US HISTORY NOTES

United States History for Civil Service

Examination Preparation
I. The Pre-Columbian Americas and Early European Contact
From Ancient Times to 1492
The history of the North American continent extends far beyond the arrival of European explorers, encompassing
millennia of complex human habitation and cultural development. By the time Christopher Columbus landed in the
Bahamas in 1492, native peoples had lived in the Americas for well over ten thousand years. 1 Their societies were
incredibly diverse, ranging from small, mobile hunter-gatherer bands to large, settled urban centers. 1 While population
estimates vary widely, it is likely that at least 60 million individuals inhabited the Americas when the first Europeans
arrived.1

The prevailing theory regarding the settlement of the Americas posits that migrations from Eurasia occurred over
millennia via Beringia, a land bridge that once connected Siberia and Alaska. 2 Archaeological and genetic evidence
suggests these migrations began as early as 20,000 years ago and continued until approximately 12,000 years ago. 1
These Paleo-Indian ancestors spread across the Americas, diversifying into hundreds of culturally distinct nations and
tribes.2 As the climate stabilized after the last ice age, native peoples adapted unique subsistence patterns to their local
environments, with societies in the Pacific Northwest exploiting salmon-filled rivers and communities on the plains
following large game animals like bison.1

In Mesoamerica, the geographic area stretching from Panama to central Mexico, a fundamental agricultural revolution
occurred. The domestication of maize (corn) by 5000 BCE provided the basis for a stable diet, which in turn enabled
the development of the hemisphere's first settled populations by 1200 BCE.1 This agricultural surplus supported the
rise of a series of complex civilizations, including the Olmec, who flourished along the hot Gulf Coast of Mexico from
about 1200 to 400 BCE.1 The Olmec are regarded as the "mother" of Mesoamerican civilizations, known for their
monumental giant head sculptures and impressive aqueducts. 1 Following the Olmec's decline, Teotihuacan emerged in
the central highlands. At its height around 500 CE, Teotihuacan was one of the largest pre-Columbian population
centers in the Americas, home to more than 100,000 people and located approximately thirty miles northeast of
modern Mexico City.1

Further north, particularly in the Eastern Woodlands, early cultures demonstrated remarkable social and organizational
complexity through the construction of large earthwork mounds. 2 These "Mound Builders" were not settled
agriculturalists as once thought, but societies of hunter-gatherers.2 Examples include the 11-mound complex at
Watson Brake in Louisiana, dated to 3500 BCE, which is the oldest dated site in the Americas for such complex
construction, and the Poverty Point site, which thrived from 2200 BCE to 700 BCE. 2 A later, highly organized
Mississippian culture developed, with its most significant urban center being Cahokia, located near modern-day St.
Louis.1 Around 1100 CE, Cahokia was home to between 10,000 and 30,000 residents, making it the largest urban
center north of Mexico. Its sophisticated engineering included plazas, residential neighborhoods, and the enormous
Monk's Mound, the largest man-made earthwork in the Americas.1

Advent of the Europeans to British Supremacy (1492-1606)

The first known Europeans to reach North America were Norse Viking explorers around the year 1000, as supported
by archaeological evidence from a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada. 3 This contact was

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brief, and the Norse settlement was temporary, lasting for about a year before they returned to Greenland.

Systematic European colonization began much later, in 1492, with the voyages of the Genoese mariner Christopher
Columbus.3 Funded by Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Spain, Columbus sailed west in search of a new trade route to the
Orient, a necessity as the Ottoman Empire controlled the traditional Silk Road. 3 Instead, he landed in the Bahamas, an
event that sparked a new era of exploration, conquest, and colonization. 3 Spanish explorers and settlers were driven by
the motives often summarized as "gold, glory, and God". 3 The vast wealth they acquired from their colonies,
particularly in Central and South America, was a direct consequence of military conquest and the enslavement of
indigenous peoples.4 The Spanish crown justified its claims with the ideals of the Christian Reconquista and
implemented the encomienda system, whereby settlers were granted tracts of land in exchange for "protecting" and
exploiting the labor of Native Americans. 4

The wealth and power Spain amassed from its New World ventures incited intense competition from other European

European Power Key Explorer/Entity Year of First Primary Motivation

Claim/Settlement

Norse Vikings Leif Erikson c. 1000 Temporary

Settlement/Exploration

Spain Christopher Columbus 1492 Trade Route, Gold,

Glory, God

Portugal Pedro Álvares Cabral 1500 Trade and Conquest

France Jacques Cartier 1534 Northwest Passage, Fur

Trade

England Virginia Company 1607 (Jamestown) Economic Profit,

Counterbalance Spain

Netherlands Dutch East India 1609 Trade Route, Fur Trade

Company

England Pilgrims 1620 (Plymouth) Religious Freedom

empires, including England.3 The history of this period, written largely by the victors, often framed their efforts in a
noble light, centered on exploration and civilization. 4 However, this narrative stands in direct contradiction to the
explicit motivations of wealth acquisition and the brutal reality of the displacement, enslavement, and destruction of
indigenous cultures.3 The competition among European nations was not for abstract ideals but for tangible economic
and strategic dominance, with the indigenous populations bearing the ultimate cost.

