Chapter: Structure of Atom (Class 11 - Most Elaborated Notes)
📊 1. Introduction
• The study of atomic structure deals with the internal structure of the atom, the behavior and
arrangement of subatomic particles, and the principles governing these.
• This chapter explores the evolution of atomic models and the principles of quantum mechanics that
explain electron configuration.
2. Discovery of Subatomic Particles
a) Electron (e⁻)
• Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897 via cathode ray tube experiment.
• Charge = −1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
• Mass = 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kg
b) Proton (p⁺)
• Discovered by Goldstein using canal ray experiment.
• Charge = +1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
• Mass = 1.673 × 10⁻²⁷ kg
c) Neutron (n⁰)
• Discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.
• Charge = 0 (neutral)
• Mass = 1.675 × 10⁻²⁷ kg
3. Atomic Models
a) Dalton's Atomic Theory (1808)
• Matter is made of indivisible particles called atoms.
• Atoms of the same element are identical.
• Limitations: Could not explain isotopes, subatomic particles.
b) Thomson's Model (1898) - Plum Pudding Model
• Atom is a positively charged sphere with negatively charged electrons embedded like plums in
pudding.
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• Limitation: No nucleus, no explanation of stability.
c) Rutherford's Nuclear Model (1911)
• α-particle scattering experiment with gold foil.
• Observations:
• Most particles passed straight: atom mostly empty space.
• Some deflected: nucleus is positively charged and dense.
• Drawbacks:
• Could not explain electron stability.
• Failed to explain atomic spectra.
d) Bohr's Model (1913)
• Electrons revolve in fixed circular orbits (energy levels).
• Energy is absorbed/emitted when an electron jumps levels:
ΔE = E2 − E1 = hν
• Angular momentum is quantized:
nh
mvr =
2π
• Successfully explained hydrogen spectra.
4. Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes & Isobars
• Atomic Number (Z): No. of protons = No. of electrons (neutral atom)
• Mass Number (A) = No. of protons + No. of neutrons
• Isotopes: Same Z, different A (e.g., 1H, 2H, 3H)
• Isobars: Same A, different Z (e.g., 40Ar and 40Ca)
5. Electromagnetic Radiation & Spectrum
a) Wave Nature of Light
• Parameters: Wavelength (λ), Frequency (ν), Amplitude
• Relation: c = λν
b) Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Range: Radio < Microwaves < Infrared < Visible < UV < X-rays < γ-rays
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6. Photoelectric Effect (Einstein)
• Phenomenon where electrons are emitted from metal when light falls on it.
• Equation: hν = ϕ + 12 mv 2
• Proved particle nature of light.
7. Atomic Spectra
• Emission Spectrum: Lines formed when electrons return to lower energy.
• Absorption Spectrum: Formed when electrons absorb specific energy.
• Hydrogen Spectrum: Series include Lyman (UV), Balmer (Visible), Paschen, etc.
8. Bohr's Model of Hydrogen Atom
a) Energy Levels
13.6 eV
En = −
n2
where n = 1, 2, 3, ...
b) Radius of nth orbit:
rn = 0.529 × n2 Å
c) Velocity:
2.18 × 106
vn = m/s
n
d) Limitations of Bohr's Model
• Failed for multi-electron atoms.
• Didn't explain Zeeman and Stark effects.
9. Dual Nature of Matter (de Broglie Hypothesis)
• Matter shows both particle and wave nature.
• Wavelength:
h
λ=
mv
• Confirmed by electron diffraction.
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10. Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
• Impossible to measure both position and momentum simultaneously:
h
Δx ⋅ Δp ≥
4π
11. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
• Developed by Schrödinger.
• Introduced concept of orbitals.
Quantum Numbers
Symbol Name Values Meaning
n Principal 1, 2, 3... Energy level
l Azimuthal (angular) 0 to (n–1) Shape of orbital (s, p, d, f)
mℓ Magnetic −l to +l Orientation of orbital
mₛ Spin +1/2 or −1/2 Direction of electron spin
12. Shapes of Orbitals
• s-orbital: Spherical
• p-orbital: Dumbbell shaped (px, py, pz)
• d-orbital: Cloverleaf
13. Rules for Filling of Orbitals
a) Aufbau Principle:
• Electrons fill from lower to higher energy.
b) Pauli Exclusion Principle:
• No 2 electrons can have same 4 quantum numbers.
c) Hund's Rule:
• Every orbital in a subshell is singly filled before any is doubly filled.
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14. Electronic Configuration
• Written as: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶...
Example:
• Oxygen (Z=8): 1s² 2s² 2p⁴
• Sodium (Z=11): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹
15. Stability of Half-Filled and Fully-Filled Orbitals
• Due to symmetry and exchange energy.
• Example: Chromium (Z=24) = [Ar] 3d⁵ 4s¹
16. Exceptional Configurations
• Cr (Z=24): [Ar] 3d⁵ 4s¹ (Not 3d⁴ 4s²)
• Cu (Z=29): [Ar] 3dⁱ⁰ 4s¹ (Not 3d⁹ 4s²)
These notes cover all fundamental and advanced topics for strong exam and conceptual preparation.
