Understanding Society, Culture, and Politics

CHAPTER 1: SOCIETY, CULTURE, POLITICS

 Lesson 1: Starting Points

 Society- is a collective of individuals where meaningful events and interactions take

place. It is shaped by various social forces— such as gender, economic status, and shared
interests that can significantly impact a person's experiences and opportunities.
 Culture- is the foundation that unites members of a society. It consists of the language,
beliefs, traditions, values, and symbols that guide behavior and give meaning to social
life.
 Politics- It is comprised of actions, practices, policies that revolve around governance. It
involves the government, the institution responsible for maintaining order in society.

 Social, Political & Cultural Phenomena

1. Cultural Taboos - are behaviors, actions, or practices that are considered inappropriate
or unacceptable within a particular society or cultural group.
Examples:
– Pointing at someone is seen as aggressive.
– Not using serving spoons during meals.
– Sweeping the floor at night, believed to bring bad luck.
2. Idling/Inactivity- "Istambay" is a term commonly used in the Philippines to refer to
individuals of working age who are unemployed and not actively seeking employment.
They are often seen loitering or gathering in public areas, such as street corners or
neighborhood spots, typically engaging in casual conversations or leisure activities.
3. Political Dynasties- refer to the concentration of political power within a single family
or clan, where multiple members occupy government positions across generations. This
practice limits political diversity and is prevalent in areas where political control remains
within the same lineage.
4. Elections- Elections are formal processes for selecting leaders through voting. In the
Philippines, elections often center on personalities rather than policies. Tatel (2013)
observed that platforms and governance plans are frequently neglected during
campaigns. This reflects Teehankee’s (2002) argument that political power remains
concentrated among elite families who use elections to preserve their influence across
generations.

 Social, Political & Cultural Changes

1. Online Messaging- Online messaging has become a widely used mode of communication
among Filipinos, driven by the accessibility of smartphones and affordable data plans.
Apps like Messenger and Viber enable users to share multimedia, create group chats, and
make video calls—offering more interactive ways to connect.
2. Social Media -refers to online platforms where users can share information and connect
with virtual communities through text, video, photos, and other content. Social media
plays a major role in the daily lives of Filipinos, especially the youth. With constant
exposure to platforms like Facebook, TikTok, and Instagram, many are influenced by
online trends, shaping their behavior, preferences, and social interactions.
3. Transnational Families- Transnational families are increasingly common in the
Philippines, where family members live across different countries due to overseas work.
This arrangement challenges traditional family norms, as economic realities and
globalization push parents to provide for their children from afar.

 The Social Sciences

1. Anthropology- is known as “the science of humanity.” It is the study of human beings,
their origins, societies, and cultures, aiming to understand how humans have lived and
evolved over time.
Example:
Studying ancient tools and burial practices to learn how early humans lived and what
they valued.

2 Branches of Anthropology
1. Social Anthropology- studies about human societies.
ex. Studying how barangay leaders resolve community conflicts.
2. Cultural Anthropology- study of human cultures.
ex. Observing Filipino practices during Holy Week or fiestas.

2. Sociology- is the scientific study of society—its origins, development, structures,

relationships, and functions. It examines how social institutions, cultural norms, and
human interactions influence individual behavior and societal growth. The term was first
coined by French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780 and later formally defined by
French philosopher Auguste Comte in 1838, who is regarded as the “father of sociology.”

3. Political Science- Every society is governed by a system called the government, a

complex institution with the authority to manage and lead its people. To take part in
governance, one must understand how it works, one must have a full knowledge of all the
processes related to the government before he can become a part of it. This is where
political science comes in- it is the study of politics, government institutions, power
distribution, political behavior, and public policy.

3 Branches of Philippine Government

The Philippine government is divided into three branches:
[Link] Branch – implements and enforces laws. This branch is responsible for
carrying out national policies and ensuring that laws are properly executed.
[Link] Branch – creates, amends, and repeals laws. This branch is responsible
for lawmaking and is composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
3. Judicial Branch – Interprets laws and ensures justice. The judicial branch settles
disputes, interprets the Constitution, and determines the legality of laws and government
actions.

 Lesson 2: Society

 Understanding Society

The term “society” was first used in the mid-16th century. It comes from the Latin word
socius, meaning companion, and societas, meaning fellowship. It also has roots in the Old
French word société, which means companionship. Without the social and emotional support
systems around us, a person cannot fully grow or thrive. These influences shape who we are
and how we live. This highlights the importance of society—a network of people who live
together, share common values, and influence each other’s lives.

