Since there is no cure for
Tay-Sachs disease, prenatal genetic testing offers the expecting parent(s) timely information on how to
proceed with the pregnancy and how to treat the disease should their child develop Tay-Sachs.

 TERM TO KNOW

Genetic Counselors
Specialists who counsel women on the risk of genetic abnormalities.

2. Cultural Competency
Cultural context plays an important role on all fronts when it comes to prenatal genetic testing, regardless of the
healthcare provider. While there is no standard definition of cultural competency across disciplines, the term is
often used to highlight an individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and address the impact of culture-
specific factors on a behavior or outcome of interest.

EXAMPLE Cultural competence in the healthcare field may be related to a healthcare provider’s ability
to understand how a racially and/or ethnically diverse patient makes decisions regarding their health and
offering culturally appropriate solutions for their overall health and well-being. It may also refer to the
healthcare provider realizing that his/her beliefs, values, and cultural background might bias him/her in how
they interact with patients.
In Western countries, we are always surrounded by the concept of cultural competence or cultural humility (a
term sometimes used interchangeably with cultural competence). Why? Because we are always interacting with
people from diverse backgrounds and there is no one-size-fits-all approach given that we are all different from

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 each other. In countries where there is minimal racial and ethnic diversity in the population, cultural competence
is implied because a healthcare provider and patient share similar aspects of the culture.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Dr. Smith is an OBGYN who practices in New York. She has a patient named Abir who is a 30-year-old
Muslim female and pregnant with her first child. At one of their appointments, Dr. Smith starts talking about
doing prenatal genetic testing to determine whether her baby has any chromosomal abnormalities. Dr.
Smith is so focused on explaining everything to Abir during the 30-minute appointment window that she
does not realize that Abir is only nodding her head, not asking questions, and keeps her head low.

What do you think is happening? What are some behaviors indicating that Dr. Smith is being culturally
incompetent?

 TERM TO KNOW

Cultural Competency
An individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and address the impact of culture-specific factors on a
behavior or outcome of interest.

3. Informed Consent
Prior to conducting any prenatal procedure or test, informed consent must always take place. Informed consent
relates to providing the details and any relevant information about a procedure or test so that the patient can
make an informed decision where the benefits outweigh the risks. The importance of informed consent cannot
be emphasized enough especially when it comes to prenatal genetic and chromosomal testing.

During the informed consent process, the healthcare provider must thoroughly explain to the mother and
anyone accompanying her to her appointment on the following:

Name of the genetic screening and/or procedure.

When should it be done?
Why is it important to do the screening and/or procedure?
What happens if the mother opt outs of the prenatal genetic screening and/or procedure?
How long will the results take?
How will the results be interpreted?
Can the mother change her mind between now and the screening and/or procedure appointment?
Do the benefits outweigh the risks?
And much more…

 DID YOU KNOW

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 Prenatal genetic testing is conducted in two ways: screening and diagnostic (Haga et al., 2009). Screening
tests help identify the likelihood of the fetus having a chromosomal abnormality but do not pinpoint birth
defects.
Diagnostic tests are invasive and include amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS). Amniocentesis is
done anywhere from 15 weeks onward while CVS can only be done between 10.5 to 13.5 weeks.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Recall our earlier scenario with Dr. Smith and Abir. Dr. Smith only has 30 minutes to discuss how Abir’s
pregnancy is progressing and answer any of her questions. She also needs to address the critical time
window where Abir can choose to do any prenatal genetic testing.

Do you believe that Dr. Smith can effectively and efficiently do all of these things in the 30-minute time
frame?

If not, then what steps can Dr. Smith take to help Abir become better informed and prepared for any genetic
testing while ensuring that this is a decision she needs to make, not Dr. Smith?

 TERM TO KNOW

Informed Consent
Providing the details and any relevant information about a procedure or test so that the patient can
make an informed decision where the benefits outweigh the risks.

4. Communication
Although we cannot say that any of the factors we have discussed thus far or will discuss further in this lesson
rank more or less important, communication is one factor that underlies all others. Effective communication
between the healthcare provider and pregnant mother is critical to avoid confusion and any misconceptions
down the road. Firstly, the healthcare provider should understand that any genetic testing, not just prenatal, can
raise many questions about the nature and implications of a positive diagnosis. Moreover, cultures vary in their
perceptions, significance, and implications of prenatal genetic testing.

