NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics,
microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites can also be used.
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will see later.
They are usually connected together to make larger networks, with the
Internet being the most well-known example of a network of
networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer
network and a distributed system. The key distinction is that in a
distributed system, a collection of independent computers appears to
its users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or
paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software on top
of the operating system, called middleware, is responsible for
implementing this model. A well-known example of a distributed
system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the Internet and
presents a model in which everything looks like a document (Web
page).
USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. Business Applications
to distribute information throughout the company (resource
sharing) sharing physical resources such as printers, and tape backup
systems, is sharing information
client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much
network usage.
communication medium among employees.email (electronic
mail), which employees generally use for a great deal of daily
communication.
Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer
network instead of by the phone company. This technology is called IP
telephony or
Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is used.
Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a
graphical computer screen
doing business electronically, especially with customers and
suppliers. This new model is called e-commerce (electronic
commerce) and it has grown rapidly in recent years.
2 Home Applications
peer-to-peer communication
person-to-person communication
electronic commerce
entertainment.(game playing,)
3 Mobile Users
Text messaging or texting
Smart phones,
GPS (Global Positioning System)
m-commerce
NFC (Near Field Communication)
4 Social Issues
With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with it
many unsolved social, political, and ethical issues.
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host of
other applications allow people to share their views with like-minded
individuals. As long as the subjects are restricted to technical topics or
hobbies like gardening, not too many problems will arise.
The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like
politics, religion, or sex. Views that are publicly posted may be deeply
offensive to some people. Worse yet, they may not be politically
correct. Furthermore, opinions need not be limited to text; high-
resolution color photographs and video clips are easily shared over
computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live view, but
others feel that posting certain material (e.g., verbal attacks on
particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply
unacceptable and that such content must be censored. Different
countries have different and conflicting laws in this area. Thus, the
debate rages.
Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also
make it easy for the people who run the network to snoop on the
traffic. This sets up conflicts over issues such as employee rights
versus employer rights. Many people read and write email at work.
Many employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor
employee messages, including messages sent from a home computer
outside working hours. Not all employees agree with this, especially
the latter part.
Another conflict is centered around government versus citizen’s rights.
A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the
process of providing service to your mobile device the network
operators learn where you are at different times of day. This allows
them to track your movements. They may know which nightclub you
frequent and which medical center you visit.
Phishing ATTACK: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack
often used to steal user data, including login credentials and credit
card numbers. It occurs when an attacker, masquerading as a trusted
entity, dupes a victim into opening an email, instant message, or text
message.
BOTNET ATTACK: Botnets can be used to perform distributed denial-
of-service attack (DDoS attack), steal data, send spam, and allows the
attacker to access the device and its connection.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
2 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that
have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely
delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same
order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind
of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example,
let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the
packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.
A data communications system has five components
I. Message. The message is the information (data) to be
communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio,
and video.
2 Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It
can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and
so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It
can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so
on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical
path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French
cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex as shown in Figure

Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a

one way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the
other can only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors
are examples of simplex devices.
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens
band) radios are both halfduplex systems.
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
(Figure c). One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
required all the time.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time
and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a
network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Performance is
often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.
We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two
criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay
because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development,
and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.
Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network
attributes.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to
another. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point
and multipoint. Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a
dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-
point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the
two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are
also possible
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you
are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in
which more than two specific devices share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take
turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid
out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every
other node in the network.
A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially
connected mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a
connection to each of the other computers in that network. The
number of connections in this network can be calculated using the
following formula (n is the number of computers in the network): n(n-
1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers
in the network have connections to multiple other computers in that
network. It is an inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a
network. In the event that one of the primary computers or
connections in the network fails, the rest of the network continues to
operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology
Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can
transmit data simultaneously.
A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or
transmission of data.
Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission
between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies,
making it a less desirable option.
Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time
consuming.
The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high
costs and potential for reduced efficiency.
STAR:
A star network, star topology is one of the most common network
setups. In this configuration, every node connects to a central network
device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device
acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending
on the type of network card used in each computer of the star
topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to connect
computers together.