1. Society & Individualism- Individualism is the belief that values, rights, and
responsibilities originate from the individual rather than the group. It emphasizes
personal independence—politically, economically, and socially—with minimal influence
from external forces like society. Margaret Thatcher (1987) supported this idea, stressing
the importance of personal effort in driving both self and societal progress. However,
while individualism encourages self-growth, society still plays a key role in shaping each
person’s life.

2. Society & Collectivism- Traditional societies highly value collectivism, where group
harmony, family ties, and shared responsibilities are prioritized over personal goals.
People are expected to collaborate, conform, and depend on one another for the good of
the group. However, with globalization, digitalization, and economic integration, these
 values are increasingly challenged by more individualistic cultures that emphasize
personal freedom and self-expression.

3. Social Institutions- According to Paul Horton and Chester Hunt (1964), a social
institution is a structured system of relationships that reflects a society’s shared values
and established ways of doing things. It provides stable and organized patterns of
behavior that guide how people interact. When cultural elements become deeply
integrated and consistently practiced, they eventually take form as institutions.
Every society is built on six key institutions:
o Family – Serves as the foundation of society.
o Education – Preserves and transmits cultural knowledge and identity.
o Economy – Manages the production and distribution of resources and services.
o Government – Establishes policies and enforces laws.
o Media – Circulates important information within society.
o Religion – Offers beliefs that explain life’s meaning, origin, and purpose.

 Lesson 3: Culture

 Understanding Culture

Culture is shared ideas, behaviors, and artifacts that shape how people live. It includes what
we think, how we act, and what we own.
Elements of Culture (Macionis, 2016):
1. Symbols – e.g., cross, Olympic rings, national flag
2. Language – e.g., Filipino, English, Ilonggo
3. Values – e.g., Maka-Diyos, makatao, makakalikasan, makabansa
4. Norms – Rules and expectations for behavior

 Aspects of Culture

o Culture is shared and contested.

o Culture is acquired through learning and passed down socially.
o Culture consists of organized and repeated social behaviors.
o Culture relies on language and various ways of communication.
o Culture changes, adjusts, and evolves over time.
o Culture is interconnected but can sometimes become unstable.

 Types of Culture

1. Material Vs. Non-Material

o Material- Tangible things
ex. Jeans/Maong: Once workwear, now fashion & rebellion symbol (Material with
nonmaterial meaning)
o Non-Material- Intangible things
ex. Diamond: Symbol of love and value (Material with emotional/cultural meaning)

2. Subculture vs. Counterculture

o Subculture- A culture within a larger one, with its own identity.
ex. K-pop fans, Anime enthusiasts (Otaku), Goth community
o Counterculture- Challenges or rejects the dominant culture.
ex. Punk culture, Hippie movement (1960s–70s), Extremist cults

3. Ideal vs. Real Culture

o Ideal Culture- Society's standards and values.
ex. Bayanihan or neighbors help one another in times of need.
o Real Culture- Actual behaviors in daily life.
ex. Many people now focus on individual needs or take a “mind your own” mindset.
 Elements of Culture

1. Norms- A set of societal rules that define acceptable behavior. Norms help people know
right from wrong.
3 Classifications
o Folkways
- Informal norms for everyday behavior
- Followed for the sake of tradition or routine
o Mores (mos-custom)
- Strong norms based on moral views and ethics
- Breaking mores often results in strong social disapproval
o Laws
- Formal norms enforced by the government
- Written and codified with clear penalties
- Violations result in legal consequences

2. Beliefs- Beliefs are how people make sense of their experiences — ideas that they hold to
be true, factual, and real.

Types of Beliefs
o Scientific Beliefs: Based on logic, observation, and rational explanations
o Non-Scientific Beliefs: Based on religion, myth, or metaphysics
ex. Bakunawa – myth that a sea serpent eats the moon during eclipses
Usog, sukob, kulam, and barang

3. Symbols- Symbols are objects, gestures, sounds, or images that represent a specific
meaning shared by a group of people (Elizabeth Lawley, 1994). It helps convey deeper
meanings within a culture. Symbols are universal in function, but meaning is culturally
defined
Examples:
Wedding rings = marital commitment
Philippine flag = national identity and pride
Badges/medals = honor or merit

4. Language- A system of symbols (spoken, written, or signed) used for communication and
understanding among individuals. According to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, language
shapes how people perceive and experience reality. Language does more than
communicate — it shapes thought and culture. The Philippines has over 180 languages
and dialects, showing its cultural diversity. Language differences reflect regional identity
(e.g., Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Kapampangan).

