ELECTRONIC DEVICES LAB MANUAL

Name: ……………………………….. Reg. No.: ……………

Semester: I Course: B. E. Branch: ECE Code: S13BLH11

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
 INDEX

Sl. No. Name of the Experiment Page No.

1. Study of CRO and Circuit Components 12

2. Characteristics of Semiconductor Diode 18

3. Characteristics of Zener Diode 22

4. Characteristics of Transistor under Common Emitter Configuration 25

5. Characteristics of Transistor under Common Base Configuration 28

6. Characteristics of SCR 31

7. Characteristics of DIAC 34

8. Characteristics of a Astable Multivibrator using IC741 37

9. Half Wave Rectifier with and without filter 40

10. Full Wave Rectifier with and without filter 43

11. Characteristics of LDR 47

12. Characteristics of UJT 49

FAQ FOR ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LAB 52

2
 INTRODUCTION

PASSIVE COMPONENTS: Components which do not require power supply for its operation are called Passive
components. Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors are the important passive components used in
electronics. None of these elements (except electrolytic capacitor) has polarity

Resistors: Resistors restrict the flow of electric current

(or)

Resistor symbol View of the resistor

Example: Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is omega .

1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M .
1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 .

Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands. Each color represents a number as shown in the table.

Most resistors have 4 bands:

 The first band gives the first digit.

 The second band gives the second
digit.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros or Multiplier
 The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance

Colour 1st Band 2 nd Band 3 rd Band Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 0 NIL 1Ω ± 1%
Brown 1 1 1 10 Ω ±2%
Red 2 2 2 100 Ω
Orange 3 3 3 1K Ω
Yellow 4 4 4 10K Ω
Green 5 5 5 100K Ω ± 0.5%
Blue 6 6 6 1 MΩ ±0.25%
Violet 7 7 7 10 MΩ ±0.10%
Gray 8 8 8 ±0.05%
White 9 9 9
Gold ±5%
Silver ±10%

3
This resistor has yellow, violet, orange and gold bands.

So its value is 47× 10K Ω = 47 K .

On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 47K ± 5%

Capacitors

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to
fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter
circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Capacitance: This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be
stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller
values. Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

 µ means 10 -6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

 n means 10 -9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
 p means 10 -12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own
circuit symbol.

Polarised capacitors or Electrolytic Capacitors (large values, 1µF +)

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be
marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end (220µF in picture)
and radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand
upright on the circuit board.

It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating.
The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor.
If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power
supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.

4
 Unpolarised capacitors Polarised capacitors

Capacitor symbol

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because
there are many types of them and several different labeling systems!

Capacitor component view

For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.

104 means 0.1 µF
103 means 0.01 µF
102 means 0.001 µF
204 means 0.2 µF

Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:

For example:
4n7 means 4.7 nF.

0.001 µF
5
ACTIVE COMPONENTS: Components which requires power supply for its operation are called active
components. Diode, Transistor, UJT, FET, IC’S etc. are the important active components used in electronics.
3.1. Diodes: Diode is two terminal devices. Anode and Cathode are the two electrodes (denoted by A and K
respectively) and the later is indicated by any distinct mark on the body of the component. Diodes allow electricity to
flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes
are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves. In figure [ diode component view]
the ring side of the diode terminal is called cathode and other terminal is anode.

Diode symbol Diode component view :

Transistors
Function: Transistors amplify current, for example they
can be used to amplify the small output current from a
logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high
current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to
convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so
the transistor is being used to amplify voltage. A
transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with
maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as
an amplifier (always partly on).
Transistor component view
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard BJT, FET, MOSFET all comes under the category
transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. of transistor. But in normal usage transistor straightaway
The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material means BJT. Some of the commonly used transistors’
used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today package details are illustrated in the bellow figure.
are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from (Using this we can identify the terminals only-not its
silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by type)
learning how to use NPN transistors.The leads are
labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). .
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor
but they are not much help in understanding how a
transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

