Unit-1 - Transmission Fundamentals

Cellphone Generations- 1G and 2G-2.5G-3G-4G Transmission Introduction- 4G

Transmission Fundamentals- Time domain concepts- Frequency domain concepts-
Radio Media- Analog Vs Digital- Channel capacity- Transmission media- Signaling
Schemes

Cellphone Generations- 1G and 2G-2.5G-3G-4G Transmission

0G, also known as Zero Generation or pre-cellular mobile radio telephone

0G, also known as Zero Generation or pre-cellular mobile radio telephone, refers to
the early mobile radio systems that predated the first generation (1G) cellular
networks. These systems, which typically used analog signals, were characterized by
limited functionality, including half-duplex communication (push-to-talk), and
restricted geographical coverage.

0G OVERVIEW
The invention of the Mobile Radio Telephone usually referred to as Zero Generation
or 0G was in the 1940s shortly after World War II, pioneered by Motorola and Bells
Systems before others caught on.

This invention was the big leap from Wired to Wireless communication.

Key characteristics of 0G:

Pre-cellular technology: 0G systems were the predecessors to the first generation of

cellular networks and were not based on the cellular concept.

Analog signals: 0G networks relied on analog signals for voice transmission, unlike
later digital generations.
Half-duplex communication: Many 0G systems, like push-to-talk (PTT) devices, only
allowed one person to speak at a time, requiring users to press a button to transmit and
release it to listen.

Limited coverage: 0G devices typically had a limited range, often requiring

connection to a central antenna tower within a specific geographic area (e.g., within a
20km radius).

No roaming: Roaming between different 0G networks was not supported.

Examples: Notable 0G technologies include Advanced Mobile Telephone System

(AMTS), Mobile Telephone System (MTS), MTD (Mobile Telephony system D),
Offentlig Land mobile Telephony (OLT), and Push-to-talk (PTT).

1G – First-generation mobile communication system

The first generation of mobile networks was deployed in Japan by Nippon Telephone
and Telegraph Company (NTT) in Tokyo in 1979. At the beginning of the 1980s, it
gained popularity in the US, Finland, the UK, and Europe. This system used analog
signals, and it had many disadvantages due to technology limitations.

Most popular 1G system during the 1980s

⚫ Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

⚫ Nordic Mobile Phone System (NMTS)
⚫ Total Access Communication System (TACS)
⚫ European Total Access Communication System (ETACS)

Key features (technology) of the 1G system

⚫ Frequency 800 MHz and 900 MHz

⚫ Bandwidth: 10 MHz (666 duplex channels with a bandwidth of 30 KHz)
⚫ Technology: Analogue switching
⚫ Modulation: Frequency Modulation (FM)
⚫ Mode of service: voice only
⚫ Access technique: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Disadvantages of 1G system

⚫ Poor voice quality due to interference

⚫ Poor battery life
⚫ Large-sized mobile phones (not convenient to carry)
⚫ Less security (calls could be decoded using an FM demodulator)
⚫ A limited number of users and cell coverage
⚫ Roaming was not possible between similar systems

2G – Second generation communication system GSM

The second generation of mobile communication systems introduced a new digital

technology for wireless transmission, also known as Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM). GSM technology became the base standard for further
development in wireless standards later. This standard was capable of supporting up
to 14.4 to 64kbps (maximum) data rate, which is sufficient for SMS and email
services.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems developed by Qualcomm were also
introduced and implemented in the mid-1990s. CDMA has more features than GSM
regarding spectral efficiency, number of users, and data rate.

Key features of the 2G system

⚫ The digital system (switching)

⚫ SMS services are possible
⚫ Roaming is possible
⚫ Enhanced security
⚫ Encrypted voice transmission
⚫ First internet at a lower data rate

Disadvantages of the 2G system

⚫ Low data rate

⚫ Limited mobility
⚫ Less features on mobile devices
⚫ Limited number of users and hardware capability
2.5G and 2.75G system

In order to support higher data rates, General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) was
introduced and successfully deployed. GPRS was capable of data rates up to 171kbps
(maximum).
EDGE – Enhanced Data GSM Evolution was also developed to improve the data rate
for GSM networks. EDGE was capable of supporting up to 473.6kbps (maximum).
Another popular technology CDMA2000 was also introduced to support higher data
rates for CDMA networks. This technology has the ability to provide up to 384 kbps
data rate (maximum).