Advantages of star topology

Centralized management of the network, through the use of the
central computer, hub, or switch.
Easy to add another computer to the network.
If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network
continues to function normally.
The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed
LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch
or router as the central network device.
The central network device determines the performance and number
of nodes the network can handle.
If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes
down and all computers are disconnected from the network

BUS: a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which

each computer and network device are connected to a single cable or
backbone.

Advantages of bus topology

It works well when you have a small network.
It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or
peripherals in a linear fashion.
It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes
down.
It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
Bus topology is not great for large networks.
Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
Additional devices slow the network down.
If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

RING:
A ring topology is a network configuration in which device
connections create a circular data path. In a ring network, packets of
data travel from one device to the next until they reach their
destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one
direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to
move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual
connection in the ring is broken, the entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or
wide area networks (WANs).

Advantages of ring topology

All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet
collisions.
A network server is not needed to control network connectivity
between each workstation.
Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance
of the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
All data being transferred over the network must pass through each
workstation on the network, which can make it slower than a star
topology.
The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is
more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have
a main star topology with each branch connecting several stations in a
bus topology as shown in Figure

Types of Network based on size

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it
covers and its physical architecture. The three primary network
categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network differs in their
characteristics such as distance, transmission speed, cables and cost.
Basic types
LAN (Local Area Network)
Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room,
building, campus)
Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers,
applications and other devices.
Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections. Due to
short distances, errors and noise are minimum. Data transfer rate is 10
to 100 mbps.
Example: A computer lab in a school.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Design to extend over a large area.
Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that resources
can be shared.
Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km. Owned by organization or
individual. Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
Are country and worldwide network. Contains multiple LAN's and
MAN's. Distinguished in terms of geographical range. Uses satellites
and microwave relays.
Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the
location. Best example is the internet.
Other types
WLAN (Wireless LAN)
A LAN that uses high frequency radio waves for communication.
Provides short range connectivity with high speed data transmission.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.
SAN (Storage Area Network)
Connects servers to data storage devices via fiber-optic cables. E.g.:
Used for daily backup of organization or a mirror copy.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can
carry information from a source to a destination.

Classes of transmission media

Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a medium
from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable,
and fiber-optic cable.
Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors
(normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and
the other is used only as a ground reference.
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is
referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil
or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by
preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more
expensive.
The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)

Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and
data channels.
Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use twisted-
pair cables.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid
or stranded wire (usuallycopper) enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or
a combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a
shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the
circuit.This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath,
and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.
The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman (BNe), connector.
Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital
telephone networks
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet
LANs
Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving
through a single uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance(of a different density), the ray changes direction.
Bending of light ray

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or

plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

Propagation modes in fibre optic cable

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source
move through the core in different paths. How these beams move
within the cable depends on the structure of the core, as shown in
Figure.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains

constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through
this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of
the core and the cladding. The term step index refers to the
suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the
signal as it passes through the fiber.
A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber,
decreases this distortion of the signal through the cable. The word
index here refers to the index of refraction.
Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused
source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to
the horizontal.

Fiber Construction
The subscriber channel (SC) connector, The straight-tip (ST)
connector, MT-RJ(mechanical transfer registered jack) is a
connector
Applications
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective..
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and
coaxial cable,thus creating a hybrid network.
Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and
1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic
cable (twisted pair or coaxial).
1 Higher bandwidth.
2 Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is
significantly greaterthan that of other guided media. A signal can run
for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5
km for coaxial or twistedpair cable.
3 Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise
cannot affect fiber-optic cables.
4 Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive
materials than copper.
5 Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
6 Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to
tapping than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that
can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical
fiber.
1Installation and maintenance
2 Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional.
If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
3 Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive
than those of other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not
high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless
communication. Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several

ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight
propagation, as shown in Figure

Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves. Radio waves are omni directional.
When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not
have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be
received by any receiving antenna. The omni directional property has a
disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are
susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals
using the same frequency or band.
Omni directional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all
directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of
transmission, we can have several types of antennas. Figure shows an
omnidirectional antenna.
Applications
The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful
for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM
and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging
are examples of multicasting.
Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. The sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has
an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one
direction. Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the horn

Applications:
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs
Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another; a short range
communication system in one room cannot be affected by another
system in the next room.
When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the
use of the remote by our neighbors. Infrared signals useless for long-
range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves
outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that
can interfere with the communication.
Applications:
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in
a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.