NPN Transistor PNP Transistor

Transistor symbol

6
 Transistor leads for some common case styles Operational Amplifiers IC-741

Pin-Diagram of IC-741.IC-741 is a 8-pin IC. The

pin diagram is shown in Fig. Every IC should be supplied
with positive and negative dc voltages of +12 and –12
Integrated Circuits (Chips)
volts respectively. +12V should be supplied to pin-7 and
–12V to pin-4. Pin-2 is the inverting input pin and Pin-3
Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They is the non inverting input pin. Output can be measured at
are complex circuits which have been etched onto tiny the output pin-6 with respect to the breadboard ground.
chips of semiconductor (silicon). The chip is packaged in Pins 1 and 5 are used for output offset voltage
a plastic holder with pins spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid compensation. These two pins are not required for
which will fit the holes on strip board and breadboards. normal application.
Very fine wires inside the package link the chip to the
pins. To check the Op-Amp.IC apply Sine wave (1V,1KHz) at
pinno.2, +12V should be supplied to pin-7 and –12V to pin-
Pin numbers: The pins are numbered anti-clockwise around 4.If IC is good the out put (pin no.6)be a square wave with
the IC (chip) starting near the notch or dot. The diagram peaks at +ve Vsat and –ve Vsat, otherwise the IC to be
shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the changed.
principle is the same for all sizes.

The 555 IC Timer: The 8-pin 555 timer IC is used in many

projects, a popular version is the NE555. Most circuits will just
specify '555 timer IC' and the NE555 is suitable for these. The
555 output (pin 3) can sink and source up to 200mA.

To check the 555 IC timer the following procedure

has to be followed. Apply 5V DC to pin no.8 and ground
connection to pin no.1. Now the voltage at pin no. 5 will be
IC-741 pin details
2/3 Vcc (3.3V) hence the Timer IC is in good condition
otherwise the IC to be changed.

7
74 Series Logic ICs

General characteristics
There are several families of logic ICs numbered from 74xx00 onwards with letters (xx) in the middle of the number to
indicate the type of circuitry, eg 74LS00 The 74LS (Low-power Schottky) family (like the original) uses TTL (Transistor-
Transistor Logic) circuitry which is fast but requires more power than later families. The 74 series is often still called the 'TTL
series' even though the latest ICs do not use TTL!

74LS family TTL characteristics:

Quad 2-input gates

 7400 quad 2-input NAND

 7402 quad 2-input NOR
 7404 hex NOT
 7408 quad 2-input AND
 7432 quad 2-input OR
 7486 quad 2-input EX-OR

8
Oscilloscopes (CROs)

An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to look at the 'shape' of electrical signals by displaying a graph of
voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with
time. A reticule with a 1cm grid enables you to take measurements of voltage and time from the screen. The graph, usually
called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green
or blue. This is similar to the way a television picture is produced.

Setting up an oscilloscope

Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to set up and use successfully.
It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are set wrongly! There is some variation in the arrangement and
labeling of the many controls so the following instructions may need to be
adapted for your instrument.

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).

2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the timebase VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace This is what you should see
across the middle of the screen, like the picture. after setting up, when there
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp is no input signal connected
trace.
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use!

Obtaining a clear and stable trace

Once you have connected the oscilloscope to the circuit you wish to test you will need to adjust the controls to obtain a clear
and stable trace on the screen:

 The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace. Choose a setting so the trace occupies at
least half the screen height, but does not disappear off the screen.
 The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps across the screen. Choose a setting
so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal across the screen.
Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for which the timebase setting is not critical.
 The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.
 If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time it is best to start with an easy signal such as the output from an AC
power pack set to about 4V.

9
Measuring voltage and time period
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape
of this graph is determined by the nature of the input signal.In addition to the
properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles
per second.The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any
signal with a constant shape.

The trace of an AC signal

with the oscilloscope
controls correctly set

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts, V.

 Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.

 Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure
peak-peak voltage.
 Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and
 microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
 Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz)are often used.
1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

Voltage

Voltage=distanceincm×volts/cm
Example:peak-peakvoltage=4.2cm×2V/cm=8.4V
amplitude (peak voltage) = ½ × peak-peak voltage = 4.2V
Time period: Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM)
control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number
of cyles per second, frequency = 1/time period. Ensure that the variable time base control is set to 1 or CAL
(calibrated) before attempting to take a time reading.

