Arab Spring

The Arab Spring was a series of pro-democracy anti-

government uprisings and protests and armed rebellions
that spread across much of the Arab world, the Middle
East and North Africa starting in late 2010. The
movement was sparked by a variety of factors including
widespread discontent with authoritarian regimes,
corruption, economic stagnation, and human rights
abuses. Social media played a crucial role in
disseminating information and mobilizing support for the
protests.

1)It began in Tunisia in response to corruption and

economic stagnation.
2)From Tunisia, the protests initially spread to five
other countries: Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Syria and
Bahrain.
3)Rulers were deposed (Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of
Tunisia, Muammar Gaddafi of Libya, and Hosni
Mubarak of Egypt all in 2011, and Ali Abdullah Saleh
of Yemen in 2012) and major uprisings and social
violence occurred, including riots, civil wars, or
insurgencies.
4)Sustained street demonstrations took place in
Morocco, Iraq, Algeria, Lebanon, Jordan, Kuwait,
Oman and Sudan.
5)Minor protests took place in Djibouti, Mauritania,
Palestine, Saudi Arabia and the Western Sahara.
 6)A major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab
world is ash-shaʻb yurīd isqāṭ an-niẓām! ’the
people want to bring down the regime’.

 Protesters gathered at Tahrir Square in Cairo, Egypt,

9 February 2011;
 Habib Bourguiba Boulevard, protesters in Tunis,
Tunisia, 14 January 2011;
 Dissidents in Sanaa, Yemen, calling for president Ali
Abdullah Saleh to resign on 3 February 2011;
 Crowds of hundreds of thousands in Baniyas, Syria,
29 April 2011.
Causes :
 2000s energy crisis
 Authoritarianism
 Absolute monarchy
 Demographic factors
 Inflation
 Kleptocracy
 Political corruption
 Poverty
 Sectarianism
 Self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi
 Unemployment
Goals :
 Democracy
 Economic freedom
 Employment
  Free elections
 Reform
 Regime change

Methods
 Civil disobedience
 Civil resistance
 Civil war
 Defection
 Demonstrations
 Insurgency
 Internet activism
 Media activism
 Mutiny
 Protest
 Protest camp
 Rebellion
 Revolution
 Riots
 Self-immolation
 Silent protest
 Sit-in
 Strike action
 Urban warfare

Deaths: 61,000 total (international estimate).

 Causes:
 Authoritarian Rule: Many Arab countries were
governed by autocratic regimes with limited political
freedoms and human rights.
 Economic Hardship: High unemployment,
especially among youth, poverty, and rising food
prices fuelled public anger.
 Corruption: Widespread corruption within
governments and among elites exacerbated
economic inequality and resentment.
 Lack of Freedom and Dignity: People demanded
greater political participation, freedom of expression,
and respect for human dignity.
Key Events:
 Tunisia: The Arab Spring began in Tunisia in
December 2010, following the self-immolation of
Mohamed Bouazizi, a street vendor who was
protesting against police harassment and corruption.
The Tunisian Revolution, also known as the Jasmine
Revolution, led to the overthrow of President Zine El
Abidine Ben Ali.
 Egypt: Protests in Egypt led to the resignation of
President Hosni Mubarak in February 2011 after 30
years in power.
 Libya: The uprising in Libya escalated into a civil war
that resulted in the ousting and killing of Muammar
Gaddafi in October 2011.
 Syria: The Syrian uprising evolved into a protracted
and devastating civil war with international
involvement.
 Yemen: Protests in Yemen led to the resignation of
President Ali Abdullah Saleh after 33 years in power.
 Bahrain: Protests in Bahrain were met with a violent
crackdown by the government.

Consequences:
 Regime Change: In some countries, like Tunisia and
Egypt, the protests led to the ousting of long-
standing dictators.
 Civil War: In other countries, like Libya and Syria,
the uprisings escalated into prolonged and
devastating civil wars.
 Rise of Extremist Groups: In some cases, the
instability created by the Arab Spring led to the rise
of extremist groups like ISIS.
 Ongoing Instability: Many countries in the region
continue to experience political instability and
conflict.
Role of Social Media:
 Social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter
played a vital role in organizing protests,
disseminating information, and raising awareness of
the events to a global audience.
Conclusion:
  The Arab Spring was a complex and transformative
period in the history of the Middle East and North
Africa. While it brought about some positive changes,
it also resulted in significant instability and conflict in
many countries. The long-term consequences of the
Arab Spring continue to unfold.
Not every country saw success in the protest movement,
however, and demonstrators expressing their political
and economic grievances were often met with violent
crackdowns by their countries’ security forces.

Tunisia’s Jasmine Revolution

The first demonstrations took place in central Tunisia in
December 2010, catalyzed by the self-immolation of
Mohamed Bouazizi, a 26-year-old street vendor protesting
his treatment by local officials. A protest movement,
dubbed the “Jasmine Revolution” in the media, quickly
spread through the country. The Tunisian government
attempted to end the unrest by using violence against
street demonstrations and by offering political and
economic concessions. However, protests soon
overwhelmed the country’s security forces, compelling
Pres. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali to step down and flee the
country on January 14, 2011. In October 2011, Tunisians
participated in a free election to choose members of a
council tasked with drafting a new constitution. A
democratically chosen president and prime minister took
office in December 2011, and a new constitution was
promulgated in January 2014. In October–November
2019, Tunisia became the first country of the Arab Spring
protests to undergo a peaceful transfer of power from one
democratically elected government to another.

Egypt’s January 25 Revolution

Inspired by Ben Ali’s ouster in Tunisia, similar protests
were quickly organized among young Egyptians through
social media , bringing out massive crowds across Egypt
on January 25, 2011. The Egyptian government also tried
and failed to control protests by offering concessions
while cracking down violently against protesters. After
several days of massive demonstrations and clashes
between protesters and security forces in Cairo and
around the country, a turning point came at the end of
the month when the Egyptian army announced that it
would refuse to use force against protesters calling for
the removal of Pres. Hosni Mubarak. Having lost the
support of the military, Mubarak left office on February 11
after nearly 30 years, ceding power to a council of senior
military officers. The military enjoyed high public approval
in the interim before a new government, but its apparent
prioritization of stability over democratic transition at
times dampened optimism.
 Events in other countries
Encouraged by protesters’ rapid successes in Tunisia and
Egypt, protest movements took hold in Yemen, Bahrain,
Libya, and Syria in late January, February, and March
2011. Unlike in Tunisia and Egypt, however, the
outpouring of popular discontent in these countries led to
bloody—and often protracted—struggles between
opposition groups and ruling regimes.

