Multidimensional Data Model

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The multi-Dimensional Data Model is a method which is used for ordering data in the database along with
good arrangement and assembling of the contents in the database.
The Multi Dimensional Data Model allows customers to interrogate analytical questions associated with
market or business trends, unlike relational databases which allow customers to access data in the form of
queries. They allow users to rapidly receive answers to the requests which they made by creating and
examining the data comparatively fast.
OLAP (online analytical processing) and data warehousing uses multi dimensional databases. It is used to
show multiple dimensions of the data to users.
It represents data in the form of data cubes. Data cubes allow to model and view the data from many
dimensions and perspectives. It is defined by dimensions and facts and is represented by a fact table. Facts are
numerical measures and fact tables contain measures of the related dimensional tables or names of the facts.

Multidimensional Data Representation

Working on a Multidimensional Data Model

On the basis of the pre-decided steps, the Multidimensional Data Model works.
The following stages should be followed by every project for building a Multi Dimensional Data Model :
Stage 1 : Assembling data from the client : In first stage, a Multi Dimensional Data Model collects correct
data from the client. Mostly, software professionals provide simplicity to the client about the range of data
which can be gained with the selected technology and collect the complete data in detail.

Stage 2 : Grouping different segments of the system : In the second stage, the Multi Dimensional Data
Model recognizes and classifies all the data to the respective section they belong to and also builds it problem-
free to apply step by step.
Stage 3 : Noticing the different proportions : In the third stage, it is the basis on which the design of the
system is based. In this stage, the main factors are recognized according to the user’s point of view. These
factors are also known as “Dimensions”.

Stage 4 : Preparing the actual-time factors and their respective qualities : In the fourth stage, the factors
which are recognized in the previous step are used further for identifying the related qualities. These qualities
are also known as “attributes” in the database.

Stage 5 : Finding the actuality of factors which are listed previously and their qualities : In the fifth
stage, A Multi Dimensional Data Model separates and differentiates the actuality from the factors which are
collected by it. These actually play a significant role in the arrangement of a Multi Dimensional Data Model.

Stage 6 : Building the Schema to place the data, with respect to the information collected from the steps
above : In the sixth stage, on the basis of the data which was collected previously, a Schema is built.

For Example:

1. Let us take the example of a firm. The revenue cost of a firm can be recognized on the basis of different
factors such as geographical location of firm’s workplace, products of the firm, advertisements done, time
utilized to flourish a product, etc.

Example 1
2. Let us take the example of the data of a factory which sells products per quarter in Bangalore. The data is
represented in the table given below:

2D factory data

In the above given presentation, the factory’s sales for Bangalore are, for the time dimension, which is
organized into quarters and the dimension of items, which is sorted according to the kind of item which is sold.
The facts here are represented in rupees (in thousands).
Now, if we desire to view the data of the sales in a three-dimensional table, then it is represented in the
diagram given below. Here the data of the sales is represented as a two dimensional table. Let us consider the
data according to item, time and location (like Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai). Here is the table :

3D data representation as 2D

This data can be represented in the form of three dimensions conceptually, which is shown in the image below
:
 3D data representation

Features of multidimensional data models:

Measures: Measures are numerical data that can be analyzed and compared, such as sales or revenue. They are
typically stored in fact tables in a multidimensional data model.
Dimensions: Dimensions are attributes that describe the measures, such as time, location, or product. They are
typically stored in dimension tables in a multidimensional data model.
Cubes: Cubes are structures that represent the multidimensional relationships between measures and
dimensions in a data model. They provide a fast and efficient way to retrieve and analyze data.
Aggregation: Aggregation is the process of summarizing data across dimensions and levels of detail. This is a
key feature of multidimensional data models, as it enables users to quickly analyze data at different levels of
granularity.
Drill-down and roll-up: Drill-down is the process of moving from a higher-level summary of data to a lower
level of detail, while roll-up is the opposite process of moving from a lower-level detail to a higher-level
summary. These features enable users to explore data in greater detail and gain insights into the underlying
patterns.
Hierarchies: Hierarchies are a way of organizing dimensions into levels of detail. For example, a time
dimension might be organized into years, quarters, months, and days. Hierarchies provide a way to navigate
the data and perform drill-down and roll-up operations.
OLAP (Online Analytical Processing): OLAP is a type of multidimensional data model that supports fast
and efficient querying of large datasets. OLAP systems are designed to handle complex queries and provide
fast response times.