3G – Third-generation communication system

Third-generation mobile communication started with the introduction of UMTS –

Universal Mobile Terrestrial / Telecommunication Systems. UMTS has a data rate of
384kbps, and it supports video calling for the first time on mobile devices.
After the introduction of the 3G mobile communication system, smartphones became
popular across the globe. Specific applications were developed for smartphones that
handle multimedia chat, email, video calling, games, social media, and healthcare.

Key features of the 3G system

⚫ Higher data rate

⚫ Video calling
⚫ Enhanced security, more users, and coverage
⚫ Mobile app support
⚫ Multimedia message support
⚫ Location tracking and maps
⚫ Better web browsing
⚫ TV streaming
⚫ High-quality 3D games

3.5G to 3.75 Systems

In order to enhance the data rate in existing 3G networks, two technology

improvements are introduced to the network. HSDPA – High-Speed Downlink Packet
Access and HSUPA – High-Speed Uplink Packet Access, developed and deployed to
the 3G networks. 3.5G network can support up to 2mbps data rate.
3.75 system is an improved version of the 3G network with HSPA+ High-Speed
Packet Access Plus. Later this system will evolve into a more powerful 3.9G system
known as LTE (Long Term Evolution).

Disadvantages of 3G systems

⚫ Expensive spectrum licenses

⚫ Costly infrastructure, equipment, and implementation
⚫ Higher bandwidth requirements to support a higher data rate
⚫ Costly mobile devices
⚫ Compatibility with older generation 2G systems and frequency bands

4G – Fourth-generation communication system

4G systems are enhanced version of 3G networks developed by IEEE, offers higher

data rate, and are capable of handling more advanced multimedia services. LTE and
LTE advanced wireless technology used in 4th generation systems. Furthermore, it
has compatibility with the previous versions; thus, easier deployment and upgrade of
LTE and LTE advanced networks are possible.

Simultaneous transmission of voice and data is possible with an LTE system, which
significantly improves the data rate. All services, including voice services, can be
transmitted over IP packets. Complex modulation schemes and carrier aggregation are
used to multiply uplink/downlink capacity.

Wireless transmission technologies like WiMax are introduced in 4G systems to

enhance data rate and network performance.

Key features of the 4G system

⚫ Much higher data rate up to 1Gbps

⚫ Enhanced security and mobility
⚫ Reduced latency for mission-critical applications
⚫ High-definition video streaming and gaming
⚫ Voice over LTE network VoLTE (use IP packets for voice)

Disadvantages of the 4G system

⚫ Expensive hardware and infrastructure

⚫ Costly spectrum (in most countries, frequency bands are too expensive)
⚫ High-end mobile devices compatible with 4G technology are required, which is
costly
⚫ Wide deployment and upgrade are time-consuming

5G – Fifth-generation communication system

5G network is using advanced technologies to deliver ultra-fast internet and

multimedia experience for customers. Existing LTE advanced networks will
transform into supercharged 5G networks in the future.

In earlier deployments, 5G network will function in non-standalone mode and

standalone mode. In non-standalone mode, both LTE spectrum and 5G-NR spectrum
will be used together. Control signaling will be connected to the LTE core network in
non-standalone mode.

There will be a dedicated 5G core network higher bandwidth 5G – NR spectrum for

standalone mode. The sub-6-GHz spectrum of FR1 ranges are used in the initial
deployments of 5G networks.

In order to achieve a higher data rate, 5G technology will use millimeter waves and
unlicensed spectrums for data transmission. A complex modulation technique has
been developed to support massive data rates for the Internet of Things.

Cloud-based network architecture will extend the functionalities and analytical

capabilities for industries, autonomous driving, healthcare and security applications.

Key features of 5G technology

⚫ Ultra-fast mobile internet up to 10Gbps

⚫ Low latency in milliseconds (significant for mission-critical applications)
⚫ Total cost deduction for data
⚫ Higher security and reliable network
⚫ Uses technologies like small cells and beamforming to improve efficiency
⚫ Forward compatibility network offers further enhancements in future
⚫ Cloud-based infrastructure offers power efficiency, easy maintenance, and
upgrade of hardware

4G Transmission Fundamentals

4G is known as the fourth Generation of Mobile Communication or wireless

communication technology, which is the successor of the 3G network. It provides
high data transmission speed and is suitable for HD video calling, fast download and
upload, live streaming, online gaming, etc. A 4G system must adhere to the
capabilities and features specified by the ITU(International Telecommunication
Union) in IMT advanced, including transmission technology and data speed. 4G
network provides up to 100 Mbps speed to users, far higher than a 3G network.
4G enables users to stream high-definition audio and videos without interruption due
to its high speed. It also facilitates wireless broadband that allows the users to access
the internet without any need for fixed wired.