Yemen
In Yemen, where the first protests appeared in late
January 2011, Pres. Ali Abdullah Saleh’s base of support
was damaged when a number of the country’s most
powerful tribal and military leaders aligned themselves
with the pro-democracy protesters calling for him to step
down. When negotiations to remove Saleh from power
failed, loyalist and opposition fighters clashed in Sanaa.
Saleh left Yemen in June to receive medical treatment
after he was injured in a bomb attack, raising hopes
among the opposition that a transition would begin. Saleh
returned to the country unexpectedly four months later,
however, adding to the uncertainty and confusion about
Yemen’s political future. In November 2011 Saleh signed
an internationally mediated agreement calling for a
phased transfer of power to the vice president, Abd
Rabbuh Mansur Hadi. In accordance with the agreement,
Hadi took over governing responsibility immediately and
formally assumed the presidency after standing as the
sole candidate in a presidential election in February 2012.
Unable to improve conditions or maintain stability,
however, Hadi’s government faced armed confrontation
and rebellion that in 2014 devolved into a civil war.

Bahrain
Mass protests demanding political and economic reforms
erupted in Bahrain in mid-February 2011, led by Bahraini
human rights activists and members of Bahrain’s
marginalized Shiʿah majority. Protests were violently
suppressed by Bahraini security forces, aided by a Gulf
Cooperation Council security force (composed of about
1,000 soldiers from Saudi Arabia and 500 police officers
from the United Arab Emirates) that entered the country
In March. By the end of the month, the mass protest
movement had been stifled. In the aftermath of the
protests, dozens of accused protest leaders were
convicted of anti-government activity and imprisoned,
hundreds of Shiʿah workers suspected of supporting the
protests were fired, and dozens of Shiʿah mosques were
demolished by the government. In November 2011 an
independent investigation into the uprising,
commissioned by the Bahraini government, concluded
that the government had used excessive force and
torture against protesters. The government carried out
some of the commission’s recommendations for reform
but clamped down further on opposition groups in the
years that followed.
 Libya
In Libya protests against the regime of Muammar al-
Qaddafi in mid-February 2011 quickly escalated into an
armed revolt. When the rebel forces appeared to be on
the verge of defeat in March, an international coalition led
by NATO launched a campaign of air strikes targeting
Qaddafi’s forces. Although NATO intervention ultimately
shifted the military balance in favour of the rebel forces,
Qaddafi was able to cling to power in the capital, Tripoli,
for several more months. He was forced from power in
August 2011 after rebel forces took control of Tripoli. After
evading capture for several weeks, Qaddafi was killed in
Sirte in October 2011 as rebel forces took control of the
city. A Transitional National Council, set up by rebel forces
and recognized internationally, took power, but its
struggle to exert authority over the country precipitated
the outbreak of civil war in 2014.

Syria
In Syria protests calling for the resignation of Pres. Bashar
al-Assad broke out in southern Syria in mid-March 2011
and spread through the country. The Assad regime
responded with a brutal crackdown against protesters,
drawing condemnation from international leaders and
human rights groups. A leadership council for the Syrian
opposition formed in Istanbul in August, and opposition
militias began to launch attacks on government forces. In
spite of the upheaval, Assad’s hold on power appeared
strong, as he was able to retain the support of critical
military units composed largely of members of Syria’s
ʿAlawite minority, to which Assad also belonged.
Meanwhile, divisions in the international community
made it unlikely that international military intervention,
which had proved decisive in Libya, would be possible in
Syria. Russia and China vetoed UN Security Council
resolutions meant to pressure the Assad regime in
October 2011 and February 2012 and vowed to oppose
any measure that would lead to foreign intervention in
Syria or Assad’s removal from power. The arrival of a
delegation of peace monitors from the Arab League in
December 2011 did little to reduce violence. The
escalation of violence, fed by funding and arms from
several rival countries interested in the outcome of the
situation, culminated in a devastating civil war and a
massive refugee crisis affecting millions.

Other countries
The effects of the Arab Spring movement were felt
elsewhere throughout the Middle East and North Africa as
many of the countries in the region experienced at least
minor pro-democracy protests. In Algeria, Jordan,
Morocco, and Oman, rulers offered a variety of
concessions, ranging from the dismissal of unpopular
officials to constitutional changes, in order to head off the
spread of protest movements in their countries.

Legacy
Although the protest movements in 2011 were unique in
their interconnected struggle for democracy across the
region, the push to end corruption and improve citizens’
quality of life did not end with the Arab Spring. Protests
continued for years to come, and an additional wave of
protests took place in the Arab world in the late 2010s
and early 2020s. In February 2019, protests in Algeria
toppled the government of Pres. Abdelaziz Bouteflika; In
April, Sudan’s military ended the 30-year rule of Pres.
Omar al-Bashir after months of protests. Iraq and
Lebanon, democracies whose polarized factions rendered
the governments incapable of addressing major crises,
also faced massive demonstrations of their own in 2019–
20. Although these individual protest movements were
not inspired by one another, the scale and similarity of
their grievances led many observers to refer to this wave
of protests as a second Arab Spring

