1

Remote Sensing Notes

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without
making physical contact with it. This process involves the use of satellite or airborne sensors
to collect data about the Earth's surface and atmosphere. Remote sensing can capture
various types of data, including images, temperature readings, and other environmental
variables, which are used for analysis and decision-making in fields like environmental
monitoring, agriculture, urban planning, and disaster management.

How does Remote Sensing work?

Remote sensing operates through the following basic steps:
1. Energy Source (A): Remote sensing begins with an energy source, such as sunlight
or microwave radiation. This energy interacts with the Earth's surface and is
reflected, emitted, or scattered.
2. Sensing Device (D): A sensor on a satellite, aircraft, or drone detects the reflected or
emitted energy. These sensors can be passive (detecting natural energy) or active
(emitting their own energy and measuring the response).
3. Data Transmission (E): The collected data is transmitted from the sensor to ground-
based receiving stations. This can be done through various communication
technologies.
4. Data Processing (F&G): Once received, the raw data is processed and analyzed to
extract useful information. This may involve correcting distortions, enhancing image
quality, and interpreting the data using specialized software.
5. Information Extraction (F&G): The processed data is analyzed to derive meaningful
information, which can be used for research, planning, or operational purposes.

A = Energy Source (Passive or Active)

B = Radiation & Atmosphere (Some energy will be

lost)

C = Target (Energy is absorbed or reflected)

D = Reflected Energy is recorded by sensor

E = Transmission, reception & Processing

F = Analysis

G = Application

Figure 1: How Remote Sensing Work

The process involves an interaction between incident radiation and targets of interest
 2

Passive and Active Remote Sensing

Remote sensing systems are broadly categorized into passive and active systems, based
on how they acquire data. Each type has unique principles and applications. Here’s a
detailed explanation of both:

Passive Remote Sensing

Definition: Passive remote sensing systems detect natural radiation emitted or reflected by
objects or the Earth's surface. They rely on external sources of energy, such as sunlight.

How It Works:
Energy Source: The primary energy source is the sun, which provides visible light, near-
infrared, and thermal infrared radiation. In some cases, natural thermal emissions (e.g.,
emitted thermal radiation from the Earth's surface) are also detected.
Detection: Sensors measure the intensity of radiation reflected or emitted by the surface or
atmosphere. This radiation carries information about the surface's properties, such as color,
temperature, and composition.

Types of Sensors:
Optical and Infrared Sensors: These sensors measure reflected sunlight in the visible and
infrared spectra (e.g., Landsat, MODIS).
Thermal Sensors: These measure emitted thermal radiation to determine surface
temperatures (e.g., Landsat’s Thermal Infrared Sensor).

Applications:
Land Cover and Land Use Mapping: Detects changes in vegetation, urban development,
and natural landscapes.
Environmental Monitoring: Assesses vegetation health, water bodies, and natural
disasters.
Climate Studies: Measures atmospheric properties and surface temperatures.

Advantages:
Simplicity: No need for an active source of energy; relies on natural sunlight or emitted
radiation.
Cost-Effective: Generally less expensive than active systems because they do not require
additional energy sources.

Limitations:
Dependence on Sunlight: Passive sensors rely on daylight and may not function effectively
at night or under cloudy conditions.
Limited Control: Data quality can be affected by atmospheric conditions, such as clouds or
haze.
 3

Active Remote Sensing

Definition: Active remote sensing systems emit their own energy toward a target and
measure the energy reflected or scattered back to the sensor. They do not rely on natural
sources of energy.

How It Works:
Energy Source: Active sensors generate and emit their own energy in the form of radar
waves, laser pulses, or microwave signals.
Detection: The sensor measures the returned signal after it interacts with the target. The
time it takes for the signal to return and the strength of the returned signal provide
information about the target’s distance, size, and properties.

Types of Sensors:
Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging): Uses microwave radiation to measure surface
characteristics (e.g., Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)).
Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging): Uses laser pulses to measure distances and create
detailed 3D maps (e.g., airborne Lidar systems).
Altimeters: Measure the distance between the sensor and the Earth's surface to assess
elevation (e.g., satellite altimeters).

Applications:
Topographic Mapping: Provides detailed elevation data and 3D surface models.
Vegetation Analysis: Measures forest structure and biomass.
Disaster Management: Assesses flood levels, ice thickness, and other surface changes.

Advantages:
Independence from Sunlight: Can operate day or night and through various weather
conditions.
High Precision: Provides detailed and accurate measurements of distance, surface
roughness, and other characteristics.