Other European powers quickly followed Spain's lead. The region of modern-day Canada was claimed for France in
1534 by Jacques Cartier, leading to the founding of New France. 4 The Dutch, through the Dutch East India Company,
also sought a route to Asia and claimed the region of the Hudson River Valley in modern New York in 1609. 4
England's first two colonial attempts—Popham and Roanoke—failed, but its commercial ambitions were undeterred
by Spain's immense success.4

European Colonization Milestones (1492-1620)

II. USA as a British Colony (1606-1783)

Jamestown and Plymouth: A Comparative Analysis

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The first two successful English settlements in North America, Jamestown and Plymouth, laid the foundations for two
distinct models of colonial development that would influence the economic and social fabric of the emerging nation.

Jamestown, founded in Virginia in 1607, was the first permanent English settlement. 5 Its establishment was driven by
purely economic motives, sponsored by the Virginia Company of London, a group of investors who hoped to profit
from the venture.5 The early years were fraught with setbacks due to the colonists' inexperience, unwillingness to
work, and lack of wilderness survival skills, compounded by poor relations with the powerful Powhatan Indian
chiefdom.6 The colony's survival was secured by the successful cultivation of tobacco, a labor-intensive crop that
prompted the colonists to seize more and more land from Native Americans. 4 The economic focus of Jamestown led
to the establishment of the first representative legislative assembly in the New World in 1619, a pivotal moment in
American heritage.5 The need for labor to cultivate tobacco eventually led to a reliance on enslaved people, and the
colony's demographic was characterized by a large imbalance of men to women for much of the 17th century. 6

Thirteen years later, in 1620, the Plymouth colony was founded in Massachusetts by a group of Pilgrims seeking
freedom from religious persecution.5 After a period of exile in Holland, they chose to settle in the New World out of
concern that their children were losing their English heritage to the liberal Dutch lifestyle.5 Unlike Jamestown,
Plymouth's economy was limited by the cold climate and thin, rocky soil, which led settlers to pursue alternative
livelihoods in lumbering, shipbuilding, fishing, and trade. 5 The Pilgrims' lifestyle was characterized by cooperation
and hard work.5 They were initially aided by Native American survivors of an epidemic that had wiped out much of
the local population, but this fragile relationship ended in 1636 when the Plymouth colonists were drawn into a war
against the Pequot tribe.5 The Pilgrims' motivations, rooted in religious dissent, fostered a society centered on
community and family, a stark contrast to Jamestown's economically driven, male-dominated plantation society. The
fundamental divergence between these two founding models shaped the different trajectories of the Southern
plantation economy and the Northern commercial economy, laying the groundwork for the sectional tensions that
would later culminate in the Civil War.

British Colonialism and the Road to Revolution

The British Empire, an enormous system of dependencies, was formed through a largely unorganized process of
"piecemeal acquisition".7 The English crown's control over its North American colonies was initially light, with the
settlements largely functioning as "self-managing enterprises".7 The crown's primary means of influence were through
trade and shipping, adhering to a mercantilist philosophy that viewed the colonies as a source of raw materials for the
mother country.7 The Navigation Act of 1651 and subsequent acts created a "closed economy" where all colonial
exports were required to be shipped to the British market on English ships, and all imports had to pass through
England.7

The relationship between Great Britain and its colonies fundamentally changed after 1763, with Britain's victory in the
French and Indian War (also known as the Seven Years' War). 7 This victory freed the American colonies from the
constant threat of hostile French forces, emboldening them to resist new British colonial policies.8 The British
government, burdened by war debt, began to assert more direct control through new taxes, commercial restrictions,
and military presence.8 The colonists, long accustomed to a high degree of autonomy, perceived these new policies as
an infringement on their political rights and individual freedoms. 8 The British monarchy, led by the "stubborn,
inexperienced, and mentally unstable monarch" King George III, made a series of critical miscalculations. 8

This clash between a more rigid imperial policy and a population with a deeply ingrained sense of self-governance led
to what contemporaries called a "revolution of the mind," where Americans were galvanized to demand independence
and expanded rights.8 This intellectual transformation had physical consequences, with colonists openly and violently
opposing British assertions of control.8 The British Empire's unorganized and hands-off approach to its colonies had,
in essence, fostered a spirit of independence that its later, more restrictive policies could not contain. The Navigation
Acts and other mercantilist laws, while resented, were merely a source of underlying tension; it was the removal of the
external French threat that allowed the colonists' demands for greater rights and political autonomy to boil over into

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open rebellion.