The Orange Revolution refers to a series of

protests and political events in Ukraine in late November
2004 and early January 2005, primarily focused on the
capital, Kyiv. These protests were sparked by public
outrage over a presidential election that was widely
perceived as fraudulent, marred by massive corruption,
voter intimidation and electoral fraud, favouring the pro-
Russian candidate Viktor Yanukovych over the pro-
Western Viktor Yushchenko. The protests, characterized
by civil disobedience and mass demonstrations,
ultimately led to the annulment of the initial election
results and a revote, which Yushchenko won.
1)Kyiv, the Ukrainian capital, was the focal point of the
movement’s campaign of civil resistance, with
thousands of protesters demonstrating daily.
2)Nationwide this was highlighted by a series of acts of
civil disobedience, sit-ins, and general strikes
organized by the opposition movement.
3)The protests were prompted by reports from several
domestic and foreign election monitors as well as the
widespread public perception that the results of the
run-off vote of 21 November 2004 between leading
candidates Viktor Yushchenko and Viktor Yanukovych
were rigged by the authorities in favour of the latter.
4)The nationwide protests succeeded when the results
of the original run-off were annulled, and a revote
was ordered by Ukraine’s Supreme Court for 26
December 2004. Under intense scrutiny by domestic
and international observers, the second run-off was
declared to be “free and fair”. The final results
showed a clear victory for Yushchenko, who received
about 52% of the vote, compared to Yanukovych’s
44%. Yushchenko was declared the official winner
 and with his inauguration on 23 January 2005 in Kyiv,
the Orange Revolution ended.
 Cause: The 2004 Ukrainian presidential election was
marred by widespread allegations of voter
intimidation, ballot stuffing, and other forms of
electoral fraud.
 Protests: The opposition, led by Viktor Yushchenko,
organized large-scale demonstrations, particularly in
Kyiv’s Independence Square (Maidan Nezalezhnosti),
using orange as their campaign colour.
 Key Players: Viktor Yushchenko (pro-Western
opposition), Viktor Yanukovych (pro-Russian), and
Yulia Tymoshenko (key figure in the protests).
 Outcome: The Supreme Court of Ukraine invalidated
the results of the initial runoff election and ordered a
new vote.
 Second Election: In the new election, Viktor
Yushchenko won and became the President of
Ukraine.
 Significance: The Orange Revolution is seen as a
significant event in Ukrainian history, demonstrating
the power of civil society and peaceful protest in
challenging electoral fraud and promoting
democracy. It also highlighted the deep divisions
within Ukrainian society regarding its political
orientation (pro-Western vs. pro-Russian).

The presidential election of 2004 brought Ukraine to the

brink of disintegration and civil war. Cleared to seek a
third term as president by the Constitutional Court,
Kuchma instead endorsed the candidacy of Prime Minister
Viktor Yanukovych, who was also strongly supported by
Russian Pres. Vladimir Putin. Yushchenko—running on an
anticorruption, anticronyism platform—emerged as the
leading opposition candidate, but his campaign was
prevented from visiting Yanukovych’s stronghold of
Donetsk and other eastern cities. In September
Yushchenko’s health began to fail, and medical tests later
revealed he had suffered dioxin poisoning (allegedly
carried out by the Ukrainian State Security Service),
which left his face disfigured. In the first round of the
presidential election, on October 31, Yushchenko and
Yanukovych both won about two-fifths of the vote. In the
runoff the following month, Yanukovych was declared the
winner, though Yushchenko’s supporters charged fraud
and staged mass protests that came to be known as the
Orange Revolution. Protestors clad in orange,
Yushchenko’s campaign colour, took to the streets, and
the country endured nearly two weeks of demonstrations.
Yanukovych’s supporters in the east threatened to secede
from Ukraine if the results were annulled. Nevertheless,
on December 3 the Supreme Court ruled the election
invalid and ordered a new runoff for December 26.
Yushchenko subsequently defeated Yanukovych by
garnering some 52 percent of the vote. Although
Yanukovych challenged the validity of the results,
Yushchenko was inaugurated on January 23, 2005.
The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, which
occurred in late 2004 and early 2005, was primarily a
response to a fraudulent presidential election. The
election, between Viktor Yushchenko and Viktor
Yanukovych, was widely believed to be rigged with voter
intimidation and fraud. Protests, with the campaign color
orange, erupted in Kyiv’s Maidan Square and across the
country, demanding a fair election. The Supreme Court
ultimately invalidated the initial results and ordered a
revote, which resulted in Yushchenko’s victory.
 Fraudulent Election: The 2004 Ukrainian
presidential election was heavily disputed, with
widespread reports of voter intimidation and
electoral fraud, particularly in favor of Viktor
Yanukovych.
 Public Outcry: The election results triggered
widespread protests and demonstrations, particularly
in Kyiv’s Independence Square (Maidan
Nezalezhnosti), as citizens demanded a fair and
democratic process.
 Yushchenko’s Campaign Color: The colour
orange, Yushchenko’s campaign color, became a
symbol of the movement.
 Civil Disobedience: Protesters engaged in various
forms of civil disobedience, including sit-ins, strikes,
and demonstrations, to challenge the legitimacy of
the election results.
  Supreme Court Intervention: The Supreme Court
of Ukraine ultimately ruled the initial election results
invalid and ordered a rerun of the second round of
voting.
 Yushchenko’s Victory: In the revote, Yushchenko
secured victory, signifying a win for the pro-Western
opposition and a rejection of the perceived Russian
influence in Ukrainian politics.
The Orange Revolution, a series of protests and political
events in Ukraine during late 2004, had significant
impacts on both Ukrainian domestic politics and
international relations. Domestically, it led to the
annulment of fraudulent election results and a re-run of
the presidential election, ultimately resulting in the
victory of Viktor Yushchenko. Internationally, it
highlighted Ukraine’s desire for closer ties with the West
and challenged Russia’s influence in the region,
contributing to a shift in the perception of Ukraine as a
potential European nation.

Key Impacts:
 Political Turnaround in Ukraine: The Orange
Revolution directly led to the annulment of the initial
fraudulent election results and a re-run of the
presidential election, which Viktor Yushchenko won.
This marked a significant moment of political change
in Ukraine, albeit one that was followed by political
infighting and instability.
 Shift in International Perceptions: The events of
the Orange Revolution, particularly the peaceful
 protests and the subsequent legal challenge to the
election results, led to a change in how the West
viewed Ukraine. Instead of being seen as a “lost
country” or part of Russia’s sphere of influence,
Ukraine was increasingly viewed as a nation with
aspirations for democracy and Euro-Atlantic
integration.
 Challenges to Russia’s Influence: The Orange
Revolution was partly fueled by a desire to distance
Ukraine from Russia and its authoritarian model
under Vladimir Putin. The event signalled a growing
desire within Ukraine to move away from Russia’s
orbit and pursue closer ties with the West, a trend
that would continue in subsequent years.
 Potential for Increased Democratization in
Eastern Europe: The Orange Revolution inspired
democratic movements in other Eastern European
countries, as it demonstrated the potential for
peaceful protests to bring about political change.
 Legacy of Political Instability: While the Orange
Revolution brought about a change in leadership, it
also highlighted the deep political divisions within
Ukraine. The subsequent presidency of Viktor
Yushchenko was marked by infighting and political
gridlock, demonstrating the challenges of building a
stable democracy in the country.
The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, a series of protests
and political events in 2004, had several key outcomes. It
successfully prevented the fraudulent election of Viktor
Yanukovych and led to a revote where Viktor Yushchenko
was elected president. This event also spurred increased
press freedom and a shift towards a more democratic and
Western-oriented path for Ukraine. However, the
revolution also resulted in political instability, infighting,
and ultimately, Yanukovych’s return to power in 2010.