Time = distance in cm × time/cm

Example: time period = 4.0cm × 5ms/cm = 20ms
and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz

10
Breadboards

The physical diagram of a typical breadboard is

shown in Fig. one. This board can be divided into 4
regions. The top and bottom regions marked by red and
blue lines represent horizontal short. In these regions, all
the pins in a row are shorted internally. In regions 2 and 3
each column is shorted internally. IC should be placed in
between the regions 2 and 3.

Fig. two clearly shows the vertically and horizontally

shorted regions.

Breadboards are used to test circuits. Wires and

components are simply pushed into the holes to form a Fig.: Two
completed circuit and power can be applied. One of the
main advantages of using a breadboard is that the
components are not soldered and if they are positioned
incorrectly they can be moved easily to a new position on
the board.On the breadboard (diagram 1) seen opposite,
letters are used to identify vertical columns and numbers
to identify horizontal rows The red lines on diagram
2 show how some vertical columns and horizontal rows
are internally connected. When power is applied to the
breadboard current flows along these internal connections
Diagram 3 shows how a 380 ohm resistor and an LED are
setup on a breadboard. When a 9 volt battery is attached
the LED lights. Try replacing the resistor with a higher
value such as a 680 ohm resistor. The resistance will be
greater and the LED should shine less bright.

Fig.: One.

11
Expt. No: 1
Date: STUDY OF CRO AND CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
(Identification, color coding, symbols, and checking of electronic components)

AIM: 1) To know about the symbols used to specify electronic components.

2) To understand the color coding scheme used in resistors and capacitors.
3) To identify the given electronic components
4) To acquire the thorough knowledge about checking of the electronic components

1. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS: Circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams which show how a circuit is connected
together. The actual layout of the components is usually quite different from the circuit diagram. To build a
circuit you need a different diagram showing the layout of the parts on. Here we have to discuss some
important component and its symbol.
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Wire To pass current very easily from one part of a circuit to another.

A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are connected (joined), but

it is sometimes omitted. Wires connected at 'crossroads' should
Wires joined
be staggered slightly to form two T-junctions, as shown on the
right.

In complex diagrams it is often necessary to draw wires crossing

even though they are not connected. I prefer the 'bridge' symbol
Wires not joined
shown on the right because the simple crossing on the left may
be misread as a join where you have forgotten to add a 'blob'!

Supplies electrical energy.

The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
Cell
A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a battery is two
or more cells joined together.

Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than one cell.

Battery
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).

DC supply Supplies electrical energy.

DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one direction.

Two coils of wire linked by an iron core. Transformers are used to

step up (increase) and step down (decrease) AC voltages.
Transformer
Energy is transferred between the coils by the magnetic field in
the core. There is no electrical connection between the coils.

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Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A connection to earth. For many electronic circuits this is

Earth the 0V (zero volts) of the power supply, but for mains
(Ground) electricity and some radio circuits it really means the earth.
It is also known as ground.

A resistor restricts the flow of current, for example to limit

the current passing through an LED. A resistor is used with
Resistor a capacitor in a timing circuit.
Some publications still use the old resistor
symbol:

A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor is used with

Capacitor a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to
block DC signals but pass AC signals.

A capacitor stores electric charge. This type must be

Capacitor, connected the correct way round. A capacitor is used with a
polarised resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to
block DC signals but pass AC signals.

Diode A device which only allows current to flow in one direction.

A special diode which is used to maintain a fixed voltage

Zener Diode across its terminals.

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Transistor NPN
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Transistor PNP
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

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 Function of Component
Component Circuit Symbol

Field effect transistor. [FET] is a semiconductor device that

outputs current in proportion to its input voltage. FETs use a
FET small amount of control current to regulate a larger output
current.

Unijunction transistor [UJT] is a voltage-controlled switch

that controls current. It has only one junction. The UJT
having three terminals an emitter (E) and two bases (B1
UJT
and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of
silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its
ends

A silicon-controlled rectifier is a four-layer solid state device

that controls current. An SCR consists of four layers of
alternating P and N type semiconductor materials (PNPN)
SCR
with three terminals: an input control terminal (gate), an
output terminal (anode), and a terminal common to both the
input and output (cathode).