Advantages of Multi Dimensional Data Model

The following are the advantages of a multi-dimensional data model :

• A multi-dimensional data model is easy to handle.
• It is easy to maintain.
• Its performance is better than that of normal databases (e.g. relational databases).
• The representation of data is better than traditional databases. That is because the multi-dimensional
databases are multi-viewed and carry different types of factors.
• It is workable on complex systems and applications, contrary to the simple one-dimensional database
systems.
• The compatibility in this type of database is an upliftment for projects having lower bandwidth for
maintenance staff.
 Disadvantages of Multi Dimensional Data Model

The following are the disadvantages of a Multi Dimensional Data Model :

• The multi-dimensional Data Model is slightly complicated in nature and it requires professionals to
recognize and examine the data in the database.
• During the work of a Multi-Dimensional Data Model, when the system caches, there is a great effect on the
working of the system.
• It is complicated in nature due to which the databases are generally dynamic in design.
• The path to achieving the end product is complicated most of the time.
• As the Multi Dimensional Data Model has complicated systems, databases have a large number of
databases due to which the system is very insecure when there is a security break.

Data Mining Techniques

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Data mining refers to extracting or mining knowledge from large amounts of data. In other words, Data mining
is the science, art, and technology of discovering large and complex bodies of data in order to discover useful
patterns. Theoreticians and practitioners are continually seeking improved techniques to make the process
more efficient, cost-effective, and accurate. Many other terms carry a similar or slightly different meaning to
data mining such as knowledge mining from data, knowledge extraction, data/pattern analysis data dredging.
Data mining treats as a synonym for another popularly used term, Knowledge Discovery from Data, or KDD.
In others view data mining as simply an essential step in the process of knowledge discovery, in which
intelligent methods are applied in order to extract data patterns.
Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro coined the term “Knowledge Discovery in Databases” in 1989. However, the term
‘data mining’ became more popular in the business and press communities. Currently, Data Mining and
Knowledge Discovery are used interchangeably.
Nowadays, data mining is used in almost all places where a large amount of data is stored and processed.
Knowledge Discovery From Data Consists of the Following Steps:

Knowledge discovery from data (KDD) is a multi-step process that involves extracting useful knowledge from
data. The following are the steps involved in the KDD process:
Data Selection: The first step in the KDD process is to select the relevant data for analysis. This involves
identifying the data sources and selecting the data that is necessary for the analysis.
Data Preprocessing: The data obtained from different sources may be in different formats and may have
errors and inconsistencies. The data preprocessing step involves cleaning and transforming the data to make it
suitable for analysis.
Data Transformation: Once the data has been cleaned, it may need to be transformed to make it more
meaningful for analysis. This involves converting the data into a form that is suitable for data mining
algorithms.
Data Mining: The data mining step involves applying various data mining techniques to identify patterns and
relationships in the data. This involves selecting the appropriate algorithms and models that are suitable for the
data and the problem being addressed.
Pattern Evaluation: After the data mining step, the patterns and relationships identified in the data need to be
evaluated to determine their usefulness. This involves examining the patterns to determine whether they are
meaningful and can be used to make predictions or decisions.
Knowledge Representation: The patterns and relationships identified in the data need to be represented in a
form that is understandable and useful to the end-user. This involves presenting the results in a way that is
meaningful and can be used to make decisions.
Knowledge Refinement: The knowledge obtained from the data mining process may need to be refined
further to improve its usefulness. This involves using feedback from the end-users to improve the accuracy and
usefulness of the results.
Knowledge Dissemination: The final step in the KDD process involves disseminating the knowledge
obtained from the analysis to the end-users. This involves presenting the results in a way that is easy to
understand and can be used to make decisions.
Now we discuss here different types of Data Mining Techniques which are used to predict desire output.
Data Mining Techniques
1. Association

Association analysis is the finding of association rules showing attribute-value conditions that occur frequently
together in a given set of data. Association analysis is widely used for a market basket or transaction data
analysis. Association rule mining is a significant and exceptionally dynamic area of data mining research. One
method of association-based classification, called associative classification, consists of two steps. In the main
step, association instructions are generated using a modified version of the standard association rule mining
algorithm known as Apriori. The second step constructs a classifier based on the association rules discovered.