III. The Founding of the Republic (1783-1819)

The American Revolutionary War (1775-1783)
The American Revolutionary War was a civil war within the British Empire that transformed into a global conflict
after 1778.9 The colonial forces were composed of the Continental Army (231,771 soldiers) and state militias
(164,087), but their combined forces rarely exceeded 20,000 men at any one time. 9 They faced a much larger force,
including a British army of about 42,000 soldiers, assisted by approximately 30,000 German mercenaries known as
Hessians.9 The British also received significant support from Loyalists and Native American tribes. 9

The conflict began on April 19, 1775, with a brief skirmish at Lexington, followed by the Battles of Lexington and
Concord, often referred to as the "shot heard 'round the world". 9 On June 14, 1775, the Second Continental Congress
took control of the Patriot forces outside Boston and appointed George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the
newly formed Continental Army.9 A pivotal moment in the war occurred in 1777 with the Battles of Saratoga, where
American victory persuaded France, which had been secretly providing financial and material aid, to formally join the
war in 1778.9 Spain joined the side of the colonies in 1779, and the Netherlands provided financial support and official
recognition of the United States.9 The final major military engagement of the war was the defeat of British General
Charles Cornwallis at the siege of Yorktown in Virginia, which virtually ended military campaigns. 9

The human cost of the war was immense. American casualties and deaths were substantial, with estimates of military
deaths ranging from 25,000 to 70,000.11 Only about 6,800 American Patriots were killed in battle, while a staggering
17,000 died from disease, with the majority succumbing in British prison ships.12 An estimated 130,000 American war
deaths were also attributed to smallpox.10 This distribution of casualties, where disease was a far greater killer than
combat, reveals that the war was not merely a traditional military struggle but a brutal contest against the limits of
medicine, logistics, and sanitation. This reality profoundly impacted the young nation and highlights the unseen
sacrifices made by its population.

From Confederation to Constitution

The United States emerged from the Revolutionary War as a new nation, but its first government, established by the
Articles of Confederation in March 1781, was a "firm league of friendship" between the states. 9 This central
government, composed of a Congress, had extremely limited power. It could conduct diplomacy and make war but
could not raise its own funds, relying entirely on the states for money to operate. 13

The weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation quickly became apparent, leading to the Constitutional Convention
of 1787.13 The framers sought to create a government with enough power to act on a national level while
simultaneously preventing the concentration of power that could threaten individual liberties. 13 The final document,
written in 1787 and in operation since 1789, has endured as the world's longest-surviving written charter of
government.14 It successfully separated and balanced governmental powers to protect the interests of both the majority
and minority, of liberty and equality, and of the federal and state governments.14

IV. Constitutional Framework of the United States

Salient Features
The U.S. Constitution is a concise statement of national principles designed to meet the changing needs of a society
profoundly different from the one in which its creators lived. 14 It begins with the iconic words, "We The People,"
affirming that the government exists to serve its citizens. 14 The Constitution's core functions are to create a national
government with a system of checks and balances, divide power between the federal government and the states
(federalism), and protect the personal liberties of citizens from governmental intrusion. 15

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The design of the Constitution, particularly its broad and sometimes vague wording, allowed for the vast expansion of
federal power over two centuries. For example, clauses that grant Congress the power to regulate commerce "among
the several States" and to make all laws "necessary and proper" for executing its powers have been interpreted broadly
by the Supreme Court to justify a wide range of federal legislation, from business regulation to outlawing racial
segregation.14 This flexibility has allowed the Constitution to remain relevant and effective despite the dramatic
transformations in American society since the 18th century. 14

Separation of Powers and Checks & Balances

The Constitution divides the federal government into three distinct and co-equal branches: the legislative (Congress),
the executive (the President), and the judicial (the Federal courts). 15 This separation of powers is intended to limit any
one branch from exercising the core functions of another and to prevent the concentration of power. 17