Features of 4G Mobile Network

⚫ It aims to provide high data transmission speed without interruption at any

location.
⚫ As per ITU standard, a 4G network system must have the highest data rates of
100Mbs for highly mobile stations like trains, cars etc.
⚫ It provides seamless switching across heterogenous network areas.
⚫ It is very well suitable for the transmission of voice, data, signals, multimedia,
wireless internet, and other broadband services.
⚫ It provides high speed at a low cost.
⚫ Global mobility, service portability, scalable mobile networks.
⚫ It provides a better way for scheduling and calling admission control techniques.

LTE (Long-Term Evolution)

LTE stands for Long-Term evolution, a standard for high-speed wireless
communication commonly used in 4G connections. It is technically different from 4G,
i.e., 4G and 4G LTE are not technically the same. LTE data is transmitted with faster
speed and lower latency. The connectivity for the LTE network is available
universally around the world for both customers and industrial applications.
The term LTE is specifically used for marketing purposes, as specified speed and
technical specifications defined for 4G were not achievable when it was introduced.
Hence LTE provides much more speed and bandwidth than 3G but does not imply a
specific rate. Depending on the carrier, speed ranges from 20 Mbps to 100 Mbps

4G Network working

At a basic level, a 4G mobile connection transmits the signal via an antenna over
radio frequencies, which allows mobile devices to connect to mobile networks.

The 4G capabilities for transmitting and receiving the signal are based on Multiple
Input and Multiple Output (MIMO) and Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) technologies. Due to these technologies, 4G offers high
capacity and bandwidth comparison to 3G.

MIMO technology reduces network congestion as compared to 3G, and hence

services can be served to more users without network congestion.

4G network supports all-IP standards for both voice and data transmission. 4G is more
efficient for mobile network providers to operate and optimize than managing
different network technologies for voice and data because of the all-IP network.

Advantages of 4G

⚫ With a 4G connection, users don't need any phone line or wired connection.
Instead, it works using the same internet connection as the mobile phone.
⚫ 4G provides portability, which means with this connection, users can take the
internet anywhere at any time.
⚫ With 4G, the cost of internet services has fallen down highly compared to 3G.
Hence, it gives high-speed internet at less cost.
⚫ Nowadays, everything is being hosted online, and hence users require high
internet to work with cloud services, and it is possible with 4G (and upcoming 5G)
connections.

Disadvantages of 4G

⚫ It depends on the network signal; if the signal gets weaker, then the user
experiences slow and unstable services.
⚫ It needs more battery consumption.

Time domain concepts- Frequency domain concepts

Time Domain Concepts

Viewed as a function of time, an electromagnetic signal can be either analog or digital.
An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over
time. In other words, there are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal.
A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a constant level for
some period of time and then changes to another constant level. Figure 1 shows
examples of both kinds of signals.The analog signal might represent speech, and the
digital signal might represent binary 1s and 0s.
The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal, in which the same signal pattern
repeats over time. Figure 2 shows an example of a periodic analog signal (sine wave)
and a periodic digital signal (square wave). Mathematically, a signal s(t) is defined to
be periodic if and only if

where the constant T is the period of the signal (T is the smallest value that satisfies
the equation). Otherwise, a signal is aperiodic.
The sine wave is the fundamental analog signal. A general sine wave can be
represented by three parameters: peak amplitude (A), frequency (f), and phase (φ)
The peak amplitude is the maximum value or strength of the signal over time;
typically, this value is measured in volts. The frequency is the rate [in cycles per
second, or Hertz (Hz)] at which the signal repeats. An equivalent parameter is the
period (T) of a signal, which is the amount of time it takes for one repetition;
therefore, T=1/f. Phase is a measure of the relative position in time within a single
period of a signal, as illustrated later. The general sine wave can be written

A function with the form of Equation (1) is known as a sinusoid. Figure 3 shows the
effect of varying each of the three parameters. In part (a) of the figure, the frequency
is 1 Hz; thus the period is T=1 Second Part (b) has the same frequency and phase but
a peak amplitude of 0.5. In part (c) we have f=2 which is equivalent to T=1/2 Finally,
part (d) shows the effect of a phase shift of ᴨ/4 radians, which is 45 degrees (2ᴨ
radians = 360° = 1 period.