Limitations:
Complexity: Requires sophisticated technology to generate and detect signals.
Cost: Often more expensive due to the need for specialized equipment and energy sources.

Summary of passive and active RS

Passive Remote Sensing: Relies on natural radiation, such as sunlight or thermal
emissions, and is used for capturing data about surface features and atmospheric
conditions. It is generally simpler and less expensive but limited by environmental conditions.
Active Remote Sensing: Generates its own energy to probe the target, allowing for detailed
measurements regardless of natural light conditions. It provides high precision and operates
in various weather conditions but is typically more complex and costly.
 4

Both types of remote sensing are complementary, and the choice between them depends on
the specific requirements of the application and the nature of the data needed.

The Importance of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is crucial for several applications:
Environmental Monitoring: It helps track changes in land use, deforestation, water
resources, and natural disasters, providing valuable data for environmental conservation and
management.
Agriculture: Remote sensing aids in crop monitoring, soil analysis, and precision farming,
improving yield and resource management.
Disaster Management: It enables rapid assessment of natural disasters like hurricanes,
floods, and wildfires, facilitating emergency response and recovery efforts.
Urban Planning: Planners use remote sensing to analyze land cover, monitor urban growth,
and plan infrastructure development.
Climate Studies: Remote sensing contributes to understanding climate change by
monitoring atmospheric conditions, sea level rise, and polar ice melt.
Just to name a few.

Electromagnetic Radiation and Remote Sensing

Remote sensing relies on electromagnetic radiation (EMR), which is energy propagated
through space in the form of electromagnetic waves. EMR encompasses a wide range of
wavelengths, from radio waves to gamma rays. In remote sensing, the interaction of EMR
with the Earth's surface is analyzed to obtain information.
Reflection and Absorption: Different materials reflect and absorb electromagnetic radiation
differently. For example, vegetation reflects more near-infrared light and absorbs visible light,
while water bodies absorb most of the visible light and reflect infrared light.
Emission: Objects and surfaces emit radiation based on their temperature. This principle is
used in thermal infrared remote sensing to measure surface temperatures.

Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum used in

Remote Sensing
Remote sensing utilizes specific portions of the electromagnetic spectrum to gather data:
Visible Light: This range (approximately 400-700 nm) is used for capturing detailed images
and observing natural colors of objects. It helps in analyzing vegetation health and urban
features.
Near-Infrared (NIR): Ranging from about 700 nm to 1,300 nm, NIR is used to assess plant
health, soil moisture, and vegetation cover. Plants reflect a significant amount of NIR light,
making it useful for vegetation studies.
 5

Shortwave Infrared (SWIR): From 1,300 nm to 2,500 nm, SWIR is valuable for detecting
moisture content in soils and vegetation and identifying minerals and other surface features.
Thermal Infrared (TIR): This spectrum (around 8,000 nm to 14,000 nm) measures emitted
heat and is used to determine surface temperatures and thermal properties of materials.
Microwaves: Ranging from 1 mm to 1 m, microwaves penetrate clouds and are used in
radar systems for mapping surface topography and monitoring weather patterns.

Figure 2: Each segment of the electromagnetic spectrum provides unique information,

making remote sensing a versatile tool for various applications.

• The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency.

• Understanding the characteristics of electromagnetic radiation in terms of their
wavelength and frequency is crucial to understanding the information to be extracted
from remote sensing data.
The interaction of radiation used for remote sensing with the atmosphere is a crucial aspect
of remote sensing systems, as it affects the quality and accuracy of the data collected.

Interaction of Radiation with the Atmosphere

By understanding and compensating for these atmospheric interactions, remote sensing
systems can provide more accurate and reliable data for a wide range of applications.
Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel through
some distance of the Earth's atmosphere. Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect
the incoming light and radiation. These effects are caused by the mechanisms of scattering
and absorption.
 6

Main mechanisms
Scattering:
Mechanism: Scattering occurs when atmospheric particles (like dust, aerosols, and water
droplets) or gas molecules (such as nitrogen and oxygen) redirect radiation in various
directions. Scattering is wavelength-dependent; shorter wavelengths (blue light) scatter more
than longer wavelengths (red light).
Effect: Scattering can cause images to appear hazy or blurred and affect the accuracy of
measurements. In visible light, this scattering is why the sky appears blue and why distant
objects can appear less distinct. In remote sensing, scattering can affect image clarity and
cause radiometric errors.

Three types of Scattering:

Rayleigh scattering:

Occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the radiation. These
could be particles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules.

Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than
longer wavelengths.

Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The fact
that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes
through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue) of the visible spectrum are
scattered more than the other (longer) visible wavelengths. At sunrise and sunset the light has
to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the shorter
wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to
penetrate the atmosphere.

Mie scattering:

Occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the radiation.
Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapor are common causes of Mie scattering which tends to
affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie scattering occurs
mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and
dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.

Nonselective scattering:
This occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation. Water
droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of scattering. Nonselective scattering gets
its name from the fact that all wavelengths are scattered about equally. This type of scattering
causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are all
scattered in approximately equal quantities (blue+green+red light = white light).
 7

Absorption:
Mechanism: Atmospheric gases and particles absorb specific wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation. For instance, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone absorb
particular bands in the infrared part of the spectrum.
Effect: Absorption reduces the amount of radiation that reaches the Earth's surface and can
distort the data captured by remote sensors. For example, in thermal infrared remote
sensing, water vapor and carbon dioxide can absorb emitted thermal radiation, affecting
temperature measurements.
In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to absorb
energy at various wavelengths. Ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapor are the three main
atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation. (Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to
most living things) ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Without this protective layer in the
atmosphere our skin would burn when exposed to sunlight.)

Other mechanisms
Reflection:
Mechanism: Radiation can be reflected off atmospheric particles and clouds. This is
particularly relevant in the visible and near-infrared parts of the spectrum, where cloud cover
can significantly impact the data.
Effect: Reflection from clouds and atmospheric particles can cause signal contamination
and affect the interpretation of surface features. In some cases, this reflection can be used to
assess cloud cover and atmospheric conditions.

Transmission:
Mechanism: Transmission refers to the passage of radiation through the atmosphere
without being absorbed or scattered. Different wavelengths are transmitted through the
atmosphere with varying degrees of efficiency.
Effect: The amount of transmission impacts how much of the radiation reaches the Earth's
surface and how much is detected by sensors. For example, visible light is generally
transmitted well through the atmosphere, whereas some infrared wavelengths are partially
blocked by atmospheric gases.

Atmospheric Path Length:

Mechanism: The distance that radiation travels through the atmosphere (path length) affects
the degree of absorption and scattering it experiences. Longer path lengths generally result
in greater atmospheric effects.
Effect: Increased path length can lead to more significant atmospheric interference,
impacting the accuracy of remote sensing measurements.

Mitigating Atmospheric Effects

To account for and mitigate the effects of atmospheric interactions, remote sensing systems
and data processing techniques often include:
 8

Atmospheric Correction: Algorithms and models are used to correct for atmospheric
absorption and scattering effects, adjusting the data to more accurately represent the
surface conditions.
Radiative Transfer Models: These models simulate the interaction of radiation with the
atmosphere to predict and correct for atmospheric effects on the data.
Calibration and Validation: Regular calibration of sensors and validation with ground-based
measurements help improve the accuracy of remote sensing data by accounting for
atmospheric influences.
When electromagnetic radiation interacts with a target (such as the Earth's surface,
vegetation, or buildings), several processes occur that affect the nature of the reflected or
emitted signal detected by remote sensing instruments.

Interaction of Radiation with the Target

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach and interact with the
Earth's surface. There are three (3) forms of interaction that can take place when energy strikes,
or is incident (I) upon the surface.

These are: Absorption (A); (by the target, not atmosphere)

Transmission (T); and
Reflection (R).

Reflection:
In Remote Sensing we are most interested in measuring the radiation that is reflected from
the targets.
Mechanism: When radiation strikes a surface, part of it is reflected back toward the sensor.
The amount and nature of reflection depend on the surface properties, such as texture,
color, and material composition.
Types:

• Specular Reflection: Occurs on smooth surfaces where the reflected radiation

follows a predictable angle, like a mirror. This can create bright spots in images.
• Diffuse Reflection: Occurs on rough surfaces where radiation is scattered in many
directions. This is typical of natural surfaces like forests or soil.
Effect: Reflection is used to derive information about surface properties. For example,
vegetation reflects more near-infrared light and less visible light, which is useful for
assessing plant health.

Absorption:
Mechanism: Part of the incoming radiation is absorbed by the target. The absorption
characteristics depend on the material and its specific absorption features, often related to
the wavelength of the radiation.
Effect: Absorption reduces the amount of radiation reflected back to the sensor. For
example, dark surfaces absorb more visible light, which can affect the observed intensity
and color.
 9

Transmission:
Mechanism: Some materials allow radiation to pass through them, particularly if they are
transparent or semi-transparent. This is common in materials like water or glass.
Effect: Transmission affects how much radiation is available for reflection. For example,
water can be both reflective and transmissive, depending on its depth and surface condition.