To ensure this separation and prevent tyranny, the framers created a system of checks and balances where each branch
has the authority to limit the power of the other two. 18
● Legislative and Executive Interaction: Congress, the legislative branch, has the power to enact laws, but the
President, the head of the executive branch, can veto them. 15 Congress, in turn, can override a presidential veto
with a two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate. 14 The Senate has the specific power to "advise and
consent" on key executive appointments and the ratification of treaties. 14 Congress also controls the national
budget and can impeach and remove the President from office. 18
● Legislative and Judicial Interaction: The legislative branch makes laws, but the judicial branch, led by the
Supreme Court, can declare those laws unconstitutional. 18 Congress can also impeach and remove federal judges
from office.18
● Executive and Judicial Interaction: The President nominates Supreme Court justices and other federal judges,
but the Senate confirms these appointments. 18 The judicial branch can declare Executive Orders issued by the
President unconstitutional.18

US Congress and its Mandate

The Constitution establishes Congress as a bicameral legislature, divided into two equal institutions: the House of
Representatives and the Senate.19 The positioning of Congress in Article I of the Constitution affirms its status as the
"First Branch" of the federal government, underscoring the framers' belief in the supremacy of the people through
their elected representatives.14

The mandate of Congress is broad and far-reaching, as it is responsible for enacting laws that influence the daily lives
of all Americans.19 The Constitution assigns to Congress the responsibility for organizing the executive and judicial
branches, raising revenue, and declaring war.14 Article I, Section 8, outlines specific enumerated powers, including the
authority to "lay and collect Taxes," "borrow Money," "regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the
several States," and "make all laws necessary for executing these powers".14 All bills for raising revenue must
originate in the House of Representatives, but the Senate has the power to propose or concur with amendments. 14

US Presidential Election
The process of electing the President and Vice President of the United States is a highly decentralized and indirect
system, in stark contrast to the direct popular vote systems used in many other republics. 20 Citizens of the United
States do not vote directly for the president but rather for a slate of electors who form the Electoral College.20 The
candidate who receives an absolute majority of electoral votes—at least 270 out of a total of 538—is elected to the
office.20

The number of electoral votes each state receives is equal to its total number of Senators (always two) and its number
of Representatives in the House.20 The District of Columbia is granted three electoral votes by the Twenty-third
Amendment.20 In 48 states, a "winner-takes-all" system is used, where the candidate who wins the statewide popular

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vote receives all of that state's electoral votes. This system, while intended to balance the interests of the states, has
created a situation where a candidate can win the presidency without winning the national popular vote. This
phenomenon has occurred four times in American history—in 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016—and underscores a
fundamental tension in the American democratic system. 20

The modern nominating process for presidential candidates, which is not codified in the Constitution, has evolved
over time and is managed by political parties and the states. 20 It consists of primary elections and caucuses held
between January and June, followed by nominating conventions in the summer where delegates officially vote for
their party's nominee.20

V. Expansion and Division (1820-1869)

Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820-1949)
The period between 1830 and 1860 was defined by the ideology of "manifest destiny," the belief that Americans were
"destined to extend their nation across the continent". 22 This powerful national conviction provided a moral and
ideological justification for a policy of aggressive westward expansion. This expansion was achieved through a
combination of diplomacy, as seen in the negotiated agreement with Great Britain to secure the Oregon territory, and
military force.23 In 1845, the United States embarked on its first offensive war, invading Mexico to acquire valuable
territory, including California and its important Pacific harbors. 23 The Gadsden Purchase of 1853-1854 completed the
contiguous expansion of the United States across the continent. 23

The concept of manifest destiny, while framed as a natural and almost divine right, was a powerful force that masked
a policy of aggressive expansionism fueled by a disregard for the sovereignty of other nations and peoples.23 This
policy directly led to the displacement of indigenous populations through acts like the Indian Removal Act of 1830. 23
The willingness to use offensive war to secure new territories established a precedent for later American interventions,
framing them as a moral obligation rather than a strategic choice.

Civil War between the North and the East (1850-1869)

The American Civil War, the nation's bloodiest conflict, was the culmination of decades of festering sectional
tensions.24 The central and "immediate cause" of the war was the institution of slavery. 24 Confederate Vice President
Alexander H. Stephens explicitly stated in March 1861 that slavery "was the immediate cause of the late rupture and
the present revolution" to establish Southern independence.24 Debates over the expansion of slavery into federal
territories created continuous political turmoil. 24 Landmark events leading to the war included the Missouri
Compromise of 1820, the Compromise of 1850, and the Dred Scott Supreme Court decision of 1857, which further
deepened sectional divisions.24 The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, who opposed the spread of slavery,
triggered the secession of seven Deep South states, a number that would eventually grow to eleven. 24