EXAMPLE If an East Asian or Asian mother undergoes a prenatal genetic screening and the results
come back positive, then that is indicative of the fetus more likely to have a chromosomal abnormality. In
some cases, the mother is pressured to terminate her pregnancy due to the stigma associated with an
atypically developing fetus (Tsai et al., 2017). Not only is the family of any child who is not typically
developing ostracized from society but also perceived as a burden. This is in contrast with individuals from
a Chinese background where sex-selection overrides chromosomal abnormality. In other words, even if a
male fetus is more likely to be diagnosed with a genetic abnormality, a mother would opt for terminating a
female pregnancy with no known genetic abnormalities but not a male pregnancy with a genetic
abnormality (Tsai et al., 2017). Therefore, before placing the mother in such a precarious situation, the

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 healthcare provider must clearly communicate why prenatal genetic testing may be needed and its
culturally relevant implications.
Communication also plays a critical role during the informed consent process where the healthcare provider
must take the time to explain the various genetic testing options. The situation becomes complex when the
mother does not understand and speak the language of the healthcare provider (e.g., healthcare provider and
mother are native English and Arabic speakers, respectively).

 KEY CONCEPT

With a language barrier, we need to consider alternatives to a healthcare provider and patient dialogue.
These options may include the use of family members to serve as interpreters or even professional
interpreters who attend the prenatal appointment(s) with the mother. Each comes with its own advantages
and disadvantages including the following:
Privacy - In both instances, there is a third party present between the healthcare provider and mother.
The mere presence of the third party, not to mention that the third-party’s gender is also a factor,
impacts the mother’s comfort level and her ability to ask questions and share her concerns.
Cost - While a family member, friend, or relative may be more cost-effective, they are not trained
professionals and some information (e.g., medical terms) may be lost in translation. A trained interpreter
will need to be planned for in advance because of the time sensitive nature of some prenatal genetic
tests.
Time - A trained interpreter may not be readily available on a scheduled day and time, in which case a
family member or relative may need to step in as an informal interpreter.

5. Decision-Making Abilities
 REFLECT

You are an expecting parent and need to decide on prenatal genetic testing to determine whether your
baby is more likely to have any chromosomal abnormalities. Who has the right to make that decision?

Since the mother is carrying the baby and it is her body, is it her right alone to decide on this issue? Also,
think about it from the spouse/significant other/partner’s perspective. Your baby represents both of you, so
should this be a joint decision?
When we discuss any type of prenatal genetic and chromosomal testing, an individual is faced with decisions
every step of the way. Should I proceed with prenatal genetic screening? What are the noninvasive procedures?
What happens if the result is negative? What if the result is positive? Will my family and/or loved ones think less
of me? How will I face society? Depending on one’s cultural background, these questions may cause stress in
the pregnant mother.

We observe this in collectivist societies where autonomous decision-making is not common and the collective
family makes decisions related to the pregnancy (Tsai et al., 2017). The mother is expected to consult with
members of the family and may sometimes be forced to take a stance that goes against her beliefs and values

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 (e.g., being forced to terminate pregnancy due to genetic testing results even if she does not want to). Hispanic
women, on the other hand, may have the support of family members as they go through prenatal testing either
due to lack of knowledge about the process itself and/or previous positive experiences with prenatal testing
(Page et al., 2021).

The healthcare provider should be familiar with cultural dynamics to understand how the mother might react,
and how to sense any conflict between personal choice and cultural norms. This is an ethical debate that
continues to this day--to carry through with a pregnancy knowing that the child has chromosomal abnormalities
or terminate the pregnancy knowing that it is a grave sin in that culture.

Prenatal genetic testing is a valuable tool to identify the risk of any genetic and chromosomal abnormalities.
However, not everyone understands prenatal genetic testing, in part due to the cultural lens through which we
experience pregnancy and related events. The healthcare provider is in a unique position to bridge the gap
between the expecting parents and their culture and genetic testing.