Positive Outcomes:
 Prevention of a Stolen Election: The protests
successfully overturned the results of a fraudulent
presidential election that favoured Viktor
Yanukovych.
 Democratization: The Orange Revolution pushed
Ukraine towards a more democratic system, with a
focus on strengthening ties with the European Union.
 Increased Press Freedom: Following the
revolution, there was a notable increase in press
freedom in Ukraine.
 Constitutional Reform: The revolution led to
constitutional reforms that shifted power from the
presidency to the parliament.
 Shifting Away from Authoritarianism: The events
of the Orange Revolution positioned Ukraine on a
path that diverged from the authoritarianism of
Vladimir Putin’s Russia.
 Negative Outcomes and Challenges:
 Political Instability: The post-revolution period was
marked by political infighting and instability, with
frequent changes in government.
 Failed Promises: Despite initial optimism, the
Yushchenko administration was unable to fully
address corruption and other major problems,
leading to disappointment among some Ukrainians.
 Yanukovych’s Return: In 2010, Viktor Yanukovych
was elected president, indicating the revolution’s
limited long-term impact on political power.
 Continued Divisions: The Orange Revolution
highlighted and arguably exacerbated existing
divisions within Ukrainian society, particularly
between those favoring closer ties with Russia and
those favoring the West.

In Conclusion:
The Orange Revolution was a significant event in
Ukrainian history, achieving some positive outcomes like
preventing a fraudulent election and promoting
democratization, but also facing challenges in terms of
political stability and long-term reform.
The South China Sea (SCS) is a focal point of
territorial and maritime disputes, involving China,
Brunei, Taiwan, the Philippines, Vietnam, and
Malaysia. These disputes stem from competing claims
over islands, reefs, and maritime areas, particularly the
Paracel and Spratly Islands. Strategic and economic
interests, including resource competition (oil, gas, fishing)
and the importance of shipping lanes, fuel the ongoing
tensions.
Key Players and Disputes:
 China: Claims the largest portion of the SCS, based
on historical claims and the “nine-dash line” map.
 Taiwan: Also claims the entire SCS based on the
“eleven-dash line”.
 Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei: Claim
parts of the SCS, including specific islands and
maritime zones.

Major Points of Contention:

 Territorial Sovereignty: Disputes over the Paracel
and Spratly Islands, with China occupying the
Paracels and various countries claiming parts of the
Spratlys.
 Maritime Claims: Conflicting claims over Exclusive
Economic Zones (EEZs) and continental shelves,
particularly in relation to the “nine-dash line”.
 Resource Competition: The SCS is rich in oil, gas,
and fisheries, making resource control a key factor in
the disputes.
 Strategic Importance: The SCS is a vital shipping
route, connecting East Asia with other parts of the
world.
Escalating Tensions:
 China’s Actions: China has been assertive in the
SCS, building artificial islands and militarizing some
features, which has led to international
condemnation.
 Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOPs):
The US and other countries have conducted FONOPs
in the SCS to challenge China’s claims and assert
freedom of navigation.
 Diplomatic Efforts: ASEAN has been trying to
establish a Code of Conduct to manage disputes, but
progress has been slow.
 International Law: The Permanent Court of
Arbitration ruled against China’s claims in a case
brought by the Philippines, but China rejected the
ruling.
 Impact:
 Regional Instability: The SCS disputes contribute
to regional instability and could potentially escalate
into a larger conflict.
 Economic Impact: The disputes affect trade routes
and potentially limit access to resources.
India’s Role:
 India has been increasing its naval presence and
cooperation with Vietnam in the SCS, aiming to
protect sea lanes of communication and counter
China’s influence.
 India is also part of the Quad (India, US, Japan,
Australia) initiative, which is seen by some as a
containment strategy against China.

The South China Sea is considered to be one of the

busiest waterways in the world and is a significant
gateway for trade and merchant shipping. The South
China Sea disputes are maritime and island claims
between different sovereign states in the region. Parties
to these disputes are China, Brunei, Taiwan, the
Philippines, Vietnam, and Malaysia and are geopolitically
located in the Indo-Pacific region.

South China Sea dispute – latest updates

 China was recently in the news for unilaterally
changing things on the ground in the South China
 Sea. In the middle of the global coronavirus
pandemic, It is busy increasing its presence in the
SCS. It approved the establishment of two districts to
administer disputed Paracel and the Spratly Islands
in the South China Sea.
 Before that, Beijing had issued new names for 25
islands or reefs and 55 undersea entities in the South
China Sea in a bid to reaffirm its sovereignty in the
region.
 The regions of contention are the Spratly Island, the
Paracel Island, maritime boundaries in the Gulf of
Tonkin and other places. Waters near the Indonesian
Natuna Islands are also disputed. The reason why
these areas are disputed and of interest to the
concerned nations is the acquisition of fishing areas
around the two archipelagos; suspected crude oil and
natural gas in different parts of the South China Sea;
and the control of strategically important shipping
lanes.
South China Sea Dispute Causes
The maritime disputes in the South China Sea impact on
a series of regional bilateral relations and continue to
trouble ties between China and the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Various reasons have
led to the dispute regarding the South China Sea.
 The main cause of this dispute is the claim of
different territories over the Sea and territorial
demarcation of the sea.
  The Sea is said to be a major source of natural
resources for the different territories.
 It is a source of about 10 percent of the country’s
fishery, which makes it an essential source of food
for hundreds of people. This is also a major reason
why people from different countries are claiming
their rights over the sea.
 The islands and rocks have also been a cause of
dispute. Country’s claim their right over the different
islands, which makes it tougher for countries to trade
through this waterway as it may lead to seizing their
trading ships.
 There are exclusive economic zones (EEZ) and
mostly in the case of water bodies, these zones
overlap for different territories.
 China: The country claims that ancient history
records show that China held control over the entire
waterway and it was only during the modern era that
the dispute began. China also raises legal concerns
and rights over the Sea. However, China has not
been successful in proving its claim over the region.

