Calculus Notes
1. Limits
Definition:
lim(x→a) f(x) = L
Important Limits:
1. lim(x→0) (sin x / x) = 1
2. lim(x→0) (tan x / x) = 1
3. lim(x→0) (1 - cos x) / x² = 1/2
4. lim(x→∞) (1 + 1/x)^x = e
5. lim(x→0) (1 + x)^(1/x) = e
6. lim(x→0) (a^x - 1) / x = ln a
7. lim(x→0) (log(1+x)/x) = 1
--------------------------------------------------
2. Differentiation
Definition:
f'(x) = lim(h→0) [f(x+h) - f(x)] / h
Standard Derivatives:
d/dx (x^n) = n x^(n-1)
d/dx (sin x) = cos x
d/dx (cos x) = -sin x
d/dx (tan x) = sec²x
d/dx (cot x) = -csc²x
d/dx (sec x) = sec x tan x
d/dx (csc x) = -csc x cot x
d/dx (e^x) = e^x
d/dx (a^x) = a^x ln a
d/dx (ln x) = 1/x
Rules:
Product Rule: (uv)' = u'v + uv'
Quotient Rule: (u/v)' = (u'v - uv')/v²
Chain Rule: dy/dx = (dy/du) * (du/dx)
--------------------------------------------------
3. Integration
Definition:
∫ f'(x) dx = f(x) + C
Standard Integrals:
∫ x^n dx = (x^(n+1))/(n+1) + C (n ≠ -1)
∫ (1/x) dx = ln|x| + C
∫ e^x dx = e^x + C
∫ a^x dx = a^x / ln a + C
∫ sin x dx = -cos x + C
∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
∫ sec²x dx = tan x + C
∫ csc²x dx = -cot x + C
∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
∫ csc x cot x dx = -csc x + C
∫ 1/(1+x²) dx = tan■¹x + C
∫ 1/√(1-x²) dx = sin■¹x + C
∫ 1/√(x²-1) dx = ln|x+√(x²-1)| + C
Integration by Parts:
∫ u v dx = u ∫ v dx - ∫ (u' ∫ v dx) dx
Definite Integration Properties:
∫a^a f(x) dx = 0
∫a^b f(x) dx = -∫b^a f(x) dx
∫a^b f(x) dx = ∫a^b f(a+b-x) dx
--------------------------------------------------
4. Applications of Derivatives
Rolle’s Theorem:
If f(a)=f(b), continuous [a,b], differentiable (a,b)
→ ∃ c ∈ (a,b): f'(c)=0
Mean Value Theorem:
∃ c ∈ (a,b): f'(c) = (f(b)-f(a))/(b-a)
Maxima/Minima Test:
f'(x)=0, f''(x)>0 → Minima
f'(x)=0, f''(x)<0 → Maxima
