hat j5 an Algortbm2
Ao alqorithm is a inite set ot (nstucthionsthat,
iF
followed a ccomplishes a task aoon
partialar
In addition allalgorithms must gahsk tne folloain
8Cate n'a!
Input : Zero qugnhtes re externaly
Supplied.
2. Output:At least ne quanithy I5 produced
3.Detiniteness:Eachinshruchonisclearond uhambiauaus.
. Finiteness: we trace ot theinstructiobs
o} an
ahaorthm,then ioral)Casesthe alg
terminates after a finite
number o steps.
veness.Everyinstruchíonmust be very ba sic
5. Effecti
90 that itcan be carriedout
frograrm
A
A proaram is the expres5ionof an algor'tbmin a.
proqramming onguaqe lahquaqes axe desiqsed
Such
Gretnat ensh 9entence hsu a oigue
legitimaie
meonin
Someimes words Such cu proceduTe Funchon,and
Subroutine are used
Used Synony mouly tor prgra
he Stud o alaonthms includes many importantand
gctive red 5 t e sedrch There are tour distnctareas
.
Stud- One identity'
1.Houw to device alqorithms
2. How to validale alqorithms.
B. Houw to nalyze alqorithms
How to fest a proaram.
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How to devise algonthms art which may Dever
algonith i6 an
Creating
be Flly qutomatedimportant desan technigues uck
There qre some
liocar non-linearandnrqer pragramining
are not covered bere
here a5
as they are traditionalky
Coe
How to validate Alqorithms
Once an alo. i6
denced iti5 necessary show
that it computes the Corect ansuer tor al)posk
legalinputs. we geier to this process as alaune
validation.
3
How to Analyze alqor'thms
Tbis eld of study iskho wn a
$ As an odaorithm i6 executedit
uses the
Computer's CPU to perorm operahonsandts
memo to bol the proqrm and data
emog
AoA
performance anaysi me Fers to thetat
o deterrmininqhow much omputing timeand
6torage an alontom Tequre s.
How tO test
gram
d sing debuggin meosren
proiing perioroante
-ent
debuagioq y process o
executinq proqrams 0?
-Sample ato ses to
Teswt
determine tauhy heher
cCur end S0, to Correct hem
bovn
Per
oound
tomplenity
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2025.08.061hptdata
eoo
Os-Ho algohm is
ecoleei
n ncal oesf d scehoso
rcer
Manpuoby
t
What is more impostant thon perormance
madalarity User- Fr'endlyness
Correctnes5 Proqrammer time
mauntainability Simplicihy
Functionality extensibi)lity
Robustness Reliability
why alorithms
stud pexforrmance2
Algonttmshelp w to understand $ca)ability
Pertormonce oftendraas tbe ine betwees ha is
teosibleand wbat is (mpass ble. i
Alqon thic athamatics provides aJanguaqe
mathermatics o
talking aboutproqrambehavior.
Pertormance i5 the Currenc
uTrencyotcomputing
Hotahion
tsympto tic
Worst Bestotota
Average
Co se Case Case
Biq 0h.
Theta
Notation Notationaoto20
Notation
perbound Lower bound Avera
Runct'on Funcion
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adechesry
2025.08.06 11:28
Worst Caue
It i5 the lonqest time thot an alqo nthm will User over
all instances of size n for q
Ven problem to prodce
desired result.
Averase Casei
Cas
It is the qveraqe time (oraverage Space )thatthe
alqorithm oi) se Over dll instdnces 5i7DTora
venpobem to ptodue desiredest
Best Case:
the shostest time (or eat space)thatthe
algonthm wil) use startioginstances o 5iza n tr
gi ven problem to prod ucea
desfred reswt
4nptohc Hotatona
Calaulate the munning trme camplehy of an alaonh
BiaOb Ho tati'on Norst Case
The Notation OCo) 5 the tormo
the upper bound ot an alaonthnms
measures he Worst Case ime omptex 0r the
amount of time an
longest
take to complete
a3it
T
fco) indicat
)ven iof
ooC9tj upper
bound ttme comar
he.
fCn)
coropex
blgonthm
q Cn) i5 on
Toe
aymptothic upper
beund For cn )
Ioput do
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Omeqa Notaljon Best case
The notationn
Co) isthe For mo) y to express the
Aower oound at an algonthm's runningtime
neasures the best case time complexity
0Y fhe.
best amound ot o time an alaoritbm can pos5ibly
take
to complebe
fcm)-9Cn)4C-fcn)
baund
eerLauler
cooplexity
Time
K
Input data
C) indicaleven jnpw
gcn indícaes bJe best cae time Complex/ty oftheazo.
Theta Notation
The nohat'on e co)is a torma fo expres both
way to
the ower bound upperr bund of an algontin's
unning time with A verage coe time complexiy
e(Fn)=0(F)& g cn)=(fe))
Bound
lower BoundK Time Uppex
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WoST care
4m iveninput
go)Bestcare
Follawoing
aist
i5 ot ome
s Common symptot'e
Htaho
Constant
ic
logarth
oear
n log Cnl0qh,
Quad ratie
Cubic
palynomial
Exponenhial
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Time Conmplexity
deal,u)ththe quontiicat
time taken
lon The amount o
by a set of
oF code or alaonthm tomocess.
psoces
Tund5 a funchionf
the amount ofinput.