Diode alternating current switch [DIAC] is a semiconductor

DIAC
device that can conduct current in either direction, but not
until breakdown voltage has been exceeded.

Microphone A transducer which converts sound to electrical energy.

Loudspeaker A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

A NOT gate can only have one input. The 'o' on the output
means 'not'. The output of a NOT gate is the inverse
NOT (opposite) of its input, so the output is true when the input is
false. A NOT gate is also called an inverter.

14
 Function of Component
Component Circuit Symbol

An AND gate can have two or more inputs. The output of an

AND
AND gate is true when all its inputs are true.

An NAND gate can have two or more inputs. The output of

NAND
an NAND gate is true when all its inputs are true.

An OR gate can have two or more inputs. The output of an

OR
OR gate is true when at least one of its inputs is true

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs. The 'o' on the
output means 'not' showing that it is a Not OR gate. The
NOR
output of a NOR gate is true when none of its inputs are
true.

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs. The output of an

EX-OR EX-OR gate is true when its inputs are different (one true,
one false).

It is abbreviated as LDR. Light Dependent Resistor is used

Light Dependent to convert light into its corresponding resistance. Instead of
Resistor (LDR) directly measuring the light, it senses the heat content and
converts it onto resistance.

15
 OBSERVATION:-
To understand the color coding scheme used in resistors and capacitors.
Example 1: For a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22 Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K at 5% tolerance:
Band 1 = Red, 1st digit
Band 2 = Red, 2nd digit
Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 3 zero's
Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%
Example 2: For a Precision Metal Film 19200 Ohms or 19.2 Kilo-Ohms (19K2) at 1% tolerance.
Band 1 = Brown, 1st digit
Band 2 = White, 2nd digit
Band 3 = Red, 3rd digit
Band 4 = Red, 4th digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 2 zero's
Band 5 = Brown, Tolerance, 1%
Band 6 = Blue, Temperature Coefficient, 6
Note: If the 3rd band is gold it means multiplying by 0.1. Example, 1.2 ohm @ 5% would be brown-red-
gold-gold. 12 multiplied by 0.1 gives 1.2 ohms. Don't get confused by gold as a resistance or a tolerance value.
Just watch the location/position of the band.

Sl. Resistor Color Code Number

No. Value
I - Ring II - Ring III - Ring I V- Ring
1
2
3
4
5

TO MEASURE VOLTAGE AND TIME PERIOD IN CRO

Voltage [VM ] = Distance in cm (Y axis +ve peak) X Volts/cm

(OR)
VM = ½ X Distance in cm (Y axis peak-peak) X Volts/cm

Time [T] = Distance in cm (X axis ON Time + OFF Time period) X Time/ Division in ms or µs

Time Total Time Frequency Amplitude

Sl. No. Waveform
ON Time OFF Time Period T in Sec. F= in Hz VM in Volts

1 Sine Wave
2 Triangular Wave
3 Square Wave

16
 To identify the given electronic components
1) The transistor can be considered as two diodes ie The base emitter junction forms one diode and the
collector base junction forms the other.
2) Individually check both the junctions and confirm both are OK.
3) Also there must not be any collector emitter short.
4) If we know the type and terminals of the transistor exactly then it can be straightaway inserted in the slot
provided in the digital multimeter (and the rotary switch of the meter pointing hfe) and read the value .If the
hfe value is in between 50 and 300 the transistor is OK.
To acquire the thorough knowledge about checking of the electronic components
Diode :
1) Keep the Multimeter in resistance or continuity mode.
2) Connect the two test probe on either side of the diode.
3) Either it reads low resistance or shows high resistance.
4) Reverse the probe connections
5) Now the meter should read opposite to that of the step 3
i) If it is so then the diode is OK,
ii) In this case while showing the low resistance the electrode connected to the positive probe is anode.
6) If the meter reads in the same way for both the connections then the diode is useless.
I ) If it is low resistance, the diode is said to be shorted.
ii) If it is high then the diode is open
Passive components :
1) For measuring resistors multimeters can be used.
2) For measuring capacitors and inductors RLC meters, bridges are available.
3) i) For Electrolytic capacitor connect the two probes of the multimeter to the either end of the device. The
meter immediately flash to low resistance and slowly returns to the high value. Remove one end of the
probe for an instant and reconnect it .There must not be any change.
ii) Reverse the connection and the meter re-shots. If it is so then the electrolytic capacitor is working
Component & Equipment
Sl.
No.
Equipment Range Component Name Number
1 Regulated Power Supply (RPS) Diode
2 Audio Oscillator (A/O) Zener Diode
3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) Transistor
4 Field Effect Transistor Voltmeter (FETVM) Field Effect Transistor
5 Decade Resistance Box (DRB) Uni Junction Transistor
6 Decade Conductance Box (DCB) SCR
7 Decade Inductance Box (DIB) Diac