2. Classification

Classification is the processing of finding a set of models (or functions) that describe and distinguish data
classes or concepts, for the purpose of being able to use the model to predict the class of objects whose class
label is unknown. The determined model depends on the investigation of a set of training data information (i.e.
data objects whose class label is known). The derived model may be represented in various forms, such as
classification (if – then) rules, decision trees, and neural networks. Data Mining has a different type of
classifier:
• Decision Tree
• SVM(Support Vector Machine)
• Generalized Linear Models
• Bayesian classification:
• Classification by Backpropagation
• K-NN Classifier
• Rule-Based Classification
• Frequent-Pattern Based Classification
• Rough set theory
• Fuzzy Logic

Decision Trees: A decision tree is a flow-chart-like tree structure, where each node represents a test on an
attribute value, each branch denotes an outcome of a test, and tree leaves represent classes or class
distributions. Decision trees can be easily transformed into classification rules. Decision tree enlistment is a
nonparametric methodology for building classification models. In other words, it does not require any prior
assumptions regarding the type of probability distribution satisfied by the class and other attributes. Decision
trees, especially smaller size trees, are relatively easy to interpret. The accuracies of the trees are also
comparable to two other classification techniques for a much simple data set. These provide an expressive
representation for learning discrete-valued functions. However, they do not simplify well to certain types of
Boolean problems.
This figure generated on the IRIS data set of the UCI machine repository. Basically, three different class labels
available in the data set: Setosa, Versicolor, and Virginia.
Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classifier Method: Support Vector Machines is a supervised learning
strategy used for classification and additionally used for regression. When the output of the support vector
machine is a continuous value, the learning methodology is claimed to perform regression; and once the
learning methodology will predict a category label of the input object, it’s known as classification. The
independent variables could or could not be quantitative. Kernel equations are functions that transform linearly
non-separable information in one domain into another domain wherever the instances become linearly
divisible. Kernel equations are also linear, quadratic, Gaussian, or anything that achieves this specific purpose.
A linear classification technique may be a classifier that uses a linear function of its inputs to base its decision
on. Applying the kernel equations arranges the information instances in such a way at intervals in the multi-
dimensional space, that there is a hyper-plane that separates knowledge instances of one kind from those of
another. The advantage of Support Vector Machines is that they will make use of certain kernels to transform
the problem, such we are able to apply linear classification techniques to nonlinear knowledge. Once we
manage to divide the information into two different classes our aim is to include the most effective hyper-plane
to separate two kinds of instances.
Generalized Linear Models: Generalized Linear Models(GLM) is a statistical technique, for linear
modeling.GLM provides extensive coefficient statistics and model statistics, as well as row diagnostics. It also
supports confidence bounds.

Bayesian Classification: Bayesian classifier is a statistical classifier. They can predict class membership
probabilities, for instance, the probability that a given sample belongs to a particular class. Bayesian
classification is created on the Bayes theorem. Studies comparing the classification algorithms have found a
simple Bayesian classifier known as the naive Bayesian classifier to be comparable in performance with
decision tree and neural network classifiers. Bayesian classifiers have also displayed high accuracy and speed
when applied to large databases. Naive Bayesian classifiers adopt that the exact attribute value on a given class
is independent of the values of the other attributes. This assumption is termed class conditional independence.
It is made to simplify the calculations involved, and is considered “naive”. Bayesian belief networks are
graphical replicas, which unlike naive Bayesian classifiers allow the depiction of dependencies among subsets
of attributes. Bayesian belief can also be utilized for classification.

Classification By Backpropagation: A Backpropagation learns by iteratively processing a set of training

samples, comparing the network’s estimate for each sample with the actual known class label. For each
training sample, weights are modified to minimize the mean squared error between the network’s prediction
and the actual class. These changes are made in the “backward” direction, i.e., from the output layer, through
each concealed layer down to the first hidden layer (hence the name backpropagation). Although it is not
guaranteed, in general, the weights will finally converge, and the knowledge process stops.

K-Nearest Neighbor (K-NN) Classifier Method: The k-nearest neighbor (K-NN) classifier is taken into
account as an example-based classifier, which means that the training documents are used for comparison
instead of an exact class illustration, like the class profiles utilized by other classifiers. As such, there’s no real
training section. once a new document has to be classified, the k most similar documents (neighbors) are found
and if a large enough proportion of them are allotted to a precise class, the new document is also appointed to
the present class, otherwise not. Additionally, finding the closest neighbors is quickened using traditional
classification strategies.