In Figure 3 the horizontal axis is time; the graphs display the value of a signal at a
given point in space as a function of time. These same graphs, with a change of scale,
can apply with horizontal axes in space. In that case, the graphs display the value of a
signal at a given point in time as a function of distance. For example, for a sinusoidal
transmission (say, an electromagnetic radio wave some distance from a radio antenna
or sound some distance from loudspeaker) at a particular instant of time, the intensity
of the signal varies in a sinusoidal way as a function of distance from the source.
There is a simple relationship between the two sine waves, one in time and one in
space.The wavelength (λ) of a signal is the distance occupied by a single cycle, or,
put another way, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two
consecutive cycles. Assume that the signal is traveling with a velocity v. Then the
wavelength is related to the period as follows: λ=vT. Equivalently,λf=v of particular
relevance to this discussion is the case where v=c the speed of light in free
space, which is approximately 3X108 m/s.

Frequency Domain Concepts

In practice, an electromagnetic signal will be made up of many frequencies. For

example, the signal

is shown in Figure 4c. The components of this signal are just sine waves of
frequencies f and 3f; parts (a) and (b) of the figure show these individual components.
There are two interesting points that can be made about this figure:
• The second frequency is an integer multiple of the first frequency. When all of the
frequency components of a signal are integer multiples of one frequency, the latter
frequency is referred to as the fundamental frequency.
• The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the fundamental frequency.
The period of the component Sin(2ᴨft) is T=1/f and the period of s(t) is also T, as can
be seen from Figure 4c.
It can be shown, using a discipline known as Fourier analysis, that any signal is made
up of components at various frequencies, in which each component is a sinusoid. By
adding together enough sinusoidal signals, each with the appropriate amplitude,
frequency, and phase, any electromagnetic signal can be constructed. Put another way,
any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection of periodic analog
signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases. The importance
of being able to look at a signal from the frequency perspective (frequency domain)
rather than a time perspective (time domain) should become clear as the discussion
proceeds

The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it contains. For the signal of
Figure 4c, the spectrum extends from f to 3f. The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the
width of the spectrum. In the case of Figure 4c, the bandwidth is 3f-f=2f.

Many signals have an infinite bandwidth, but with most of the energy contained in a
relatively narrow band of frequencies. This band is referred to as the effective
bandwidth, or just bandwidth.
Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth
There is a direct relationship between the information-carrying capacity of a signal
and its bandwidth: The greater the bandwidth, the higher the information-carrying
capacity. As a very simple example, consider the square wave of Figure 2b. Suppose
that we let a positive pulse represent binary 0 and a negative pulse represent binary 1.
Then the waveform represents the binary stream 0101. The duration of each pulse is
1/(2f); thus the data rate is 2f bits per second (bps). What are the frequency
components of this signal? To answer this question, consider again Figure 4. By
adding together sine waves at frequencies f and 3f, we get a waveform that begins to
resemble the square wave. Let us continue this process by adding a sine wave of
frequency 5f, as shown in Figure 5a, and then adding a sine wave of frequency 7f, as
shown in Figure 5b. As we add additional odd multiples of f, suitably scaled, the
resulting waveform approaches that of a square wave more and more closely. Indeed,
it can be shown that the frequency components of the square wave with amplitudes A
and can be expressed as follows:

This waveform has an infinite number of frequency components and hence an infinite
bandwidth. However, the peak amplitude of the kth frequency component, kf, is only
1/k, so most of the energy in this waveform is in the first few frequency components.

Bandwidth and data rate are related concepts, but they are not the same. Bandwidth
refers to the capacity of a communication channel, while data rate refers to the actual
speed at which data is transmitted over that channel. Essentially, bandwidth is the
maximum amount of data that can be sent, while data rate is the amount of data that is
actually being sent at a given time.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Bandwidth: Definition: Bandwidth is the range of frequencies available for

transmitting data over a communication channel. It's often measured in Hertz (Hz) or
multiples like kHz, MHz, or GHz.

Analogy: Think of bandwidth as the width of a road. A wider road (higher bandwidth)
can accommodate more vehicles (data) at the same time.

Physical Layer: Bandwidth is primarily a characteristic of the physical layer of a

network, relating to the capacity of the physical medium (like a cable or wireless
spectrum).
Data Rate: Definition: Data rate is the speed at which data is actually transmitted over
a channel. It's typically measured in bits per second (bps) or multiples like kbps,
Mbps, or Gbps.

Analogy: Data rate is like the speed at which vehicles are traveling on the road. Even
if the road is wide (high bandwidth), the vehicles might not be traveling at the
maximum speed (high data rate) all the time.