Result: Thus we understood to identify the Equipments and Components in Electronic Devices Laboratory

17
Expt. No: 2
Date: CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

AIM: To plot the VI characteristics of a PN junction diode in both forward and reverse biased condition
To calculate its cut in voltage, forward resistance and reverse resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED –

Sl.No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Regulated Power supply (0-30) V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-50) mA, (0-250) μA Each one
4 DC Voltmeter (0-1) V, (0-30) V Each one
5 Resistor 1KΩ,, 10KΩ, Each one
6 Bread board and Connecting wires

THEORY:-
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are curve
between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is
open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero. When
P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is connected to –ve terminal of the
supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward
biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts
flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases
with increasing forward voltage. When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is
connected to the –ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier
across the junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small
current (reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse
bias current is due to minority charge carriers.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

18
MODEL WAVEFORM:-

PROCEDURE:-
FORWARD BIAS:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the silicon diode and RPS –ve is connected
to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode for each
and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated and a graph is plotted between voltage and current.
6. Repeat the above procedure for Germanium diode also and tabulate the results.

19
REVERSE BIAS:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2 . For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the silicon diode and RPS –ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the diode for each and
every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated and graph is plotted between voltage and current.
7. Repeat the above procedure for the given Germanium diode also and tabulate the results obtained.
OBSERVATION:-
FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS:-
Forward bias Forward bias Sl. No. Reverse bias Reverse bias
Sl. No.
voltage (V) current (mA) Voltage (V) current (μA)
1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0.1 2 20 (μA)
3 0.2 3 40 (μA)
4 0.3 4 60 (μA)
5 0.4 5 80 (μA)
6 0.42 6 100 (μA)
7 0.44 7 120 (μA)
8 0.46 8 140 (μA)
9 0.48 9 160 (μA)
10 0.5 10 180 (μA)
11 0.52 11 200 (μA)
12 0.54
13 0.56
14 0.58
15 0.6
15 0.62
17 0.64

RESULT: The forward and reverse characteristics of the semiconductor diode has been plotted
The forward resistance of the diode = ---------
The cut-in voltage of the diode = ---------

20
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION

21
Expt. No: 3
Date: CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM: - a) To plot the VI characteristics of a ZENER diode in both forward and reverse biased condition

APPARATUS REQUIRED –

Sl. No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Regulated Power supply (0-30) V 1
2 Zener Diode FZ 9.1V 1.
3 DC Ammeters (0-50) mA, 1
4 DC Voltmeter (0-1) V, (0-20) V Each one
5 Resistor 1KΩ 1
6 Bread board and Connecting wires

Theory:-
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the sharp break down
voltage. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But a zener diode is always
reverse connected i.e it is always reverse-biased. When forward biased, its Characteristics are just those of
ordinary diode. In reverse bias ,if the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting
heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. The zener diode is not immediately burnt just because
it has entered the breakdown region. As long as the external circuit connected to the diode limits the diode
current to less than burnt out value, the diode will not burnt out. It is mainly used in voltage regulators.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:- STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:-

PROCEDURE -
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The zener current (lz), and the zener voltage (Vz.) are observed and then noted in the tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between zener current (Iz) and zener voltage (Vz).
5. Do the above steps for forward as well as reverse bias connections as shown in the circuit diagrams.