Rule-Based Classification: Rule-Based classification represent the knowledge in the form of If-Then rules.
An assessment of a rule evaluated according to the accuracy and coverage of the classifier. If more than one
rule is triggered then we need to conflict resolution in rule-based classification. Conflict resolution can be
performed on three different parameters: Size ordering, Class-Based ordering, and rule-based ordering. There
are some advantages of Rule-based classifier like:
• Rules are easier to understand than a large tree.
• Rules are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
• Each attribute-value pair along a path forms conjunction: each leaf holds the class prediction.
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Frequent-Pattern Based Classification: Frequent pattern discovery (or FP discovery, FP mining, or Frequent
itemset mining) is part of data mining. It describes the task of finding the most frequent and relevant patterns
in large datasets. The idea was first presented for mining transaction databases. Frequent patterns are defined
as subsets (item sets, subsequences, or substructures) that appear in a data set with a frequency no less than a
user-specified or auto-determined threshold.

Rough Set Theory: Rough set theory can be used for classification to discover structural relationships within
imprecise or noisy data. It applies to discrete-valued features. Continuous-valued attributes must therefore be
discrete prior to their use. Rough set theory is based on the establishment of equivalence classes within the
given training data. All the data samples forming a similarity class are indiscernible, that is, the samples are
equal with respect to the attributes describing the data. Rough sets can also be used for feature reduction
(where attributes that do not contribute towards the classification of the given training data can be identified
and removed), and relevance analysis (where the contribution or significance of each attribute is assessed with
respect to the classification task). The problem of finding the minimal subsets (redacts) of attributes that can
describe all the concepts in the given data set is NP-hard. However, algorithms to decrease the computation
intensity have been proposed. In one method, for example, a discernibility matrix is used which stores the
differences between attribute values for each pair of data samples. Rather than pointed on the entire training
set, the matrix is instead searched to detect redundant attributes.

Fuzzy-Logic: Rule-based systems for classification have the disadvantage that they involve sharp cut-offs for
continuous attributes. Fuzzy Logic is valuable for data mining frameworks performing grouping /classification.
It provides the benefit of working at a high level of abstraction. In general, the usage of fuzzy logic in rule-
based systems involves the following:
• Attribute values are changed to fuzzy values.
• For a given new data set /example, more than one fuzzy rule may apply. Every applicable rule contributes a
vote for membership in the categories. Typically, the truth values for each projected category are summed.

3. Prediction

Data Prediction is a two-step process, similar to that of data classification. Although, for prediction, we do not
utilize the phrasing of “Class label attribute” because the attribute for which values are being predicted is
consistently valued(ordered) instead of categorical (discrete-esteemed and unordered). The attribute can be
referred to simply as the predicted attribute. Prediction can be viewed as the construction and use of a model to
assess the class of an unlabeled object, or to assess the value or value ranges of an attribute that a given object
is likely to have.
4. Clustering

Unlike classification and prediction, which analyze class-labeled data objects or attributes, clustering analyzes
data objects without consulting an identified class label. In general, the class labels do not exist in the training
data simply because they are not known to begin with. Clustering can be used to generate these labels. The
objects are clustered based on the principle of maximizing the intra-class similarity and minimizing the
interclass similarity. That is, clusters of objects are created so that objects inside a cluster have high similarity
in contrast with each other, but are different objects in other clusters. Each Cluster that is generated can be seen
as a class of objects, from which rules can be inferred. Clustering can also facilitate classification formation,
that is, the organization of observations into a hierarchy of classes that group similar events together.

5. Regression
Regression can be defined as a statistical modeling method in which previously obtained data is used to
predicting a continuous quantity for new observations. This classifier is also known as the Continuous Value
Classifier. There are two types of regression models: Linear regression and multiple linear regression models.

6. Artificial Neural network (ANN) Classifier Method

An artificial neural network (ANN) also referred to as simply a “Neural Network” (NN), could be a process
model supported by biological neural networks. It consists of an interconnected collection of artificial neurons.
A neural network is a set of connected input/output units where each connection has a weight associated with
it. During the knowledge phase, the network acquires by adjusting the weights to be able to predict the correct
class label of the input samples. Neural network learning is also denoted as connectionist learning due to the
connections between units. Neural networks involve long training times and are therefore more appropriate for
applications where this is feasible. They require a number of parameters that are typically best determined
empirically, such as the network topology or “structure”. Neural networks have been criticized for their poor
interpretability since it is difficult for humans to take the symbolic meaning behind the learned weights. These
features firstly made neural networks less desirable for data mining.
The advantages of neural networks, however, contain their high tolerance to noisy data as well as their ability
to classify patterns on which they have not been trained. In addition, several algorithms have newly been
developed for the extraction of rules from trained neural networks. These issues contribute to the usefulness of
neural networks for classification in data mining.
An artificial neural network is an adjective system that changes its structure-supported information that flows
through the artificial network during a learning section. The ANN relies on the principle of learning by
example. There are two classical types of neural networks, perceptron and also multilayer perceptron.