5. Values- Values are shared principles and moral standards that guide behavior — what
society considers good, bad, right, or wrong (Schwartz & Bardi, 2001).
Examples:
Mano po- Respect for elders and authority
Pakikisama- Smooth interpersonal relationships and group harmony
Hiya- Concern for social approval and moral decency
Noche Buena-Family togetherness, celebration, gratitude
Harana (serenade)-Romantic courtship, sincerity, modesty

6. Social Institutions- An institution is a stable, organized system of relationships that

fulfills essential functions in society.
Characteristics:
Embody traditions, beliefs, norms, and values
Guide behavior and social expectations
Become formalized over time

 Lesson 4: Society and Culture

 Characteristics of Culture and Society
Culture is a social construct that is sometimes used interchangeably with society. Though
these concepts are interrelated and interdependent- since the absence of one is also the
absence of the other-the two are not the same. Culture is also adaptive, shared and
contested. It can even traverse across societies. Society is a group of people bound
together in a more or less permanent association organized for collective activity.

 Cultural Universals
Cultural universals are shared patterns or traits found in all societies, like language,
names, celebrations, and humor. Cultural universals are present in all societies and are
essential in maintaining social order and connection among individuals (George
Murdock).
Examples of Cultural Universals
1. Family Structure
Nuclear family in the U.S.
Extended family system in the Philippines
2. Language
English in the UK and US
Baybayin (ancient script) and Filipino in the Philippines
3. Religion or Spiritual Beliefs
Christianity in the Philippines
Shintoism in Japan
4. Celebrations and Rituals
Fiestas in the Philippines
Thanksgiving in the U.S.
5. Clothing
Barong Tagalog and Filipiniana
Kimono in Japan

 Orientations in Viewing Other Cultures

1. Ethnocentrism- The belief that one’s own culture is superior to others. People judge
other cultures based on the standards and values of their own.
Examples:
Westerners calling balut “gross” due to unfamiliarity
Filipinos frowning upon children who call their parents by first names
Colonization (e.g., Spaniards forcing their religion and governance)
Related Concepts in Ethnocentrism
o Cultural Imperialism- The practice of dominant cultures imposing their beliefs and
systems on others.
ex: Spanish colonization of the Philippines (language, religion, politics)
o Culture Shock- The confusion, stress, or discomfort felt when encountering a culture
very different from one's own.
ex: Common among OFWs adjusting to new environments abroad

2. Xenocentrism- The belief that other cultures are better than one’s own. It reflects a
preference for foreign values, practices, or products.
Examples:
Filipinos preferring imported goods over local brands
Youth idolizing K-pop, J-pop, or Hollywood culture more than local music
Choosing foreign beauty standards over native ones

3. Cultural Relativism- Understanding a culture based on its own values and beliefs,
not judging it through the lens of another culture. Cultural relativism encourages
open-mindedness and respect for cultural diversity. It challenges ethnocentric views
and promotes global understanding.
Examples:
Wearing a hijab or burqa
Tribal tattoos
Marriage customs
 Funeral rites
Child-rearing practices

 Overview
This collection of topics explores the interconnected nature of society, culture, and
politics, emphasizing how they shape human interactions, identities, and governance. It
begins with foundational definitions:
 Society as a web of relationships and shared values,
 Culture as the symbolic and behavioral blueprint of life, and
 Politics as the structure for decision-making and maintaining order.
From there, it examines shared characteristics of societies and cultures, the universal
traits that bind communities globally, and the ways people view and judge other cultures
— whether through ethnocentrism, xenocentrism, or cultural relativism.

Culture is further broken down into its elements (symbols, language, norms, beliefs,
values, and institutions), its aspects (shared, learned, evolving), and types (material/non-
material, subculture/counterculture, ideal/real). The discussion then shifts to society’s
dynamics, balancing individualism and collectivism, and the role of social
institutions in providing stability.
The role of social sciences — anthropology, sociology, and political science — is
highlighted as essential in studying human behavior, governance, and cultural
development. Finally, it examines real-world phenomena like cultural taboos,
unemployment, political dynasties, and personality-based elections, as well as modern
social changes such as the influence of online communication, social media, and
migration-driven transnational families.