 BIG IDEA

Whether or not the expecting parent(s) opt for any prenatal genetic testing is not something for the
healthcare provider to decide. The best thing that a healthcare provider can do is to educate the mother in
a culturally appropriate manner and keep the communication channels open between them so that any
questions, concerns, and myths are addressed.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the foundation to an effective patient-provider relationship. The
OBGYN or family physician, ideally, is culturally competent and serves as a bridge between the
expecting mother and any medically relevant testing. This individual provides the mother with sufficient
information so that she can either consent to or opt out of prenatal genetic testing. When there is a
language barrier that hinders effective communication between the mother and her healthcare
provider, a trained interpreter or family member are alternatives each with their own pros and cons.
Last, but not least, you learned how decision-making abilities may not reside solely with the mother
and sometimes extended to other family members.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

REFERENCES

Gross, S. J., Pletcher, B. A., & Monaghan, K. G. (2008). Carrier screening in individuals of Ashkenazi Jewish
descent. Genetics in Medicine, 10(1), 54-56.

Haga, S. B., Bekendorf, J., Boughman, J., Dolan, S., & Dujdjinovic, L. (2009). Understanding Genetics: A NEw
York-Mid-Atlantic Guide for Patients and Health Professionals. The New York-Mid-Atlantic Consortium For
Genetic And Newborn Screening Services,(16), 105.

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 Tsai, G. J., Cameron, C. A., Czerwinski, J. L., Mendez-Figueroa, H., Peterson, S. K., & Noblin, S. J. (2017). Attitudes
towards prenatal genetic counseling, prenatal genetic testing, and termination of pregnancy among Southeast
and East Asian women in the United States. Journal of genetic counseling, 26, 1041-1058.

Page, R. L., Murphey, C., Aras, Y., Chen, L. S., & Loftin, R. (2021). Pregnant Hispanic women's views and
knowledge of prenatal genetic testing. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 30(3), 838-848.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Cultural Competency
An individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and address the impact of culture-specific factors
on a behavior or outcome of interest.

Genetic Counselors
Specialists who counsel women on the risk of genetic abnormalities.

Informed Consent
Informing the details and any relevant information about a procedure or test so that the patient can
make an informed decision where the benefits outweigh the risks.

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 Terms to Know
Acculturation
The process where an individual from a non-dominant cultural group adopts and/or learns
aspects of the mainstream cultural group.

Adaptation
The ability to adapt to an individual’s or organism’s environment or surroundings.

Adoption Study
A behavior genetic research method that involves the comparison of adopted children to
their adoptive and biological parents.

Age of Viability
The first chance of a fetus surviving outside of the mother’s womb.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure (SSP)

A sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the type of attachment between a child and
their mother (or other caregiver).

Allele
A specific version of a gene.

Amnionicity
How the baby’s amniotic sac looks.

Amniotic Sac
A fluid-filled sac that protects and contains the fetus in the uterus.

Assimilation
The complete adoption of the mainstream cultural groups’ way of living.

Attachment
The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual, such
as the primary caregiver.

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 Autosomal Dominant
A gene that is expressed.

Autosomal Recessive
A gene that is expressed only in the absence of the dominant gene.

Autosome
Any chromosome except for a sex chromosome.

Behavioral Genetics
The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior.

Biculturalism
An individual adopts equal or almost equal aspects of one’s own culture and another
mainstream culture.

Biological
Of and related to the natural processes of living things (e.g., genetics).

Biological Determinism
The idea that most human characteristics, physical and mental, are determined at
conception.

Birthing Center
A birthing facility with a more homelike environment than a hospital labor ward, offering
amenities such as music, food, drink, and attendance of family and friends.

Bradley Method
An educational practice that focuses on teaching expecting parents about nutrition and
exercise, relaxation techniques to manage pain, and involvement of the partner as a coach.

Braxton-Hicks Contractions
Contractions that may come and go but diminish with walking.

Breech Birth
When the baby’s position is reversed so that the feet or buttocks are pointed downward and
would be delivered first.

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 Cephalocaudal Development
Direction of growth during the embryonic period from head to tail.

Cesarean Section
The use of surgery to deliver a baby; Also called a C-section.

Childbirth
A broad term that encompasses different events that occur throughout labor and delivery.