Effects of the South China Sea Dispute

The South China Sea Dispute has adversely affected the
territories involved in the dispute but along with them,
other countries involved in trade with them are affected.
It is one of the most vital trade routes and it is important
to end the dispute over the South China Sea so that trade
and economic activities of the country are not disrupted.
Also, the US is playing a very important role in mending
the dispute because it has wide-ranging security
commitments in East Asia and is allied with several of the
countries bordering the South China Sea, such as the
Philippines, Singapore, and Vietnam. So any dispute
among them will directly affect the US.

Role of India in South China Sea Dispute

Under the ‘Look East’ policy, India has been taking a
higher position at the global high table- this was reflected
in the joint statement issued in September 2014, by the
Governments of U.S. and India when Indian PM Narendra
Modi, travelled to the U.S. The joint statement “urged the
concerned parties to pursue resolution of their territorial
and maritime disputes through all peaceful means,
following universally recognized principles of international
law, including the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea.”
 The joint statement also, “affirmed the importance of
safeguarding maritime security and ensuring
freedom of navigation and overflight throughout the
region, especially in the South China Sea.”
 In the wake of the recent judgment by the Permanent
Court of Arbitration, it is a good time for India to
assert that it believes in global commons and
freedom of navigation. India has rightfully not come
out in ‘open’ support of the verdict from the tribunal,
as any overt support to this verdict might run against
India’s ambitions of securing membership into the
NSG- where China’s support is needed.
  India has a legitimate commercial interest in the
South China Sea (SCS) region. But India follows the
policy of not involving itself in the disputes between
sovereign nations.
 The South China Sea sees a heavy percentage of
world trade that passes through Malacca Strait a part
of the South China Sea. India’s 55 % of trade passes
through the Strait of Malacca which opens into the
South China Sea. If China controls the region, it will
upset the global trade practices and countries like
India will directly get affected. Any belligerent action
by China can hamper India’s foreign trade passing
through that region. Therefore, India has a stake in
ensuring freedom of navigation in the region.

Nowadays, environmental problems are a major global

concern, encompassing issues like climate change,
pollution (air, water, and land), biodiversity loss,
deforestation, and resource depletion. These problems
are often interconnected, with human activities like
industrialization, deforestation, and unsustainable
consumption patterns exacerbating the situation.
 key environmental problems:
 [Link] Change: Caused primarily by the
emission of greenhouse gases from burning fossil
fuels, climate change leads to rising global
temperatures, extreme weather events (like heat
waves, droughts, and floods), and disruptions to
ecosystems.
 2. Pollution:
 Air Pollution: Contamination of the air with
harmful substances like particulate matter,
nitrogen oxides, and sulphur dioxide,
leading to respiratory problems and other
health issues.
 Water Pollution: Contamination of water
bodies (rivers, lakes, oceans) with pollutants
like industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and
plastic, harming aquatic life and potentially
affecting human health.
 Land/Soil Degradation: Damage to the
land and soil through deforestation,
unsustainable agriculture, and improper
waste disposal, impacting agricultural
productivity and ecosystem health.
 3. Biodiversity Loss: The decline in the variety of
plant and animal life on Earth, often due to habitat
destruction, pollution, and climate change, leading to
ecosystem instability.
 4. Deforestation: The clearing of forests for various
purposes like agriculture, logging, and urbanization,
 leading to habitat loss, soil erosion, and climate
change.
 5. Resource Depletion: The overuse and
unsustainable extraction of natural resources like
water, minerals, and fossil fuels, leading to shortages
and environmental damage.
 6. Waste Management: The improper handling and
disposal of solid waste, including plastics, electronic
waste, and industrial waste, contributing to pollution
and resource depletion.
 7. Overpopulation: The increasing human
population puts strain on resources and ecosystems,
exacerbating many of the above-mentioned
problems.
 8. Ocean Health: The health of the oceans is
threatened by pollution, overfishing, and climate
change, impacting marine ecosystems and
potentially impacting human populations.

 These are just some of the major environmental

problems facing the world today. Addressing these
challenges requires global cooperation, sustainable
practices, and a shift towards more environmentally
responsible consumption and production patterns.
 The world is grappling with a host of pressing
environmental challenges that demand immediate
attention and action. From climate change-induced
disasters to biodiversity loss and plastic pollution, the
15 biggest environmental problems of 2025 paint a
 stark picture of the urgent need for climate change
mitigation and adaptation.

Global Warming From Fossil Fuels:

 After several consecutive months of record-breaking
temperatures, the hottest-ever summer, and the
hottest day on record, 2024 was recently confirmed
as the hottest year in history.
 This wraps up a decade of unprecedented heat
globally fuelled by human activities, with each of the
past ten years (2015-2024) being one of the ten
warmest years on record.
 What’s more, greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations
have never been so high. Atmospheric
concentrations of all three major planet-warming
gases – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous
oxide – reached new highs in 2023, committing the
planet to rising temperatures for many years to
come. This is undoubtedly one of the biggest
environmental problems of our lifetime: as
greenhouse gas emissions blanket the Earth, they
trap the sun’s heat, leading to global warming.
 The burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity
and heat Is the single-largest source of global GHG
emissions. These are the primary drivers of global
warming as they trap heat in the atmosphere and
raising Earth’s surface temperature.
 Plastic Pollution
 Currently, roughly 14 million tons of plastic make
their way into the oceans every year, harming
wildlife habitats and the animals that live in them.
Research found that if no action is taken, the plastic
crisis will grow to 29 million metric tons per year by
2040. If we include micro plastics into this, the
cumulative amount of plastic in the ocean could
reach 600 million tons by 2040.
 Some 91% of all plastic that has ever been made is
not recycled, making it only one of the biggest
environmental problems of our lifetime. Considering
that plastic takes 400 years to decompose, it will be
many generations until it ceases to exist. There is no
telling what the irreversible effects of plastic
pollution will have on the environment in the long
run.

Melting Ice Caps and Sea Level Rise

 The climate crisis is warming the Arctic more than
twice as fast as anywhere else on the planet. Today,
sea levels are rising more than twice as quickly as
they did for most of the 20th century as a result of
increasing temperatures on Earth.
 Seas are now rising an average of 3.2 mm per year
globally and they will continue to grow up to about
0.7 metres by the end of this century. In the Arctic,
 the Greenland Ice Sheet poses the greatest risk for
sea levels because melting land ice is the main cause
of rising sea levels.