Factors: Data rate is affected by bandwidth but also by other factors like the
modulation technique used, signal encoding, and the presence of noise or interference.

Relationship: Bandwidth limits data rate:

The bandwidth of a channel sets an upper limit on the achievable data rate. You can't
transmit data faster than the channel's capacity allows.

Data rate can be lower than bandwidth: Even with a high bandwidth, the actual data
rate might be lower due to various factors.

Example:

A Wi-Fi router might have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps, but the actual data rate you
experience might be lower due to factors like network congestion, distance from the
router, or interference from other devices.

Key Differences Summarized:

Bandwidth Data Rate

It is the potential of carrier channels It is the amount of data transmitted during

that can carry data. a specified period over a network.

It is the difference between the range

It is the speed of Data Transmission.
of frequencies.
Bandwidth Data Rate

Normally it is measured in Hz or kHz

It is normally measured in Mbps or MBps.
or Mhz.

It refers to the maximum data It refers to the actual data transmission

transmission capacity of the channel. speed.

It is a physical layer property in

While it is common in all layers.
the OSI Model.

It shows the present speed of data

It shows the capacity of the channel.
transmission.

It does not depend on the properties of While it gets affected by the sender or
the sender or receiver. receiver.

In essence, bandwidth is the potential, while data rate is the realized speed. A wider
bandwidth offers the potential for higher data rates, but the actual data rate also
depends on other aspects of the communication system.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

The terms analog and digital correspond, roughly, to continuous and discrete,
respectively. These two terms are used frequently in data communications in at least
three contexts: data, signals, and transmission. Briefly, we define data as entities that
convey meaning, or information. Signals are electric or electromagnetic
representations of data.Transmission is the communication of data by the propagation
and processing of signals. In what follows, we try to make these abstract concepts
clear by discussing the terms analog and digital as applied to data, signals, and
transmission.
 Analog and Digital Signaling

In a communications system, data are propagated from one point to another by means
of electromagnetic signals. An analog signal is a continuously varying
electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety of media, depending on
frequency; examples are copper wire media, such as twisted pair and coaxial cable;
fiber optic cable; and atmosphere or space propagation (wireless). A digital signal is
a sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a copper wire medium; for
example, a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 0 and a constant
negative voltage level may represent binary 1. The principal advantages of digital
signaling are that it is generally cheaper than analog signaling and is less susceptible
to noise interference. The principal disadvantage is that digital signals suffer more
from attenuation than do analog signals
Finally, digital data can be represented directly, in binary form, by two voltage levels.
To improve propagation characteristics, however, the binary data are often encoded
into a more complex form of digital signal, as explained subsequently.

• Digital data, digital signal: In general, the equipment for encoding digital data into
a digital signal is less complex and less expensive than digital-to analog equipment.
• Analog data, digital signal: Conversion of analog data to digital form permits the
use of modern digital transmission and switching equipment for analog data.

• Digital data, analog signal: Some transmission media, such as optical fiber and
satellite, will only propagate analog signals.
• Analog data, analog signal: Analog data are easily converted to an analog signal

Analog and Digital Transmission

Both analog and digital signals may be transmitted on suitable transmission media.
The way these signals are treated is a function of the transmission system. Table 1b
summarizes the methods of data transmission. Analog transmission is a means of
transmitting analog signals without regard to their content; the signals may represent
analog data (e.g., voice) or digital data (e.g., data that pass through a modem). In
either case, the analog signal will suffer attenuation that limits the length of the
transmission link. To achieve longer distances, the analog transmission system
includes amplifiers that boost the energy in the signal. Unfortunately, the amplifier
also boosts the noise components.With amplifiers cascaded to achieve long distance,
the signal becomes more and more distorted. For analog data, such as voice, quite a
bit of distortion can be tolerated and the data remain intelligible. However, for digital
data transmitted as analog signals, cascaded amplifiers will introduce errors.

Digital transmission, in contrast, is concerned with the content of the signal. We

have mentioned that a digital signal can be propagated only a limited distance before
attenuation endangers the integrity of the data. To achieve greater distances, repeaters
are used. A repeater receives the digital signal, recovers the pattern of ones and zeros,
and re transmits a new signal. Thus, the attenuation is overcome. The same technique
may be used with an analog signal if the signal carries digital data. At appropriately
spaced points, the transmission system has retransmission devices rather than
amplifiers.The retransmission device recovers the digital data from the analog signal
and generates a new, clean analog signal.Thus, noise is not cumulative.