7. Outlier Detection

A database may contain data objects that do not comply with the general behavior or model of the data. These
data objects are Outliers. The investigation of OUTLIER data is known as OUTLIER MINING. An outlier
may be detected using statistical tests which assume a distribution or probability model for the data, or using
distance measures where objects having a small fraction of “close” neighbors in space are considered outliers.
Rather than utilizing factual or distance measures, deviation-based techniques distinguish exceptions/outlier by
inspecting differences in the principle attributes of items in a group.
8. Genetic Algorithm

Genetic algorithms are adaptive heuristic search algorithms that belong to the larger part of evolutionary
algorithms. Genetic algorithms are based on the ideas of natural selection and genetics. These are intelligent
exploitation of random search provided with historical data to direct the search into the region of better
performance in solution space. They are commonly used to generate high-quality solutions for optimization
problems and search problems. Genetic algorithms simulate the process of natural selection which means those
species who can adapt to changes in their environment are able to survive and reproduce and go to the next
generation. In simple words, they simulate “survival of the fittest” among individuals of consecutive
generations for solving a problem. Each generation consist of a population of individuals and each individual
represents a point in search space and possible solution. Each individual is represented as a string of
character/integer/float/bits. This string is analogous to the Chromosome.

Advantages or Disadvantages:

Data mining is a powerful tool that offers many benefits across a wide range of industries. The following are
some of the advantages of data mining:
Better Decision Making:
Data mining helps to extract useful information from large datasets, which can be used to make informed and
accurate decisions. By analyzing patterns and relationships in the data, businesses can identify trends and make
predictions that help them make better decisions.
Improved Marketing:
Data mining can help businesses identify their target market and develop effective marketing strategies. By
analyzing customer data, businesses can identify customer preferences and behavior, which can help them
create targeted advertising campaigns and offer personalized products and services.
Increased Efficiency:
Data mining can help businesses streamline their operations by identifying inefficiencies and areas for
improvement. By analyzing data on production processes, supply chains, and employee performance,
businesses can identify bottlenecks and implement solutions that improve efficiency and reduce costs.
Fraud Detection:
Data mining can be used to identify fraudulent activities in financial transactions, insurance claims, and other
areas. By analyzing patterns and relationships in the data, businesses can identify suspicious behavior and take
steps to prevent fraud.
Customer Retention:
Data mining can help businesses identify customers who are at risk of leaving and develop strategies to retain
them. By analyzing customer data, businesses can identify factors that contribute to customer churn and take
steps to address those factors.
Competitive Advantage:
Data mining can help businesses gain a competitive advantage by identifying new opportunities and emerging
trends. By analyzing data on customer behavior, market trends, and competitor activity, businesses can identify
opportunities to innovate and differentiate themselves from their competitors.
Improved Healthcare:
Data mining can be used to improve healthcare outcomes by analyzing patient data to identify patterns and
relationships. By analyzing medical records and other patient data, healthcare providers can identify risk
factors, diagnose diseases earlier, and develop more effective treatment plans.
Disadvantages Of Data mining:
While data mining offers many benefits, there are also some disadvantages and challenges associated with the
process. The following are some of the main disadvantages of data mining:
Data Quality:
Data mining relies heavily on the quality of the data used for analysis. If the data is incomplete, inaccurate, or
inconsistent, the results of the analysis may be unreliable.
Data Privacy and Security:
Data mining involves analyzing large amounts of data, which may include sensitive information about
individuals or organizations. If this data falls into the wrong hands, it could be used for malicious purposes,
such as identity theft or corporate espionage.
Ethical Considerations:
Data mining raises ethical questions around privacy, surveillance, and discrimination. For example, the use of
data mining to target specific groups of individuals for marketing or political purposes could be seen as
discriminatory or manipulative.
Technical Complexity:
Data mining requires expertise in various fields, including statistics, computer science, and domain knowledge.
The technical complexity of the process can be a barrier to entry for some businesses and organizations.
Cost:
Data mining can be expensive, particularly if large datasets need to be analyzed. This may be a barrier to entry
for small businesses and organizations.
Interpretation of Results:
Data mining algorithms generate large amounts of data, which can be difficult to interpret. It may be
challenging for businesses and organizations to identify meaningful patterns and relationships in the data.
Dependence on Technology:
Data mining relies heavily on technology, which can be a source of risk. Technical failures, such as hardware
or software crashes, can lead to data loss or corruption.