The war began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces bombarded Fort Sumter in South Carolina. 25 The North's
primary motivation for rejecting secession was to preserve the Union, a cause rooted in American nationalism, while
the South's desire to protect slavery led to the development of a distinct Southern nationalism. 25 The conflict was
transformed on January 1, 1863, when Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all enslaved
people in the rebellious states to be free, making the abolition of slavery a formal Union war goal. 25 Military
campaigns, particularly those led by Ulysses S. Grant in the West, applied pressure on the Confederacy and eventually
forced a surrender in the spring of 1865.24

The scale of death and destruction was unprecedented. The war claimed the lives of an estimated 752,000 to 851,000
soldiers, a figure representing approximately 2% of the American population in 1860. 26 For every three soldiers killed
in battle, five more died of non-combat-related diseases.27 The Battle of Gettysburg alone resulted in 51,000 total

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casualties and about 7,000 deaths. The localized nature of recruitment meant that a single battle could devastate
entire communities, with some regiments suffering 100% casualties.27 The Civil War was not just a conflict over a
single issue but a crucible that forged the modern American state. It demonstrated that a large-scale, technologically
driven conflict—both sides used railroads and telegraphs for troop movements and communication—required a
centralized and powerful federal government.24 This period saw a significant expansion of government power, with
both the Union and Confederacy enacting national taxes and conscription, a profound paradox for the Confederacy, a
republic "allegedly devoted to states' rights" but resorting to "greater governmental intrusions into its citizens' lives" to
survive.24

American Civil War Casualties

Statistic Total Value

Total Soldier Deaths 752,000–851,000 26

Deaths as % of 1860 Population ~2% 26

For every 3 combat deaths, 5 more died of

Combat Deaths
disease 27

Gettysburg Total Casualties 51,000 26

Gettysburg Deaths ~7,000 26

VI. The Rise of an Industrial Giant (1870-1916)

Industrialization and its emergence as one of the world powers
In the decades following the Civil War, the United States was transformed from an agrarian society into an industrial
powerhouse.28 This period, known as the Gilded Age, was characterized by explosive economic growth driven by an
unprecedented surge in new technology, including the telephone, electricity, and the Bessemer process for
steelmaking.29 The nation's total wealth ballooned from $16 billion in 1860 to $88 billion by 1900, with per capita
wealth increasing from $500 to $1,100.29 The manufacturing sector's output saw an even more dramatic rise, from $3
billion in 1869 to $13 billion by 1900.29 The expansion was fueled by a rapid increase in the industrial labor force,
which soared from 3.5 million workers in 1870 to 14.2 million in 1910, an increase of over 300%.30

This growth was fueled by millions of internal migrants from rural areas and a massive influx of immigrants. 28
Between 1865 and 1900, 12 million people immigrated to the U.S., with about half of them being Germans and
Irish.30 Industrial growth also produced a new class of wealthy industrialists, derisively called "robber barons" by their
critics, as well as a vastly expanded working class. 28 Many workers faced harsh, perilous conditions, low wages, and
frequent layoffs, leading to a widening gap between the "haves" and "have-nots".30 This disparity gave rise to labor
unions and widespread strikes aimed at improving working conditions and securing fair wages. 28

US Economic and Demographic Growth (1860-1910)

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Metric 1860/1869 1900/1910 Growth

National Wealth $16 billion (1860) 29 $88 billion (1900) 29 450%

Manufacturing $3 billion (1869) 29 $13 billion (1900) 29 ~333%

Output

~20 million (before >90 million (before

Population >350%
1870) 30 1910) 30

Industrial Labor 3.5 million (1870) 30 14.2 million (1910) 30 ~306%

Force

Progressive Era: Reforms of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson

The profound social and economic inequalities created by the Gilded Age's rapid, unregulated industrialization gave
rise to the Progressive Era, a reform movement that sought to address its negative effects. 31 Progressive reformers
believed that human nature and society could be improved through government regulation and scientific methods, a
view not shared by political conservatives of the time.31 The movement was supported by a diverse coalition,
including lawyers, teachers, physicians, and the working class. 32

These reformers successfully influenced the passage of significant legislation and several constitutional amendments,
including the Sixteenth Amendment (federal income tax), Seventeenth Amendment (direct election of Senators), and
the Nineteenth Amendment (women's suffrage).31 They also passed key consumer protection laws like the Pure Food
and Drug Act of 1906, which created the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to ensure the safety and purity of food
and pharmaceuticals.31

The reform impulse was most powerfully symbolized by Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. 33
Roosevelt, with his "Square Deal" domestic program, believed that economic consolidation was a "permanent feature
of American society" and that the government's role should be to "supervise, control, and regulate" large
corporations.33 He was also the first president to actively engage in the American conservation movement, supporting
the National Reclamation Act of 1902 to reclaim arid lands for cultivation. 33

Woodrow Wilson, with his "New Freedom" program, initially appeared to side with those who believed that large
corporations were "unfair and inefficient" and that the proper response was to "destroy" monopolies, not just regulate
them.33 Despite this philosophical difference, Wilson's presidency, which saw the passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act
of 1914 and the graduated income tax, fundamentally altered the nature and character of the presidency. 31 He
expanded upon Roosevelt's example, emphasizing the central role of the executive branch and making it the dominant
part of the government.34 The Gilded Age's emphasis on unchecked capital and innovation created the very problems
that the Progressive Era's emphasis on regulation and social reform sought to solve. This cause-and-effect relationship
between rapid growth and a subsequent push for governmental control and reform is a recurring theme in American
history.