Chorionicity
The number of placenta.

Chromosomal Abnormality
When a child inherits too many or too few chromosomes.

Chromosome Deletions
When a portion of the chromosome is missing or deleted. Known disorders in humans
include Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome.

Chromosome Duplications
When a portion of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material. Known
human disorders include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A.

Chromosome Insertions
When a portion of one chromosome has been deleted from its normal place and inserted into
another chromosome.

Chromosome Inversions
When a portion of the chromosome has broken off, turned upside down, and reattached,
therefore the genetic material is inverted.

Chromosome Reciprocal Translocation

When segments from two different chromosomes have been exchanged.

Chromosome Rings
When a portion of a chromosome has broken off and formed a circle or ring. This can happen
with or without loss of genetic material.

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 Chromosome Robertsonian Translocation
When an entire chromosome has attached to another at the centromere - in humans, these
only occur with chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.

Chromosome Translocations
When a portion of one chromosome is transferred to another chromosome. There are two
main types of translocations, reciprocal translocation and Robertsonian translocation.

Chromosomes
Long threadlike structures found in a cell nucleus that contain genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Cognitive
Of and related to mental and thinking processes.

Conception
The initial step of pregnancy, in which a sperm fertilizes an egg.

Conjoined Twins
Monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during pregnancy.

Contextual
Context-specific factors impact development across the lifespan.

Cultural Competency
An individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and address the impact of culture-specific
factors on a behavior or outcome of interest.

Cultural Relativity
An appreciation for cultural differences and an understanding that cultural practices are
understood from a cultural standpoint.

Culture
Set of beliefs, practices, and ideas that dictate how an individual behaves, thinks, speaks,
eats, and much more.

Deep Vein Thrombosis

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 The formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

The molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an
organism.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Methylation

A process that adds molecules called methyl groups to a specific place on the DNA, shutting
the gene off.

Dilation and Evacuation (D&E)

A surgical abortion procedure.

Disorganized Attachment
A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s
departure and return.

Dizygotic
Derived from two separate ova.

Doula
A trained professional who offers consistent social, emotional, physical, and informational
support and empower the mother throughout her labor, delivery, and postpartum care.

Ectopic Pregnancy
When the zygote becomes attached to the fallopian tube before reaching the uterus.

Embryo
A multi-celled organism between two and eight weeks after fertilization.

Empiricism
The belief that human traits and characteristics are the result of environmental influences.

Epidural
A procedure involving placement of a tube into the lower back and administration of small
doses of medicine, as needed, throughout labor.

Epigenetics

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 The study of how environmental experiences affect genetic activity without changing the
genetic makeup of an individual.

Esteem
The human desire to be accepted and valued by others.

Ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s own culture is superior to other cultures.

Evolution
The process by which living organisms change over time through changes in the genome.

Evolutionary Perspective
An approach that seeks to identify behavior that is the result of genetic inheritance.

Evolutionary Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive
processes have evolved over time.

Fetus
An unborn human baby from nine weeks after conception until birth.

First Stage of Labor

The longest stage of labor, which begins with uterine contractions that last about 30 seconds
and are spaced 15-20 minutes apart.

Fixed Mindset
Development is viewed as linear (from point A to point B).

Gamete
A male or female reproductive cell.

Genetic Counselors
Specialists who counsel women on the risk of genetic abnormalities.

Genetic Variation
The genetic difference between individuals.

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 Genome
The entire set of DNA instructions found in a cell.

Genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual.

Germinal Period
The first period of prenatal development, which lasts about 14 days.

Gestational Diabetes
When a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy.

Growth Mindset
Development is nonlinear, with both growth and deficits occurring over the lifespan and
impacting development.

Heredity
Passing of genetic information from parents to their offspring.

Heritable Traits
Traits that can be inherited or passed down from parents to offspring.

Heterozygous
A combination of alleles for a given gene.

Histone Modifications
Changes to histone proteins that provide structural support for chromosomes, influencing the
regulation of gene expression.

Home Birth
Birth that occurs at home.

Homozygous
Having two copies of the same allele for a given gene.

Humanism

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 A psychological theory that emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive toward self-
actualization. Humanism contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions
about their lives and control their own behavior.