 Conclusion
Understanding society, culture, and politics is essential because these forces constantly
shape who we are, how we live, and how we relate to others. Culture provides identity
and meaning, society offers structure and support, and politics ensures order and
governance. Through social sciences, we gain the tools to analyze traditions, institutions,
and power structures — helping us see beyond surface behaviors to the deeper systems
at work.

In an era of rapid change, marked by globalization, digitalization, and migration, our

ability to appreciate cultural diversity, critically examine political realities, and adapt to
evolving social norms is more important than ever. By learning about these
interconnected domains, we not only better understand our communities but also develop
the awareness to contribute meaningfully to a more inclusive, respectful, and equitable
world.

CHAPTER 2- HUMAN BIOCULTURAL AND SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION

 Lesson 5: Hominization Timeline and the Key Theories

 Hominization
- The evolutionary process where humans developed unique traits, distinguishing them
from other primates. It includes biological and cultural changes like brain
development, tool use, social behaviors, and language.

 Key Theories
On the Origin of Species (1859):
Charles Darwin introduced natural selection, explaining how species evolve over time.
Humans evolved from simpler life forms, with traits passed down through generations.

The Descent of Man (1871):

Darwin applied natural selection to humans, proposing that humans and apes share a
common ancestor. He also introduced sexual selection and discussed human social behaviors
evolving for survival.
  Human Evolution Timeline
 This timeline covers key events in human cultural, technological, and sociopolitical
evolution.
 The timeline spans from 12 million BCE to the present, highlighting significant milestones
in human history.

I. Early Human Development

 12 million - 1.5 million BCE: Homo habilis created and used the first stone tools.
 1.8 million - less than 1 million BCE: Homo erectus created dwellings, domesticated
animals, and spread out from Africa.
 120,000 BCE: Homo neanderthalensis appeared, known for their burial practices.
 40,000 BCE: The oldest art was engraved in rocks in Australia.

II. Cultural and Technological Milestones

 35,000 BCE: Homo sapiens spread across the world, controlling animal populations
and developing farming.
 22,000 BCE: Hunter-gatherers crossed Asia to North America via the Bering Strait.
 10,000 BCE: New stone tools like sickles and hoes were used; modern humans began
domesticating animals.
 8,000 BCE: The town of Jericho thrived with a population of 2,000 people; the first
bricks were made here.

III. Advances in Civilization

 7,000 BCE: Jericho was destroyed by an earthquake; farming developed across the
world.
 6,500 BCE: Around 5,000 people inhabited Çatal Hüyük, one of the oldest known
settlements.
 5,000 BCE: Farming began in regions like Mesopotamia, China, Egypt, and India.
 4,500 BCE: People began building megaliths (large stone monuments) in Europe.

IV. Growth of Empires and Culture

 4,400 BCE: Horses were domesticated in Eastern Europe for riding.
 4,000 BCE: The plow was invented in the Middle East; Egyptians used sailboats.
 3,500 BCE: Sumerians invented writing (cuneiform) and the wheel, leading to
urbanization.
 3,200 BCE: The Egyptians created hieroglyphs and started using bronze.

V. Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages

 500 BCE: Steel was made in India; Democracy was introduced in Athens.
 336–323 BCE: Alexander the Great expanded his empire across Greece, Persia, and
Egypt.
 1–30 CE: Birth and death of Jesus of Nazareth, marking the beginning of Christianity.
 150 CE: Alexandria invented the first steam engine.

VI. The Medieval Period to the Renaissance

 632 CE: Prophet Abu Bakr spread Islam across Arabia.
 750 CE: The Abbasid Caliphate flourished, advancing learning and culture.
 1066 CE: The Norman Conquest of England changed its political structure.
 1440 CE: Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press, revolutionizing
communication.

VII. Early Modern Period to Industrial Revolution

 1776–1783 CE: The American Revolution resulted in independence from Britain.
 1800s CE: The industrial revolution began with inventions like the steam engine.
 1860 CE: The first practical typewriter was invented by Christopher Scholes.