CHANNEL CAPACITY

A variety of impairments can distort or corrupt a signal. A common impairment is

noise, which is any unwanted signal that combines with and hence distorts the signal
intended for transmission and reception. For the purposes of this section, we simply
need to know that noise is something that degrades signal quality. For digital data, the
question that then arises is to what extent these impairments limit the data rate that
can be achieved. The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given
communication path, or channel, under given conditions is referred to as the channel
capacity.
There are four concepts here that we are trying to relate to one another:
• Data rate: This is the rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data can be
communicated.
• Bandwidth: This is the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the
transmitter and the nature of the transmission medium, expressed in cycles per second,
or Hertz.
• Noise: For this discussion, we are concerned with the average level of noise over the
communications path.
• Error rate: This is the rate at which errors occur, where an error is the reception of
a 1 when a 0 was transmitted or the reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted.

The problem we are addressing is this: Communications facilities are expensive and,
in general, the greater the bandwidth of a facility, the greater the cost. Furthermore, all
transmission channels of any practical interest are of limited bandwidth.The
limitations arise from the physical properties of the transmission medium or from
deliberate limitations at the transmitter on the bandwidth to prevent interference from
other sources. Accordingly, we would like to make as efficient use as possible of a
given bandwidth. For digital data, this means that we would like to get as high a data
rate as possible at a particular limit of error rate for a given bandwidth.The main
constraint on achieving this efficiency is noise.

Channel capacity in digital communication refers to the maximum rate at which

information can be reliably transmitted through a communication channel. It's the
theoretical upper limit on the speed of error-free data transfer over a specific channel,
influenced by factors like bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio.

Key points about channel capacity:

• Shannon's Limit:

Shannon's theorem provides a mathematical formula for channel capacity, considering

bandwidth (B) and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR): C = B * log2(1 + SNR).

• Bandwidth:

A wider bandwidth allows for more information to be transmitted simultaneously,

increasing capacity.

• Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):

A higher SNR means the signal is stronger compared to the noise, enabling more
reliable data transmission and a higher capacity.

• Error-free transmission:

Channel capacity is defined for reliable, error-free communication. This means the
receiver can decode the transmitted information with a very low error rate.

• Information-theoretic concept:

Channel capacity is a fundamental concept in information theory, helping to

understand the limits of communication systems.

• Not always achievable:

The theoretical channel capacity calculated using Shannon's theorem may not always
be practically achievable due to limitations in coding and other practical constraints

Nyquist Bandwidth

To begin, let us consider the case of a channel that is noise free. In this environment,
the limitation on data rate is simply the bandwidth of the signal. A formulation of this
limitation, due to Nyquist, states that if the rate of signal transmission is 2B, then a
signal with frequencies no greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal rate. The
converse is also true: Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate that can be
carried is 2B. This limitation is due to the effect of intersymbol interference, such as is
produced by delay distortion.3 The result is useful in the development of digital-to
analog encoding schemes.
Note that in the preceding paragraph, we referred to signal rate. If the signals to be
transmitted are binary (take on only two values), then the data rate that can be
supported by B Hz is 2B bps. As an example, consider a voice channel being used, via
modem, to transmit digital data. Assume a bandwidth of 3100 Hz. Then the capacity,
C, of the channel is 2B=6200 bps. Signals with more than two levels can be used; that
is, each signal element can represent more than one bit. For example, if four possible
voltage levels are used as signals, then each signal element can represent two bits.
With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation becomes
where M is the number of discrete signal elements or voltage levels. Thus, for M=8 a
value used with some modems, a bandwidth of B=3100Hz yields a capacity C=18600
bps.

The Nyquist bandwidth, also known as the Nyquist rate, is the minimum sampling
rate needed to accurately capture a signal without introducing aliasing. It's defined as
twice the maximum frequency component of the signal being sampled. Essentially, it
ensures that the original signal can be perfectly reconstructed from its sampled
version
• Nyquist Theorem:
This theorem, also known as the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, states that a
band-limited signal (a signal with a maximum frequency) can be perfectly
reconstructed from its samples if the sampling rate is at least twice the highest
frequency in the signal.
• Sampling:
When sampling an analog signal, the Nyquist rate is the minimum sampling rate
required to avoid losing information. If the signal is sampled at a rate lower than the
Nyquist rate, aliasing will occur, distorting the reconstructed signal.