Ocean Acidification
 Global temperature rise has not only affected the
surface but it is also the main cause of ocean
acidification.
 Our oceans absorb about 30% of carbon dioxide that
is released into the Earth’s atmosphere. As higher
concentrations of carbon emissions are released
thanks to human activities such as burning fossil
fuels as well as effects of global climate change such
as increased rates of wildfires, so do the amount of
carbon dioxide that is absorbed back into the sea.
 The smallest change in the acidity scale can have a
significant impact on the acidity of the ocean. Ocean
acidification has devastating impacts on marine
ecosystems and species, its food webs, and provoke
irreversible changes in habitat quality. Once pH levels
reach too low, marine organisms such as oysters,
their shells and skeleton could even start to dissolve.
 However, one of the biggest environmental problems
from ocean acidification is coral bleaching and
subsequent coral reef loss. This phenomenon occurs
when rising ocean temperatures disrupt the
symbiotic relationship between the reefs and algae
 that lives within it, driving away the algae and
causing coral reefs to lose their natural vibrant
colours.
 Some scientists have estimated coral reefs are at risk
of being completely wiped by 2050. Higher acidity in
the ocean would obstruct coral reef systems’ ability
to rebuild their exoskeletons and recover from these
coral bleaching events.

Food and Water Insecurity

 Rising temperatures and unsustainable farming
practices have resulted in increasing water and food
insecurity.
 Globally, more than 68 billion tonnes of top-soil is
eroded every year at a rate 100 times faster than it
can naturally be replenished. Laden with biocides
and fertiliser, the soil ends up in waterways where it
contaminates drinking water and protected areas
downstream.
 Furthermore, exposed and lifeless soil is more
vulnerable to wind and water erosion due to lack of
root and mycelium systems that hold it together
 With the global population expected to reach 9 billion
people by mid-century, projects that global food
demand may increase by 70% by 2050.
 In terms of water security, only 3% of the world’s
water is freshwater, and two-thirds of that is tucked
 away in frozen glaciers or otherwise unavailable for
our use. As a result, some 1.1 billion people
worldwide lack access to water, and a total of 2.7
billion find water scarce for at least one month of the
year. By 2025, two-thirds of the world’s population
may face water shortages.

Fast Fashion and Textile Waste

 The fashion industry accounts for 10% of global
carbon emissions, which makes it one of the biggest
environmental problems of our time. Fashion alone
produces more greenhouse gas emissions than both
the aviation and shipping sectors combined, and
nearly 20% of global wastewater, or around 93 billion
cubic metres from textile dyeing, according to the UN
Environment Programme.
 What’s more, the world generates an estimated 92
million tonnes of textiles waste every year, a number
that is expected to soar up to 134 million tonnes a
year by 2030. Discarded clothing and textile waste,
most of which is non-biodegradable, ends up in
landfills, while microplastics from clothing materials
such as polyester, nylon, polyamide, acrylic and
other synthetic materials is leeched into soil and
nearby water sources.
  Monumental amounts of clothing textile are also
dumped in developing countries, as seen in Chile’s
Atacama Desert. Millions of tons of clothes arrive
annually from Europe, Asia, and the Americas. In
2023, 46 million tons of discarded clothes were
dumped and left to rotten there, according to Chilean
customs statistics.
 This rapidly growing issue is only exacerbated by the
ever-expanding fast fashion business model, in which
companies relies on cheap and speedy production of
low quality clothing to meet the latest and newest
trends.

The international agenda on environmental issues

is largely focused on addressing global challenges like
climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution through
international cooperation and agreements. Key initiatives
include the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
particularly SDG 13 (climate action), and various
multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) like the
Paris Agreement.
Environmental issues, such as climate change and
biodiversity loss, are increasingly recognized as critical
components of the international agenda. These issues
require global cooperation because their impacts
transcend national borders, affecting everyone.
International agreements and organizations play a crucial
role in addressing these challenges.
 Key Areas of Focus:
 Climate Change: This includes efforts to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, transition to sustainable
energy, and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
 Biodiversity Loss: Protecting and restoring
ecosystems, preventing species extinction, and
sustainably managing natural resources are crucial
components.
 Pollution: Addressing various forms of pollution,
including air, water, and plastic pollution, is a priority.
 Sustainable Development: The 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development, with its 17 SDGs, provides
a framework for integrating environmental
considerations into broader development goals.
 Desertification and Land Degradation:
Combating desertification and restoring degraded
lands are important for food security and ecosystem
resilience.
 Waste Management: Promoting sustainable waste
management practices, including reducing waste
generation and increasing recycling, is a growing
area of focus.

Key Initiatives and Agreements:

 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A set of
17 interconnected goals adopted by the UN in 2015,
with several goals directly related to the
 environment, such as SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG
14 (Life Below Water), and SDG 15 (Life on Land).
 Multilateral Environmental Agreements
(MEAs): International treaties that aim to address
specific environmental issues. Examples include the
Paris Agreement (climate change), the Convention on
Biological Diversity, and the Montreal Protocol (on
substances that deplete the ozone layer).
 Agenda 21: A comprehensive plan of action
adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit, addressing
sustainable development challenges.
 Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development: A set of principles adopted at the
1992 Earth Summit, emphasizing the link between
environment and development and the need for
international cooperation.

Challenges and Considerations:

 Complexity of “Wicked Problems”: Many
environmental challenges are complex,
interconnected, and involve multiple stakeholders
with competing interests.
 Implementation Gaps: Despite international
agreements, translating commitments into effective
action on the ground remains a challenge.
 Financing and Technology Transfer: Developing
countries often require financial and technological
assistance to implement environmental initiatives.
 Need for Integrated Approaches: Addressing
environmental issues requires integrated approaches
that consider social, economic, and environmental
factors.
International Cooperation and Action:
 Organizations: The United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) play vital roles in
coordinating efforts and providing scientific insights.
 Global Governance: The G20 and other
international forums address environmental issues
within broader discussions on global challenges.
 National Policies: Many nations are developing
their own environmental policies, often aligning them
with international agreements and goals.

Challenges and Future Directions:

 Balancing Sovereignty and Global Governance:
Finding a balance between national interests and the
need for collective action is crucial.
 Addressing Wicked Problems: Many
environmental issues are complex and
interconnected, requiring innovative and
collaborative solutions.
 Ensuring Equitable Solutions: Developed nations
need to address their historical contributions to
 environmental problems and support developing
countries in their efforts.
In conclusion, environmental issues are firmly on the
international agenda, demanding global cooperation and
innovative solutions to ensure a sustainable future for all.