Hyperemesis Gravidarum
The presence of severe and persistent vomiting, causing dehydration and weight loss during
pregnancy.

HypnoBirthing
A birthing method where the mother is placed under hypnosis to induce a calm state with
visualizations.

In Vitro Conception
A sperm and egg are fertilized outside of the body in a laboratory dish.

Induced Labor
Initiation of labor through methods such as rupturing of the amniotic sac or medications.

Informed Consent
Informing the details and any relevant information about a procedure or test so that the
patient can make an informed decision where the benefits outweigh the risks.

Inhaled Nitrous Oxide

Also known as laughing gas; a type of gas that provides pain relief.

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the
infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.

Insecure-Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment
A pattern of attachment in which an infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident.

Isochromosome
A chromosome that is formed by the mirror image copy of a chromosome segment including
the centromere.

Karyotype

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 An image of chromosomes.

Klinefelter Syndrome
When an ovum containing an extra X chromosome is fertilized by a Y sperm. The Y
chromosome stimulates the growth of male genitalia, but the additional X chromosome
inhibits this development.

Labor Pain
Pain that is caused by uterine contractions and pushes the baby down and out of the birth
canal.

Lamaze Method
An educational practice that teaches a woman to be in control in the process of delivery.

Lay Midwife
A midwife who is not formally educated or trained.

Lifespan Development
Exploration of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial changes and constancies that occur
throughout the course of life.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often
depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be
mostly satisfied before individuals are motivated to attend to higher needs.

Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR)

The ratio of the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births.

Maternity Leave
The period of time that the new mother takes off from work post-birth of her baby.

Meiosis
A process where parts of the chromosomes from each parent form pairs and genetic
segments are exchanged by chance.

Mendel’s Model of Inheritance

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 A model that helps explain how human traits are inherited.

Midwife
A person who is not a physician who assists women during childbirth.

Miscarriage
Loss of pregnancy before 20 weeks.

Mitosis
The process of cell division.

Monozygotic
Derived from a single ovum.

Mosaic Down Syndrome

Marked by some cells having three copies and other cells having two copies of chromosome
21. It occurs in 2% of individuals with DS.

Multidimensional
A complex interplay of factors such as biological, cognitive, psychological, and
environmental, which play a role in development across the lifespan.

Multidirectional
The nonlinear changes that occur in development over the course of an individual’s life.

Multidisciplinary
Understanding development from multiple disciplines, rather than from a single discipline.

Multifactorial
A result of many factors, both genetic and environmental.

Mutation
A sudden, permanent change in a gene.

Nativism
The belief that human traits and characteristics are a result of evolution and any variations
between and across individuals is due to genetics alone.

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 Nature
The influences of biology and genetics on behavior.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The classic debate over whether human behavior is best explained by biological
programming or social and cultural influence.

Non-Coding RNA
A form of RNA that can break down coding RNA so that protein production does not occur,
which further helps control whether a gene is “on” or “off.”

Non-Universal
The belief that development is not the same for children and varies by cultural background.

Nonnormative Influences
Factors impacting development that are unique to the individual.

Normative Age-Graded Influences

Factors that are biological and/or environmental in nature and are strongly related to an
individual’s chronological age.

Normative History-Graded Influences

Factors that are defined with a specific historical time period, and which dictate the
environmental and/or cultural context of development.

Nurse-Midwife
A healthcare professional who works with women through pregnancy, childbirth, and the
postpartum period, including care of the newborn and gynecological concerns.

Nurture
Environmental, social, and cultural influences on behavior.

Oogenesis
The production or ripening of an ovum and its release every 28 days; begins at puberty.

Peripartum Cardiomyopathy

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 A decrease in heart function which occurs in the last month of pregnancy, or up to six months
post-pregnancy.

Phenotype
An individual’s inherited physical characteristics and observable traits, such as height, eye
color, and blood type.

Placenta
A structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing
embryo from the mother via the umbilical cord.

Placentation
The connection between the fetus and the mother’s uterus.

Placentophagy
A practice of eating the placenta.

Plasticity
Intrapersonal variations in the potential and limits of human development, with an emphasis
on the individual trajectories of developmental outcomes.