The Nyquist rate for a bandpass filter is not simply twice the highest frequency in the
signal, as it is for low-pass signals. Instead, it is determined by the signal's bandwidth
and the position of the passband within the frequency spectrum. The Nyquist rate for
a bandpass signal can be lower than twice the maximum frequency, but it depends on
the bandwidth and the integer K, which determines the number of possible aliasing
frequencies.
Elaboration:
• Nyquist Rate for Low-Pass Signals:
For a low-pass signal, the Nyquist rate is twice the highest frequency component in
the signal. This ensures that the signal can be perfectly reconstructed from its
samples.
• Bandpass Signals and Aliasing:
Bandpass signals have a frequency range (bandwidth) that is not centered around 0
Hz. When sampling a bandpass signal, aliasing can occur if the sampling rate is too
low. However, if the signal has a frequency gap (a range where no signal exists), it is
possible to sample at a lower rate than the Nyquist rate for a low-pass signal with the
same maximum frequency.
• Bandpass Sampling Theorem:
The Bandpass Sampling Theorem provides a way to determine the minimum
sampling rate for a bandpass signal to avoid aliasing. This theorem states that a
bandpass signal can be reconstructed if sampled at a rate greater than or equal to
2*fH/k, where fH is the highest frequency of the signal and k is an integer.
• Determining the Integer K:
The integer k is chosen such that it satisfies the condition k <= floor(fH/B), where B
is the bandwidth of the signal. This ensures that the aliased images of the signal in the
frequency domain do not overlap.
• Example:
If a bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 20 kHz and a highest frequency of 100 kHz,
then the Nyquist rate for a low-pass signal with a maximum frequency of 100 kHz
would be 200 kHz. However, using the bandpass sampling theorem, it might be
possible to sample at a lower rate, depending on the value of k. If k = 5, then the
minimum sampling rate would be 2 * 100 kHz / 5 = 40 kHz.

Shannon Capacity Formula

Nyquist’s formula indicates that, all other things being equal, doubling the bandwidth
doubles the data rate. Now consider the relationship among data rate, noise, and error
rate. The presence of noise can corrupt one or more bits. If the data rate is increased,
then the bits become “shorter” in time, so that more bits are affected by a given
pattern of noise. Thus, at a given noise level, the higher the data rate, the higher the
error rate.
Above figure is an example of the effect of noise on a digital signal. Here the noise
consists of a relatively modest level of background noise plus occasional larger spikes
of noise. The digital data can be recovered from the signal by sampling the received
waveform once per bit time. As can be seen, the noise is occasionally sufficient to
change a 1 to a 0 or a 0 to a 1.
All of these concepts can be tied together neatly in a formula developed by the
mathematician Claude Shannon. As we have just illustrated, the higher the data rate,
the more damage that unwanted noise can do. For a given level of noise, we would
expect that a greater signal strength would improve the ability to receive data
correctly in the presence of noise. The key parameter involved in this reasoning is the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N),4 which is the ratio of the power in a signal to the
power contained in the noise that is present at a particular point in the transmission.
Typically, this ratio is measured at a receiver, because it is at this point that an attempt
is made to process the signal and eliminate the unwanted noise. For convenience, this
ratio is often reported in decibels:
This expresses the amount, in decibels, that the intended signal exceeds the noise
level. A high SNR will mean a high-quality signal. The signal-to-noise ratio is
important in the transmission of digital data because it sets the upper bound on the
achievable data rate. Shannon’s result is that the maximum channel capacity, in bits
per second, obeys the equation

where C is the capacity of the channel in bits per second and B is the bandwidth of the
channel in Hertz.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver. Transmission media can be classified as guided or unguided.
In both cases, communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves. With guided
media, the waves are guided along a solid medium, such as copper twisted pair,
copper coaxial cable, or optical fiber. The atmosphere and outer space are examples
of unguided media, which provide a means of transmitting electromagnetic signals
but do not guide them; this form of transmission is usually referred to as wireless
transmission.
The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by the
characteristics of the medium and the characteristics of the signal. In the case of
guided media, the medium itself is usually more important in determining the
limitations of transmission. For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced
by the transmitting antenna is usually more important than the medium in determining
transmission characteristics. One key property of signals transmitted by antenna is
directionality. In general, signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional; that is, the
signal propagates in all directions from the antenna. At higher frequencies, it is
possible to focus the signal into a directional beam