22
MODEL WAVEFORMS

OBSERVATIONS:-
Forward bias Reverse bias
Sl.No Forward bias Forward bias Sl.No Reverse bias Reverse bias
voltage (V) current (mA) voltage (V) current (mA)
1 0 1 0 mA
2 .1 2 1 mA
3 .2 3 2 mA
4 .3 4 3 mA
5 .4 5 4 mA
6 .42 6 5 mA
7 .44 7 6 mA
8 .46 8 7 mA
9 .48 9 8 mA
10 .5 10 9 mA
11 .52 11 10 mA
12 .54 12 11 mA
13 .56 13 12 mA
14 .58 14 13 mA
15 .60 15 14 mA
16 .62 16 15 mA
RESULT: The forward and reverse characteristics of the zener diode has been plotted.

23
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION

24
Expt. No 4
Date DESIGN OF HALFWAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER
AIM:

To design the Half Wave Rectifier with and without filter for the given data.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Diode 1N4007 1

2 Step down Transformer As per design 1

3 DC Ammeters (0-50) Ma 1

4 DC Voltmeter (0-30) V 1

5 Resistor As per design

6 Capacitor As per design

7 Bread board and Connecting wires

THEORY:

Rectifier is defined as the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). The simplest
kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier. It only allows one half of an AC waveform to pass through
to the load. In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the
other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is very inefficient if
used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one-phase supply,
or with three diodes in a three-phase supply. Half wave rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct
current

26
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

MODRL GRAPH :

27
PROCEDURE:

1. Circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Using design calculations the values of resistance, capacitor, and rating of the transformer are fixed.
3. The output waveform of HWR is observed using CRO.
4. The Voltmeter and ammeter readings show Vdc and Idc respectively.
5. Using the standard formula, the values for ripple factor efficiency and regulation are calculated.
6. The above procedure is repeated for various values of RL.
7. For HWR with filter, a capacitor is connected across R and it serves to bypass AC components to ground.
8. The above procedure is repeated and observations are made as earlier.

TABULATION:

Sl. No. Description Theoretical Value Practical Value

1 I dc 17 mA

2 V dc 9V

WAVEFORM:

Sl. No. Description Time period (in ms) Amplitude (in Volts)

1
Input Wave form

2 Output Waveform

(With out Filter)

3 Output Waveform ---------------

(With Filter)

RESULT:

The design of half wave rectifier with and without filter has been performed and the regulation and efficiency
curves are drawn.

28
LAB#3a: FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT WITHOUT
AND WITH FILTER

Objectives:

1. To construct a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit and analyze its output.

2. To analyze the rectifier output using a capacitor in shunt as a filter.

Overview:

As you have seen already a half-wave rectifier circuit is unsuitable to applications

which need a "steady and smooth" dc supply voltage. One method to improve on this is
to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other half-cycle. The circuit
which allows us to do this is called a Full-wave Rectifier. Here, unidirectional current
flows in the output for both the cycles of input signal and rectifies it. The rectification can
be done either by a center tap full wave rectifier (using two diodes) or a full wave bridge
rectifier (using four diodes). In this experiment we will study a full wave bridge rectifier.

The Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same

output as a full-wave rectifier is that of the
Bridge Rectifier (Fig. 1). This type of single
phase rectifier uses 4 individual rectifying
diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to
produce the desired output but does not require
a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing Fig. 1: Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown in figure. The 4 diodes labeled D1
to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current during each
half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in
series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load
as shown below (Fig. 2). During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4
conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The
current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

Fig. 2: Working of Full-wave bridge rectifier

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across
the load is also unidirectional during both the half cycles. Thus, the average dc output
voltage across the load resistor is double that of a half-wave rectifier circuit, assuming no
losses.

2Vmax
Vdc   0.637Vmax


Ripple factor:
As mentioned in the previous lab the ripple factor is a measure of purity of the
d.c. output of a rectifier and is defined as

2
V (output ) 2
V rms  Vdc2 2
V rms  0.707 
r  ac  2
 2
1     1  0.48
Vdc (output ) Vdc Vdc  0.637 

In case of a full-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/√2 = 0.707Vmax. The ripple frequency is now
twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply).
Rectification Efficiency:
Rectification efficiency, η, is given by
  d .c . power delivered to load a .c . power at input
 Vdc I dc Vac I ac
Vdc
2
RL 0.637Vmax 2 0.811
  
2
V s ( rd  R L )  rd   r 
0.707Vmax 2  1    1  d 
 RL   RL 
where rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss
(rd<<), the rectification efficiency in case of a full-wave rectifier is approximately 81.1%,
which is twice the value for a half-wave rectifier.