VII. The Great Depression and Global Conflict

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The Great Depression and the New Deal
The Great Depression, which began with the stock market crash of 1929, was the most severe economic downturn in
American history, leading to widespread unemployment, poverty, and bank failures. 35 In response, President Franklin
D. Roosevelt enacted a set of domestic policies known as the "New Deal" from 1933 to 1939, founded on the belief
that the federal government was necessary to lift the nation from its economic paralysis.35 The New Deal's aims are
often summarized by the "Three Rs": relief for the unemployed, recovery of the economy through federal spending,
and reform of capitalism to prevent a future crisis. 37

The New Deal created a broad range of federal programs and agencies, many of which were enacted during the first
three months of Roosevelt's presidency, a period known as the "Hundred Days". 36 The Civilian Conservation Corps
(CCC) and the Works Progress Administration (WPA) were established to dispense emergency aid and provide
temporary jobs to millions of Americans on public works projects. 36 Other key programs included the Agricultural
Adjustment Act (AAA), which provided subsidies to farmers to reduce output and raise prices, and the Federal
Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which guaranteed bank deposits to restore public trust in the financial
system.35 A second phase of the New Deal, beginning in 1935, created the foundation for America's modern social
welfare system with the passage of the Social Security Act and strengthened labor rights with the Wagner Labor
Relations Act, which guaranteed workers the right to unionize. 35

While the New Deal was a monumental effort that restored faith in American democracy, it was not the sole factor
that ended the Great Depression.36 An explicit analysis of the historical data shows that it was the "massive military
expenditures of World War II, not the New Deal, that eventually pulled the United States out of the Great
Depression".37 This highlights a crucial distinction: the New Deal provided a social safety net and a sense of hope, but
it was the unparalleled government spending and production demands of a total war that created the economic engine
necessary to achieve full employment and recovery.

USA’s role in the Two World Wars

The period between the two World Wars saw the United States emerge as a global superpower with military,
economic, and cultural ascendancy.38 This new role was met with internal debate between those who favored a
traditional policy of isolationism and those who argued that in an interconnected world, neutrality was no longer
possible.38

Despite this internal debate, the U.S. was drawn into World War I. While few Americans wanted to enter the conflict
in 1914, most felt an obligation to ensure that "autocratic Germany did not destroy the democracies of France and
Great Britain".38 The U.S. provided financial aid and tens of thousands of Americans volunteered as doctors, nurses,
and soldiers in the Allied cause.38 The sinking of the

Lusitania in 1915 and the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram in 1917, which proposed a German-Mexican-
Japanese alliance, finally led the U.S. to formally enter the war in April 1917.38 Following the war, many Americans
became disillusioned by the failures of the Paris Peace Conference, and the U.S. retreated into a wary but not total
isolationism during the 1920s and 1930s.38

The fall of France in 1940 "shook Americans out of their slumber," leading to massive defense spending and an
unprecedented peacetime conscription.38 However, American isolationism did not fully vanish until the Japanese
attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. 38 World War II cemented the United States as a true superpower. Its
losses in human and material costs were "far lower than those of China, the Soviet Union, or Germany," leaving it in a
position of dominance with a booming economy and the world's first atomic weapon. 38 Even before the war's
conclusion, the U.S. signaled its choice to become a more active global player, helping to establish the United Nations
and the Bretton Woods economic system.38

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VIII. The Post-War World and American Leadership
Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two World Powers
After World War II, the United States was not the only leading power on the world stage; it was joined by a new
competitor, the Soviet Union.40 This new reality led to the Cold War, a period of global geopolitical rivalry between
the capitalist Western Bloc, led by the U.S., and the communist Eastern Bloc, led by the USSR. 41 The rivalry was
fundamentally ideological, rooted in the opposition between American democracy and Soviet state socialism. 42
Tensions had simmered throughout World War II, and following the defeat of the Axis powers, they gave way to open
competition.40