Climate change is causing a range of issues including

more frequent and intense extreme weather events like
heat waves, droughts, and storms, as well as rising sea
levels, melting glaciers, and ocean acidification. These
changes impact human health, food and water security,
ecosystems, and infrastructure.
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature
and weather patterns, primarily caused by human
activities that release greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere. These activities, such as burning fossil fuels,
deforestation, and industrial processes, trap heat and
warm the planet, leading to a range of impacts like rising
temperatures, extreme weather events, and sea-level
rise.

Causes of Climate Change:

 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The primary driver of
current climate change is the increase in greenhouse
gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane, in the atmosphere.
 Burning Fossil Fuels: Emissions from burning coal,
oil, and natural gas for energy, transportation, and
industrial processes are major contributors to
greenhouse gases.
 Deforestation: Trees absorb CO2, so deforestation
reduces the planet’s capacity to remove this gas
from the atmosphere.
 Industrial Processes: Many industrial activities
release greenhouse gases as by-products.
 Agriculture: Certain agricultural practices, such as
livestock farming, can also contribute to greenhouse
gas emissions.
Environmental Impacts:
 Rising Temperatures: Global average temperatures
have increased significantly, with the last decade
being the warmest on record.
 Extreme Weather: Increased frequency and
intensity of heat waves, droughts, floods, and
wildfires are becoming more common, according to
the United Nations.
 Sea Level Rise: Melting glaciers and thermal
expansion of ocean water are causing sea levels to
rise, threatening coastal communities and
ecosystems.
 Ocean Acidification: Increased absorption of
carbon dioxide by oceans is leading to ocean
acidification, harming marine life, especially coral
reefs and shellfish.
 Changes in Rainfall Patterns: Climate change is
altering rainfall patterns, leading to more intense
rainfall in some areas and droughts in others.
 Changes in Precipitation: Climate change is
altering precipitation patterns, leading to more
droughts in some regions and increased flooding in
others, impacting agriculture and water resources.
 Ecosystem Disruptions: Shifts in temperature and
precipitation patterns are disrupting ecosystems,
impacting biodiversity and the distribution of species.
Human Impacts:
 Health: Extreme heat can cause heatstroke and
other health problems, and changes in climate can
increase the spread of infectious diseases.
 Food Security: Changes in temperature and
precipitation can disrupt agriculture, leading to
reduced crop yields and food shortages.
 Water Resources: Climate change can lead to
water scarcity in some areas and increased flooding
in others, impacting access to clean water.
 Infrastructure: Extreme weather events can
damage infrastructure like roads, bridges, and
buildings, requiring costly repairs and disrupting daily
life.
 Displacement: Climate change can force people to
migrate from areas affected by rising sea levels,
droughts, or extreme weather events.
 Economic Losses: Climate change can lead to
economic losses through damage to infrastructure,
 reduced agricultural yields, and increased healthcare
costs.

Addressing Climate Change:

 Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
Transitioning to renewable energy sources, improving
energy efficiency, and adopting sustainable land-use
practices are crucial for reducing emissions.
 Adaptation Measures: Implementing strategies to
adapt to the impacts of climate change, such as
building seawalls, developing drought-resistant
crops, and improving water management, is also
necessary.
 International Cooperation: Global cooperation is
essential for addressing climate change effectively,
as it is a global issue with far-reaching consequences.
Addressing climate change requires a multifaceted
approach encompassing both mitigation and adaptation
strategies. Mitigation focuses on reducing greenhouse
gas emissions through transitioning to renewable energy,
improving energy efficiency, and sustainable land
management. Adaptation involves adjusting to the
impacts of climate change that are already occurring or
expected to occur, such as building climate resilience in
infrastructure and communities.
 Mitigation:
 Transitioning to Renewable Energy: Shifting
away from fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) and
embracing solar, wind, geothermal, and other
renewable energy sources is crucial.
 Improving Energy Efficiency: Implementing
energy-saving technologies and practices in
buildings, transportation, and industries can
significantly reduce overall energy consumption and
emissions.
 Sustainable Transportation: Promoting public
transport, cycling, walking, and electric vehicles can
reduce emissions from the transportation sector,
which is a major contributor to climate change.
 Sustainable Land Management: Protecting and
restoring forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems
can enhance their capacity to absorb carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.
 Reducing Emissions from Agriculture and
Industry: Implementing sustainable agricultural
practices, reducing food waste, and adopting circular
economy principles in industries can help lower
emissions.
2. Adaptation:
 Building Climate Resilience: Strengthening
infrastructure and communities to withstand the
impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather
events, sea-level rise, and droughts.
 Climate-Resilient Health Systems: Developing
healthcare systems that can cope with the health
impacts of climate change, such as heat-related
illnesses, infectious disease outbreaks, and food
insecurity.
 Water Resource Management: Implementing
strategies to manage water resources more
effectively in the face of changing rainfall patterns
and increased water scarcity.
 Disaster Preparedness and Response:
Strengthening early warning systems and emergency
response mechanisms to minimize the impact of
climate-related disasters.
3. Individual Actions:
 Conserving Energy: Reducing energy consumption
at home and work by using energy-efficient
appliances, turning off lights, and adjusting
thermostats.
 Sustainable Transportation: Choosing public
transport, cycling, or walking whenever possible.
 Reducing Waste: Minimizing waste generation
through recycling, reusing, and repairing items.
 Sustainable Consumption: Making conscious
choices about the products we buy, opting for
sustainable and locally sourced goods, and reducing
meat consumption.
 Educating Others: Raising awareness about climate
change and encouraging others to take action.
4. Global Cooperation:
  International Agreements: The Paris Agreement,
for example, provides a framework for international
cooperation on climate action.
 Financial Assistance: Developed countries need to
provide financial support to developing countries to
help them implement climate action measures.
 Technology Transfer: Sharing climate-friendly
technologies with developing countries can
accelerate their transition to a low-carbon future.
By taking concerted action at all levels, from individual
choices to global cooperation, we can mitigate the
impacts of climate change and build a more sustainable
future.