Tine complexih is de'ned oOU the number ot tines
a onrtblar bstmuction setis exeutedather than
the toa time taken. depends on 3ome externa
Factorskethe compilex ed the poCessoT's speed
tc:
Thetime TCe) taken by aproqram Pi3
the Compile time ond tbe runtimeCexecutton
Constaot time oY 0C1),s
the time complexIhy
tot an alsethm tha aays Le the-6ame nd.
of aperahons,reqardleso0 no.oelements
bena_
operated
For alaontb to returnthe lenqth o
single operahion to return
the
index number
er oftheindex bumber o the ioa
element inthe ist
doesnot imply that only One perahion is
Gused that the
butrather number oF peraH'ons
ways Constant
neaT Hme oY 0Co) indicat thatthe time
es it
takes an ag0 rih m qTOus in a linear
fauhi
as ncreaes In time searchin
linear
list oo0 recods shou)d toke rodahy l time
\ong searching
which in turn shoudd be take
a st lo0records,
goughly l
searchng Jist oF o records.
longas a
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Quardrattc
Hasnyanitbmis
Time oY 0Cagnindicotes
tbo the
needed to n an olgori
thm ro0s as a togoh ro
n For ex ample- in a ion
6elect 5 onst
aqonhn
hstis sortedb4
b repedledly ndingthe
min Vvalue the unsrted patf of +he )
and pla cinq the beqininq
this vaue ir the
Because the no o operations needed to fnd
minm va ue in the 'st ago u5 the lengtb O
the starousand the no úes
ValMes
Hhat nust be sonted ago arOUOS with n,the
total noo o operati'ons qTOWS uwth n'.hoe
algonthns qrows much faster than tbose ado
ipeor time
Loqa mtbm c Hme Coq n) ndcoe d the
time needed to un alqp ithm
-nhm n.
tit
o
9e0rch orted ispertor
med The istis Gearched b divding inholE
repeadey untlthe desired elemeot is ound
The ro.o ivsians cessa to nd the ee
necesso
arows with the
thon a)4
proporton to n
noq n)iss)ewer
routh ratetho OCnth theecyotonw
have ower i me
mplexitthon neor tfmu
algonthms.
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,P, 1p-7ord,f-coglete
PalynomoJ &
on - polynomia time
Poly nomials only involveaperatton of
sub fraction mutiplicahion addition
dnd non-negahve
inteqeT xponents.
on- Polynomuals CoD hvolve otherOperaond
exponents
polunomia-timealgo 15 one whose running
time qrows as a poly nomial funchtan at the
4i2 e o isinput
ardeT
NP-Hgrd
ard
medium
Easy
ent EasyP
Medum > NP
NP-Complete
Hordest Np- Hard
The pin the Pchass 6tands or Polyo.dmdtm
i5 the collechon decision problem Cproble
answer) that
de 6HC
ermini achinein
Qqn be 6olved a
m
poynomial timei
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11:29
eotures :
P-psoblems jis eauy to
Hod
The solutionto
often a class camputarionalneo b le
Pis
Golvable ond tractable
th are
poblem5 Can be sole
Tractable meanS that the
in theoy as well as in prach'ce.But the
that can be solved in theo but
proems
in Qractice ar known
not
This class Confansproblemsmany
the qreatest Lommon divses
Calcalatig atchio
mamum
Fnbin
Merge sot
The in N las6 6 stands fo Hon- determin
Pol nom ià Time. It15 the collectronot
dec'sion problems that Oan be Solved
be a non -
-determintsHc nochine in ponomia n
time.
Feat ures
The 6olutions thefla55 are hTd to nd
since tbey are non- determipst'
beig Bo1ved a
machine but the Solut'ons
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vere - O Cn)- Bedr
OCn - Wors
Selehiem
Ne -hard class
An Np-ba rd problem i5 at least as bard os
the in NP and
hordest problem qdleS5. s
that erenyoblem
prrobiermsuch
redaces to p-aro.
Features
1e-ard09plemsaTe notin p
themHmeto chbeck
takes a long
long
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Speibic
oblem ,aste method
Method:onlybr
3.MOster
thon
MteY
ubtitutionnethod)
Method
i a direct 00y tO
follouoing
qet the
type
Solution or the e
Method
wOTKSOnly that an
ReuYence
xonxhormed itotheI1owinqpe
a T(b)
FCn) +
Tn) =
ohere
€.9. ReencevRelaio
1. T(n)=T
()+n
+n
. TCn)- 8T(n/a)
3. T(n)= T(n/)t c
nd
d Can be Solve
Anong thil only
theorern
uaing mater
:
loluton
Tn)=
U (n) depends on hCn)
hln) F (n)
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