The U.S. fear of the global spread of communism was fueled by the Soviet Union's establishment of communist
regimes in its occupied Eastern European territories, enforced by the presence of the Red Army, which created an
"Iron Curtain" dividing the continent.40 In response, the United States adopted a policy of containment in 1947, which
became a defining element of President Harry Truman's administration.40 The Truman Doctrine was an open promise
of U.S. support to any country threatened by the Soviet Union, a commitment that led to extensive military and
economic involvement in strategically significant regions around the world. 42 The Marshall Plan, a U.S. initiative to
provide financial aid to rebuild Europe, was an economic manifestation of this policy, designed to stabilize capitalist
economies and prevent the spread of communism. 41

American Role in patronizing UNO and International Organizations 1945– 2012

The United States played a pivotal role in establishing the United Nations, a new international governmental
organization designed to prevent future conflicts. 43 President Franklin D. Roosevelt saw the creation of the UN as the
"crowning achievement of his political career," and the U.S. Senate ratified the UN Charter on July 28, 1945, by a
vote of 89-2.43 The U.S. is a charter member and one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, and
it hosts the UN headquarters in New York City. 43

The U.S. is the largest financial contributor to the UN, providing 27.89% of the assessed peacekeeping budget of
$6.38 billion for the fiscal year 2020.43 This level of funding far exceeds that of other major powers, such as China
(15.2%) and Japan (8.5%).43 However, the U.S. has a history of not paying its full assessed contributions, leading to
significant arrears.44 The U.S. has also used its veto power as a permanent member of the Security Council to block
resolutions, particularly those critical of Israeli military actions, a practice that has often caused rifts with other
permanent members.43

U.S. Financial Contributions to the UN (FY 2020)

Country Percentage of UN Assessed Peacekeeping

Budget

United States 27.89% 43

China 15.2% 43

Japan 8.5% 43

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American Role in Cold War and its emergence as the Sole super Power (1945 1990)
The Cold War was a period of global rivalry that, despite moments of increased tension, stopped short of all-out
warfare between the two superpowers.40 The knowledge that both nations held a stockpile of nuclear weapons created
the military doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD), which helped to keep the conflict "cold". 40 However, the
rivalry was intense and played out through proxy wars, espionage, economic competition, and arms races. 42

The United States' foreign policy during this period became heavily interventionist. Successive administrations
adopted the policy of containment and backed authoritarian regimes, funded paramilitary groups, and deployed troops
in countries such as Korea, Vietnam, and Nicaragua in the name of fighting communism. 42 While this policy was
designed to promote democracy and security, its practical application created a profound paradox, as the U.S.
simultaneously championed human rights while actively supporting non-democratic governments to counter Soviet
influence.42 This contradiction generated long-term instability and resentment in many regions, leaving a legacy that
continues to influence U.S. foreign policy today. 42

The rivalry intensified with key crises like the Berlin Blockade of 1948–1949 and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962,
the latter being widely considered the closest the world came to escalating into a nuclear war.41 Efforts at détente in
the 1970s eased tensions, but the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 reignited hostilities and led to a renewed
American commitment to military buildup under the Reagan administration. 42 The Cold War ended with the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, leaving the United States as the world's "dominant military, economic, social,
and political power".43

The War on Terror and the Role of Pakistan and USA (2001-2012)
The third major U.S. engagement with Pakistan began on September 11, 2001, following the terrorist attacks on the
United States.46 Pakistan, which had been one of the few countries to recognize the brutal Taliban regime in
Afghanistan, became a crucial U.S. ally in the global war on terrorism.46 This alliance was one of necessity, not shared
values, and was a continuation of a historical pattern of pragmatic, transactional relationships between the two nations
that had been previously forged during the Cold War and the Afghan Jihad of the 1980s.46

Pakistani forces worked closely with the U.S. in the fight against terror, rounding up high-profile al-Qaeda leaders
along the nation's western border.47 Key figures captured in Pakistan included Abu Zubaida, Osama bin Laden's field
commander, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the mastermind of the September 11th attacks. 47 On May 2, 2011, U.S.
Navy SEALs conducted a raid in Abbottabad, Pakistan, killing al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden.48 While Pakistan
was a critical partner, the alliance was also a "great balancing act" for the U.S..46 Pakistan itself has been a long-
standing victim of terrorism, with more than 300 of its troops killed in the fight, a figure greater than any other U.S.
ally in the war on terrorism.46 The relationship has also been marked by contradictions, as the U.S. has simultaneously
sought Pakistan's help in fighting terrorism while also pressing for democratization, an effort that presents significant
challenges given the military's prominent role in Pakistani politics. 46