Emission:
Mechanism: All objects emit radiation based on their temperature. This thermal emission
follows Planck's Law, where hotter objects emit more radiation at shorter wavelengths.
Effect: Thermal infrared sensors detect emitted radiation to measure surface temperatures
and heat patterns. For example, thermal infrared remote sensing can be used to monitor
land surface temperatures or detect heat from fires.

Scattering:
Mechanism: Scattering occurs when radiation is redirected in multiple directions after
interacting with small particles or irregularities on the target surface.
Effect: Scattering can diffuse the radiation, leading to variations in the observed signal. For
instance, scattering within a forest canopy can affect how light is reflected back to the
sensor.

Refraction:
Mechanism: Refraction happens when radiation passes through different materials with
varying densities, causing it to bend. This is less common in remote sensing of terrestrial
surfaces but can be relevant in some atmospheric studies.
Effect: Refraction can alter the apparent position of objects and affect measurements if not
properly corrected.

Implications for Remote Sensing

The way radiation interacts with a target provides valuable information about the target's
properties:
Surface Composition and Texture: Reflection and absorption characteristics help identify
materials and surface types. For example, different types of vegetation reflect and absorb
light differently, which can be used to distinguish plant species or assess vegetation health.
Temperature Measurement: Emission of thermal radiation allows for the measurement of
surface temperatures, which is crucial for monitoring heat and climate-related changes.
Water and Soil Moisture: Absorption and reflection properties in different wavelengths can
provide insights into water content and soil moisture levels.
Remote sensing data processing often involves analyzing these interactions to extract
meaningful information, correct for atmospheric effects, and improve the accuracy of the
measurements. Understanding these interactions helps in interpreting remote sensing data
and applying it effectively in various fields, from environmental monitoring to urban planning.
 10

Review Questions:
1. What is remote sensing? (4)
2. What are the main components of a remote sensing system? (2x5=10)
3. What is the difference between passive and active remote sensing? (4)
4. How does electromagnetic radiation interact with the atmosphere? (8)

Electromagnetic radiation interacts with the atmosphere through several processes:

• Absorption: Atmospheric gases and particles absorb specific wavelengths of radiation,

reducing the amount of radiation reaching the Earth's surface.

• Scattering: Atmospheric particles scatter radiation in different directions, which can

affect image clarity and radiometric accuracy.

• Reflection: Radiation can be reflected off atmospheric particles and clouds, influencing
the signal detected by sensors.

• Transmission: Some radiation passes through the atmosphere without significant

absorption or scattering, affecting how much radiation reaches the surface.

5. What are the key parts of the electromagnetic spectrum used in remote sensing?
(10)
6. What is the principle behind radar remote sensing?

Radar remote sensing operates on the principle of sending microwave signals towards a target
and measuring the time it takes for the signals to return after interacting with the surface. The
reflected signal provides information about the target’s distance, surface roughness, and other
characteristics. This technique can penetrate clouds and operate in various weather conditions.

7. How does Lidar differ from traditional optical remote sensing?

Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) uses laser pulses to measure distances and create high-
resolution 3D maps of surfaces. Unlike traditional optical remote sensing, which relies on
reflected sunlight or thermal emission, Lidar provides detailed elevation data and can capture
precise surface features. Lidar can operate both during the day and at night and is not affected
by atmospheric conditions like clouds.

8. What are some common applications of remote sensing in agriculture?

• Crop Monitoring: Assessing crop health, growth, and yield using vegetation indices
derived from remote sensing data.

• Soil Moisture Assessment: Monitoring soil moisture levels to optimize irrigation

practices.

• Precision Farming: Using detailed spatial data to apply inputs (e.g., fertilizers,
pesticides) more efficiently.

9. Why is atmospheric correction important in remote sensing?

Atmospheric correction is crucial because the atmosphere can affect the quality of remote
sensing data through absorption, scattering, and reflection. By correcting for these atmospheric
effects, accurate surface measurements and analyses can be obtained, leading to more
 11

reliable and meaningful data for applications such as environmental monitoring, land use
planning, and climate studies.

10. What challenges are associated with remote sensing data interpretation?

• Atmospheric Interference: Variations in atmospheric conditions can distort data and

affect accuracy.

• Data Resolution: High-resolution data can be expensive and storage-intensive.

• Sensor Calibration: Regular calibration is needed to ensure accuracy and consistency.

• Data Processing: Complex algorithms and models are required to process and interpret
large volumes of data.