Polygenic
A feature that is a result of many genes.

Preeclampsia
Gestational hypertension that involves blood pressure over 160/110, with additional warning
signs.

Pregnancy-Related Death
Death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year of the end of a pregnancy—regardless of
the outcome, duration, or site of the pregnancy—from any cause related to or aggravated by
the pregnancy or its management, except from accidental or incidental causes.

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)

A procedure where selected embryos of the desired sex are implanted during in-vitro
fertilization.

Prenatal Diagnosis

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 Screening that focuses on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular problem
has been found, and can sometimes be more invasive.

Prenatal Screening
Screen that focuses on finding problems among a large population with affordable and
noninvasive methods. The most common screening procedures are routine ultrasounds,
blood tests, and blood pressure measurement.

Prepared Childbirth
An approach to labor and delivery in which the parents are prepared for labor and delivery as
well as parenting roles through education and training.

Proximodistal Development
Direction of growth during the embryonic period from midline outward.

Psychosocial Development
Psychological and social development that occurs as children form relationships, interact with
others, and better understand their feelings.

Quantitative Genetics
Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes
based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.

Reproductive Success
Successful mating and reproduction so that an individual’s genes continue to be passed
down from one generation to the next; key to evolution by natural selection.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

A single-stranded molecule that converts the genetic information contained within DNA to a
format used to build proteins.

Scheduled Induction
A pre-planned date where labor will begin to occur.

Second Stage of Labor

The stage of labor where the baby is passed through the birth canal and it lasts 10-40
minutes with contractions every 2-3 minutes.

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 Secure Attachment
A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of
their caregiver.

Secure Base
A parental presence that gives children a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings.

Segmented Assimilation
An individual adopts certain aspects of cultural subgroups within the mainstream cultural
group.

Self-Actualization
A state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique
way.

Self-Regulation
One’s ability to understand and manage an individual’s behaviors, reactions, and thoughts,
such as emotions, sleep, and eating.

Sex-Linked Chromosomal Abnormality

When the chromosomal abnormality is on pair #23.

Socioemotional
Of and related to one’s social and emotional health and well-being (e.g., understanding
feelings, peer relationships, relating to others).

Spermatogenesis
The production of male gametes in the testes; begins around 12-years-old.

Spontaneous Abortion
Loss of pregnancy.

Stillbirth
Loss of pregnancy at or after 20 weeks.

Temperament

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 Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation,
which is measured by the person’s typical responses to the environment.

Teratogen
A factor that can contribute to birth defects, which include some maternal diseases, drugs,
alcohol, and stress, among others.

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

A theory presented by Charles Darwin that states that organisms that are better suited for
their environment will survive and reproduce while poorly suited organisms will die off.

Third Stage of Labor

The last stage of labor where the placenta is delivered and occurs within 20 minutes of
delivery.

Toxemia
Blood poisoning due to kidney malfunction.

Trait
A specific characteristic of an individual that can be determined by genes, environmental
factors, or by a combination of both.

Translocation Down Syndrome

When an extra part or even the entire chromosome 21 is latched to another chromosome.
Only about 3% of individuals with DS are diagnosed with Translocation.

Trisomy 21
One of the most common chromosomal abnormalities that occurs on pair #21. It comprises
95% of individuals with Down syndrome (DS), and occurs when there are three rather than
two chromosomes on the 21st chromosome.

Turner’s Syndrome
When an ovum which lacks a chromosome is fertilized by a sperm with an X chromosome.
The resulting zygote has an XO composition.

Twin Study
A behavior genetic research method that involves a comparison of the similarity of identical
(monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins.

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 Universal
The belief that development is the same for all children regardless of their cultural
background.

Unscheduled Induction
Labor is initiated, particularly due to medical reasons involving the health and safety of
mother and/or baby.

Vaginal Birth
The process of delivering a baby through the vagina.

Vaginal Birth After Cesarean

A birth that occurs when the first-born is delivered using a Cesarean section and the second
child is birthed vaginally.

Vanishing Twins
A fetus that fails to develop during pregnancy and disintegrates.

Water Birth
Labor and/or delivery that occurs in a warm tub of water.

Zygote
A one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge.

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