IX. Contemporary American Society and Foreign Relations

The Civil Rights Movement
The Civil Rights Movement was a nationwide struggle for equal rights for African Americans and an end to racial
segregation, using methods that included sit-ins, boycotts, and protest marches.49 A foundational legal victory came in
1954 with the Supreme Court's unanimous ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, which declared that "separate
educational facilities are inherently unequal" and legally ended racial segregation in public schools.49

The movement gained momentum with key events that captured national and international attention. The Montgomery
Bus Boycott, sparked by the arrest of activist Rosa Parks in 1955 for refusing to give up her bus seat, brought a young
minister, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., to national prominence. 49 King’s philosophy of non-violent protest was

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49
articulated in his "Letter from Birmingham Jail," which became a classic defense of civil disobedience. The 1963
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which drew hundreds of thousands of people, culminated in King’s
iconic "I Have a Dream" speech at the Lincoln Memorial. 49 The violent attacks on peaceful marchers in Selma,
Alabama, in 1965, widely broadcast by the media, prompted a national outcry and contributed to the passage of
landmark legislation.49

The movement’s efforts led to significant legislative achievements, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the
Voting Rights Act of 1965, which outlawed discrimination based on race and ended many Jim Crow-era laws and
practices.49 These victories created a legal foundation for greater equality, but they did not end the struggle. The
movement’s focus shifted to address systemic injustices, including economic inequality and structural reforms, a
legacy that continues to shape American social discourse. 50

Global perceptions of the USA

Recent survey data from 2025 provides a complex and often contradictory overview of global perceptions of the
United States. A median of 49% of adults across 24 countries had a favorable view of the U.S., while an identical
share had an unfavorable one.51 The most favorable ratings came from allies such as Israel (83%) and countries like
Brazil and South Korea, where majorities also held a positive view. 51 In contrast, ratings dropped significantly in 15
countries, with more than six-in-ten adults in Canada and Mexico, and majorities in many European countries, holding
a negative opinion.51

The international community is divided on which country is the world’s top economic power. In 12 nations, more
people consider China to be the leader, while in only eight countries a majority or plurality names the U.S.. 51
Similarly, perceptions of American democracy are split. While a median of 50% said democracy in the U.S. works
well, majorities in most European countries, Australia, Canada, and Mexico said it functions poorly. 51 A median of
62% of those surveyed agreed that there are "strong or very strong partisan conflicts" in the U.S.. 51 These findings
suggest that America's global influence is not just tied to its economic and military power but is increasingly being
judged on the perceived health of its democracy and the state of its internal political divisions. This creates a
challenging foreign policy environment where promoting American values abroad is undermined by concerns about
their application at home.

Global Perceptions of the U.S. (2025 Median)

Metric Overall Median Value

Favorable View of U.S. 49% 51

View U.S. Democracy as "Working Well" 50% 51

See "Strong" Partisan Conflicts 62% 51

Perceive U.S. as Top Global Economy Varies by country 51

Conclusions and Summary

This report provides a comprehensive overview of key periods and themes in US history, from the continent's ancient
origins to the nation's contemporary challenges. The analysis of this historical trajectory reveals several recurring
patterns and profound shifts that have shaped the United States into its current form.

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The foundational years of European colonization were driven by competing imperial interests and economic gain, a
fact often obscured by narratives of exploration and civilization. The high rate of death from disease in the
Revolutionary War demonstrates that victory was not merely a military triumph but a testament to a nascent nation's
endurance against forces far more deadly than combat. The Constitution, while a document of carefully balanced
powers, was framed with enough flexibility to allow the federal government to grow and adapt to national crises, a
trend that began with westward expansion and was solidified during the Civil War. The Civil War itself was not just a
conflict over slavery but a transformative event that forged a more centralized and technologically capable American
state.

The Gilded Age and the Progressive Era illustrate a dynamic tension between unregulated economic growth and a
societal demand for reform and social justice. This pattern reemerged during the Great Depression, where the New
Deal provided a vital social safety net but required the massive industrial mobilization of World War II to fully restore
the economy. The post-war era saw the U.S. rise to superpower status, but its role as a global leader has been fraught
with contradictions. While championing democracy abroad, the U.S. often supported authoritarian regimes to serve
strategic interests, a legacy that continues to create challenges. The War on Terror, a modern conflict, was
fundamentally shaped by the pre-existing, pragmatic relationship between the U.S. and Pakistan.

Ultimately, the nation's history is one of continuous evolution. From a collection of disparate colonies to an industrial
giant and global superpower, the United States has been shaped by a complex interplay of internal ideals and external
pressures. The modern challenges of political polarization and shifting global perceptions, as evidenced by recent
survey data, suggest that the enduring American experiment is still in the process of defining its role in the world, a
process that continues to test the nation's core principles.

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