Filter:

Smoothing
Capacitor

C Charges C Disharges

(Output waveform
without capacitor)

(With capacitor)

Fig.3: Full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter

The full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter is shown in Fig. 3. The
smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth
dc output voltage. The detailed description of its filtering action is already explained in
half-wave rectifier handout. Two important parameters to consider when choosing a
suitable a capacitor are its working voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output
value of the rectifier and its capacitance value, which determines the amount of ripple
that will appear superimposed on top of the dc voltage.

Apart from rectification efficiency, the main advantages of a full-wave bridge

rectifier is that it has a smaller ac ripple value for a given load and a smaller smoothing
capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier. The amount of ripple voltage that is
superimposed on top of the dc supply voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by
adding other improved filters such as a pi-filter.

Circuit components/Equipments:

(i) A step-down transformer, (ii) 4 junction diodes, (iii) 3 Load resistors, (iv)
Capacitor, (v) Oscilloscope, (vi) Multimeters, (vii) Connecting wires, (viii)
Breadboard.

Circuit Diagram: (As shown in Fig. 1 and 3)

Procedure:

i) Configure the full-wave rectifier circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Note
down all the values of the components being used.
ii) Connect the primary side of the transformer to the a.c. Mains and secondary to the
input of the circuit.
iii) Measure the input a.c. voltage (Vac) and current (Iac) and the output a.c. (Vac) and
d.c. (Vdc) voltages using multimeter for at least 3 values of load resistor (Be
careful to choose proper settings of multimeter for ac and dc measurement).
iv) Feed the input and output to the oscilloscope (we will use oscilloscope here only
to trace the output waveform) and save the data for each measurement.
MEASURE THE INPUT AND OUTPUT VOLTAGES SEPARATELY.
v) Multiply the Vac at the input by √2 to get the peak value and calculate Vdc Using
the formula Vdc = 2Vmax/ π. Compare this value with the measured Vdc at the
output.
 vi) Calculate the ripple factor and efficiency.
vii) Connect the capacitor across the output for each load resistor. Measure the output
a.c. and d.c. voltages once again and calculate the ripple factor. Trace the input
and output waveforms in oscilloscope and notice the change. (If time permits you
could also use different values of capacitors and study the output)

Observations:
1. Code number of diode = ________
2. Input Voltage: Vac = _________ Volt

Table(I): Full-wave rectifier w/o filter

Sl. No Load Input Output Voltage Ripple Efficiency η

RL (kΩ) Current Vac Vdc 2Vmax/ π Factor (Vdc2/RL)/VacIac
Iac (mA) (Volt) (Volt) (Volt) r (%)
1
2
3

Table(II): Full-wave rectifier with filter (C = ____ μF)

Sl. No Load Output Voltage Ripple Factor

RL (kΩ) Vac (Volt) Vdc (Volt) r
1
2
3
(III) Input and output waveforms:

Waveforms without Filter:

RL = ______
Input Output
(Paste data here)

Waveforms with Capacitor Filter:

RL = ______
Input Output
(Paste data here)

Discussions:

Precautions:

________________________________________________________________________
Expt. No 6
Date:
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)

AIM: To determine the resistance of LDR when illuminated and covered.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Regulated Power supply (0-30) V 1
2 LDR ------ 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-50) mA, 1
4 DC Voltmeter (0-50) V 1
5 Resistor 1KΩ 1
6 Bread board and Connecting wires

THEORY:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made of a thin layer of semiconductor material such as cadmium
sulfide or lead sulfide. The semiconductor layer is enclosed in a sealed housing. A glass window in the
housing permits light to fall on the active material of the cell. It exhibits the property that its resistance
decreases in the presence of light and increases in the absence of light. The LDR simply acts as a
conductor whose resistance changes when illuminated.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
LIGHT DEPENDENT
RESISTOR (LDR) SYMBOL

LDR COMPONENT VIEW

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The supply voltage is given.
3. The LDR is covered and voltage and current readings are noted.
4. The voltage applied is further increased and corresponding readings are noted.
5. The experiment is repeated in illuminated conditions and readings are noted.