Above Figure depicts the electromagnetic spectrum and indicates the frequencies at
which various guided media and unguided transmission techniques operate. In the
remainder of this section, we provide a brief overview of unguided, or wireless, media.
For unguided media, transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.
For transmission, the antenna radiates electromagnetic energy into the medium
(usually air), and for reception, the antenna picks up electromagnetic waves from the
surrounding medium. There are basically two types of configurations for wireless
transmission: directional and omnidirectional. For the directional configuration, the
transmitting antenna puts out a focused electromagnetic beam; the transmitting and
receiving antennas must therefore be carefully aligned. In the omnidirectional case,
the transmitted signal spreads out in all directions and can be received by many
antennas.
Terrestrial Microwave
Physical Description
The most common type of microwave antenna is the parabolic “dish.” A typical size
is about 3 m in diameter. The antenna is fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam to
achieve line-of-sight transmission to the receiving antenna. Microwave antennas are
usually located at substantial heights above ground level to
extend the range between antennas and to be able to transmit over intervening
obstacles.To achieve long-distance transmission, a series of microwave relay towers is
used, and point-to-point microwave links are strung together over the desired distance.
Applications
A primary use for terrestrial microwave systems is in long-haul telecommunications
service, as an alternative to coaxial cable or optical fiber. The microwave facility
requires far fewer amplifiers or repeaters than coaxial cable over the same distance
but requires line-of-sight transmission. Microwave is commonly used for both voice
and television transmission.
Another increasingly common use of microwave is for short point-to-point links
between buildings. This can be used for closed-circuit TV or as a data link between
local area networks. Short-haul microwave can also be used for the so-called bypass
application. A business can establish a microwave link to a long-distance
telecommunications facility in the same city, bypassing the local telephone company.

Satellite Microwave

Physical Description
A communication satellite is, in effect, a microwave relay station. It is used to link
two or more ground-based microwave transmitter/receivers, known as earth stations,
or ground stations. The satellite receives transmissions on one frequency band
(uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency
(downlink).A single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of frequency bands,
called transponder channels, or simply transponders.
Applications
The communication satellite is a technological revolution as important as fiber optics.
The following are among the most important applications for satellites:
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks
Broadcast Radio
Physical Description
The principal difference between broadcast radio and microwave is that the former is
omnidirectional and the latter is directional. Thus broadcast radio does not require
dish-shaped antennas, and the antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment.
Applications
Radio is a general term used to encompass frequencies in the range of 3 kHz to 300
GHz. We are using the informal term broadcast radio to cover the VHF and part of
the UHF band: 30 MHz to 1 GHz. This range covers FM radio and UHF and VHF
television. This range is also used for a number of data networking applications.

Infrared
Infrared communications is achieved using transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that
modulate noncoherent infrared light. Transceivers must be within the line of sight
of each other either directly or via reflection from a light-colored surface such as
the ceiling of a room. One important difference between infrared and microwave
transmission is that the former does not penetrate walls. Thus the security and
interference problems encountered in microwave systems are not present.
Furthermore, there is no frequency allocation issue with infrared, because no
licensing is required.
 Signalling Schemes

Signalling is the process of exchanging control information (such as call setup, management,
and teardown) between network elements in a communication system. It ensures that voice or
data connections are correctly established, maintained, and released. Signalling is essential for
enabling features like call routing, number dialling, SMS, and user authentication.

In channel signalling (CAS) and common channel signalling (CCS) are two methods used in
telecommunications to manage call setup and other control functions. CAS embeds signalling
information within the same channel as the user's voice or data, while CCS uses a separate,
dedicated channel for signalling.

Comparison Table: In-Channel Signalling vs Common Channel Signalling

Common Channel Signalling

Feature In-Channel Signalling
(CCS)
Separate, dedicated signalling
Channel Used Same as voice/data channel
channel
Type of Out-of-band (separate from voice
In-band (within voice path)
Signalling path)
Speed Slower Faster
Security Less secure; susceptible to fraud More secure and reliable
Bandwidth Has its own channel, doesn't interfere
Shares with voice/data
Usage with voice
Service Supports complex services (e.g.,
Limited to basic call functions
Flexibility SMS, roaming)
Longer
Call Setup Time Shorter
DTMF tones, analog signalling SS7 (Signalling System No. 7),
Examples
tones ISDN D-channel
Commonly Used Old analog and early digital Modern digital networks (PSTN,
In systems ISDN, mobile)
Lower; easily affected by High; independent and managed
Reliability
noise/interference centrally
Signalling Schemes

These define how data is encoded for transmission over the media.

1. Analog Signalling

 Data is transmitted as a continuous signal.

 Example: AM/FM radio.
 Typically used in traditional telephone lines or cable TV.

2. Digital Signalling

 Data is transmitted as discrete binary signals (0s and 1s).

 Common in modern networks (Ethernet, USB, fiber optics).