The global agenda on climate change is a

coordinated international effort to address the urgent
threat of a warming planet. It’s centered around the Paris
Agreement, which aims to limit global temperature
increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels,
while pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. This agenda
includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, building
resilience to climate impacts, and providing financial and
technical support to developing countries.
Key elements of the global climate change agenda:
 The Paris Agreement: This landmark agreement,
adopted in 2015, sets long-term goals for nations to
mitigate climate change and adapt to its impacts.
 National Contributions (NDCs): Countries are
expected to submit Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs), outlining their plans to reduce
emissions and adapt to climate change.
 Global Stocktake: The Paris Agreement includes a
process for periodically assessing collective progress
toward achieving its goals and long-term
temperature targets.
 Financial Support: Developed countries are
expected to provide financial assistance to
developing countries to help them mitigate and
adapt to climate change.
 Raising Ambition: The agenda emphasizes the
need for countries to increase the ambition of their
climate commitments over time, as informed by the
latest science.
 Focus on Mitigation and Adaptation: Efforts are
focused on both reducing greenhouse gas emissions
(mitigation) and building resilience to the impacts of
climate change (adaptation).
 Integration with Sustainable Development:
Climate action is recognized as integral to the
broader Sustainable Development Goals,
emphasizing the need for integrated and coherent
approaches.
Current priorities and future outlook:
  Urgent Action: The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) emphasizes the need for
deep, rapid, and sustained reductions in greenhouse
gas emissions, starting now.
 Net-Zero Emissions: Many countries and
organizations are setting targets for achieving net-
zero greenhouse gas emissions by mid-century,
requiring significant transformations across all
sectors.
 Increased Ambition: The agenda calls for countries
to raise the ambition of their NDCs, particularly in
light of the latest scientific assessments.
 Global Stocktake: The first Global Stocktake under
the Paris Agreement will be crucial for assessing
progress and identifying areas where further action is
needed.
In essence, the global agenda on climate change is
a dynamic and evolving framework for
international cooperation aimed at addressing the
existential threat of a changing climate. It requires a
multi-faceted approach, including ambitious emission
reduction targets, adaptation measures, financial support,
and a strong commitment from all nations.
At the United Nations Climate Change conference
in Paris, COP 21, governments agreed that mobilizing
stronger and more ambitious climate action is urgently
required to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.
Action must come from governments, cities, regions,
businesses and investors. Everyone has a role to play in
effectively implementing the Paris Agreement.
The Paris Agreement formally acknowledges the urgent
need to scale up our global response to climate change,
which supports even greater ambition from governments.
The commitments from all actors are recognized in the
decision text of the Paris Agreement, including those
launched through the Lima–Paris Action Agenda.
The need for engagement and action by all levels of
society, public and private, was recognized early in the
UNFCCC process—Parties’ attention to public
participation, technologies and use of markets and
mechanisms are just a few examples of this recognition.
However, there are few prominent milestones that
marked the path of non-Party stakeholders to a place in
the Paris Agreement.

 The Paris Agreement is a legally binding

international treaty on climate change. It was
adopted by 195 Parties at the UN Climate Change
Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12
December 2015. It entered into force on 4 November
2016.
 Its overarching goal is to hold “the increase in the
global average temperature to well below 2°C above
pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the
temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial
levels.”
  However, in recent years, world leaders have
stressed the need to limit global warming to 1.5°C by
the end of this century.
 That’s because the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change indicates that crossing the 1.5°C
threshold risks unleashing far more severe climate
change impacts, including more frequent and severe
droughts, heatwaves and rainfall.
 To limit global warming to 1.5°C, greenhouse gas
emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and
decline 43% by 2030.
 The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilateral
climate change process because, for the first time, a
binding agreement brings all nations together to
combat climate change and adapt to its effects.
Implementation of the Paris Agreement requires
economic and social transformation, based on the best
available science. The Paris Agreement works on a five-
year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action – or,
ratcheting up – carried out by countries. Since 2020,
countries have been submitting their national climate
action plans, known as nationally determined
contributions (NDCs). Each successive NDC is meant to
reflect an increasingly higher degree of ambition
compared to the previous version.
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
 In their NDCs, countries communicate actions they
will take to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in
order to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement.
 Countries also communicate in their NDCs actions
they will take to build resilience to adapt to the
impacts of climate change.
Long-Term Strategies
 To better frame the efforts towards the long-term
goal, the Paris Agreement invites countries to
formulate and submit long-term low greenhouse gas
emission development strategies (LT-LEDS).
 LT-LEDS provide the long-term horizon to the NDCs.
Unlike NDCs, they are not mandatory. Nevertheless,
they place the NDCs into the context of countries’
long-term planning and development priorities,
providing a vision and direction for future
development.
How are countries supporting one another?
 The Paris Agreement provides a framework for
financial, technical and capacity building support to
those countries who need it.
Finance
 The Paris Agreement reaffirms that developed
countries should take the lead in providing financial
assistance to countries that are less endowed and
more vulnerable, while for the first time also
encouraging voluntary contributions by other Parties.
Climate finance is needed for mitigation, because
large-scale investments are required to significantly
reduce emissions. Climate finance is equally
important for adaptation, as significant financial
 resources are needed to adapt to the adverse effects
and reduce the impacts of a changing climate.
Technology
 The Paris Agreement speaks of the vision of fully
realizing technology development and transfer for
both improving resilience to climate change and
reducing GHG emissions. It establishes a technology
framework to provide overarching guidance to the
well-functioning Technology Mechanism. The
mechanism is accelerating technology development
and transfer through its policy and implementation
arms.

Capacity-Building
 Not all developing countries have sufficient
capacities to deal with many of the challenges
brought by climate change. As a result, the Paris
Agreement places great emphasis on climate-related
capacity-building for developing countries and
requests all developed countries to enhance support
for capacity-building actions in developing countries.

How are we tracking progress?

 With the Paris Agreement, countries established an
enhanced transparency framework (ETF). Under ETF,
starting in 2024, countries will report transparently
 on actions taken and progress in climate change
mitigation, adaptation measures and support
provided or received. It also provides for international
procedures for the review of the submitted reports.
 The information gathered through the ETF will feed
into the Global stocktake which will assess the
collective progress towards the long-term climate
goals.
 This will lead to recommendations for countries to set
more ambitious plans in the next round.
What have we achieved so far?
 Although climate change action needs to be
massively increased to achieve the goals of the Paris
Agreement, the years since its entry into force have
already sparked low-carbon solutions and new
markets. More and more countries, regions, cities
and companies are establishing carbon neutrality
targets. Zero-carbon solutions are becoming
competitive across economic sectors representing
25% of emissions. This trend is most noticeable in
the power and transport sectors and has created
many new business opportunities for early movers.
 By 2030, zero-carbon solutions could be competitive
in sectors representing over 70% of global emissions.