29
MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATIONS:
WITH LIGHT WITH OUT LIGHT
Sl.No Voltage in V Current in mA Sl.No Voltage in V Current in mA

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8
9 9 9 9
10 10 10 10
RESULT: The resistance of LDR when illuminated and covered has been calculated.
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION

30
Expt.No:7
Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION

AIM: To determine the input & output characteristics of the transistor when operated on common emitter
configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Sl. No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty
1 Regulated Power supply (0-30) V 2
2 Transistor BC 107 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-50) mA, (0-250) μA Each one
4 DC Voltmeter (0-50) V 1
5 FET Voltmeter (0-1.5) V 1
6 Resistor 1KΩ, 100KΩ Each one
7 Bread board and Connecting wires

THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In common emitter
configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is taken across the
collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter terminal is common to both input and output. The
input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected since the Base-Emitter
junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with
VBE . Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit. The output characteristics
are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector current varies with VCE unto few volts only.
After this the collector current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to
which the collector current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always operated in
the region above Knee voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.The current
amplification factor of CE configuration is given by β = ΔIC/ΔIB

38
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARECTERSTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V and
for different values of VBE, note down the values of IC
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V.
4. Tabulate all the readings.
5. Plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE
OUTPUT CHARACTERSTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 10μA and
for different values of VCE note down the values of IC
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75 μA 100 μA
4. Tabulate the all the readings
5. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB
MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

39
OBSERVATIONS:
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS IB = 10 μA IB = 20 μA
VCE=0V VCE=1V S.No
.No VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)
VBE(V) IB (μA) VEB(V) IB (μA) 1 0V 0 0V 0
1 0 0 μA 0 0 μA 2 2V 2V
2 25 μA 25 μA 3 3V 3V
3 50 μA 50 μA 4 4V 4V
4 75 μA 75 μA 5 5V 5V
5 100 μA 100 μA 6 6V 6V
6 125 μA 125 μA 7 7V 7V
7 150 μA 150 μA 8 8V 8V
8 175 μA 175 μA 9 9V 9V
9 200 μA 200 μA 10 10 V 10 V
10 225 μA 225 μA 11 11 V 11 V
11 250 μA 250 μA

RESULT: The input and output characteristics of transistor under common emitter configuration has
been plotted

40
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION

41
Expt.No:8
Date: CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

AIM: To determine the input & output characteristics of the transistor when operated on common base
configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Regulated Power supply (0-30) V 2
2 Transistor BC 107 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-50) mA 2
4 DC Voltmeter (0-50) V 1
5 FET Voltmeter (0-1.5) V DC Mode 1
6 Resistor 1KΩ, 5.6 KΩ Each one
7 Bread board and Connecting wires
THEORY:
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the base connection
is common to both the input signal and the output signal with the input signal being applied between the
base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is taken from between the base and the
collector terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage
point. For normal operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. The
input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current and collector
current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter current input resulting in a
current gain for this type of circuit of "1" (unity) or less, in other words the common base configuration
"attenuates" the input signal.

42
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 0V and for different
values of VEB note down the values of IE.
3. Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 2V, 4V, and 6V.All the readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE iskept constant at 10m A and for different values of
VCB, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 20 mA, 40 mA, and 60 mA, all the readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VCB and Ic for constant IE

43
OBSERVATIONS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCB=0V VCB=1V IE = 1 mA IE = 2 mA
S.No S.No
VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA) VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V) IC (mA)
1 0 mA 0 mA 1 0V 0V
2 0.5 mA 0.5 mA 2 1V 1V
3 1 mA 1 mA 3 2V 2V
4 1.5 mA 1.5 mA   
5 2 mA 2 mA   
6 2.5 mA 2.5 mA 10 9V 9V
7 3 mA 3 mA 11 10 V 10 V

MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltages should not exceed the rating of the transistor.
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities.

RESULT: The input and output characteristics of transistor under common base configuration has been
plotted.

44
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION

45