VIII. 20th Century and Beyond

 1914-1918 CE: World War I dramatically reshaped global politics.
  1939-1945 CE: World War II led to major political and technological advancements.
 1969 CE: Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to land on the
moon.
 2020 CE: COVID-19 pandemic affected the global population.

 Evolution of Homo Species

- This explores the key milestones in human evolution, tracing the development from
Homo habilis to Homo sapiens, highlighting their cultural and physical advancements.

1. Homo habilis
Significance: Considered one of the earliest species of Homo, Homo habilis is often
associated with the first use of stone tools.
Key Traits:
 Tool Use: Noted for creating the first tools for survival.
 Evolutionary Efficiency: Early traces of this species were found around 1.9 million
years ago.
 Discovery: Tools from Homo habilis found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania show early
innovation and adaptability.

2. Homo Erectus
Legacy: Homo erectus paved the way for complex social structures and survival
strategies.
Advancements:
 Tool-making: Skilled in creating hand-axes, wooden bowls, and even constructed
dwellings (50-feet long huts).
 Cultural Milestones: Evidence of fire use around 1 million years ago, potentially
used for warmth, cooking, and hunting.
 Hunting and Socialization: Transition from scavengers to organized hunting with
collective strategies.

3. Homo Neanderthalensis
Key Features:
 Physical Appearance: Larger cranium and more robust build, compared to earlier
species.
 Adaptability: Wore animal skins and furs for protection from the environment.
 Burial Practices: Evidence of ritualistic burial, indicating a level of emotional and
social concern.
 Discovery: Excavations in Uzbekistan revealed early burial practices and social
interdependence.

4. Homo Sapiens
Key Evolutionary Breakthroughs:
 Smarter and More Complex: Larger brain and more advanced mental capabilities.
 Tools and Agriculture: First species to manipulate their environment, domesticate
animals, and farm crops.
 Cultural Developments: Development of language, art, and complex social
structures.
 Origins: Homo sapiens originated in Africa and spread globally.
 Evidence: Fossils such as the Tabon Man (20,000 years ago) and Callao Man
(60,000 years ago) support their presence in the Philippines.

 Lesson 6: Humanization

 Humanization
Humanization refers to the long process of improving human lives through technological
advancements, societal changes, and cultural innovations.
 Language Development: Language became a crucial tool for communication, enabling
humans to cooperate, share ideas, and pass on knowledge. This shift helped early
humans build social organizations and plan collective activities.
 Leslie White’s Perspective: He emphasized that all civilizations have been created and
perpetuated by symbols. Human beings evolved from biological creatures into cultural
entities primarily through the use of symbols, shaping human society as we know it.

1. Paleolithic Age
 Etymology: Derived from the Greek words “Paleo” (old) and “Lithic” (stone),
meaning Old Stone Age.
 Subdivisions:
o Lower Paleolithic: Early phase, use of basic stone tools.
o Middle Paleolithic: Development of more refined tools, and the emergence of
Homo sapiens.
o Upper Paleolithic: More advanced tools and the appearance of art (e.g., cave
paintings).
 Key Cultural Development: The use of stone tools for survival and the emergence of
art (cave paintings and carvings), which suggest the beginning of symbolic thinking
and early communication.
 Social Structure: Humans during this period were still nomadic, relying on hunting
and gathering for food. They lived in small groups, with emerging social structures
centered around survival.

2. Neolithic Age
 Etymology: From Greek “Neo” (new) and “Lithic” (stone), referring to the New
Stone Age.
 Key Developments:
o Transition from using rough stone tools to polished stone tools, marking a
significant leap in tool-making technology.
o The invention of agriculture, which transformed human societies from nomadic
hunter-gatherers to settled farming communities.
o The domestication of animals, such as sheep and cattle, which provided a more
reliable food source.
o Emergence of permanent settlements like Jericho, one of the earliest towns,
which shows early urban development.
 Impact: These changes laid the foundation for social organization, trade, and a
more structured society.

3. Copper Age
 Key Locations:
o Çatal Hüyük (Turkey): One of the earliest urban settlements, where linen was
first woven, marking an early advancement in textile production.
o Mesopotamia: Known as the Fertile Crescent, it was an area of early human
development and innovation.
 Technological Advancements:
o The first use of copper for tools, marking a transition from stone tools to
metalworking.
 Social Changes:
o The rise of priest-kings, leaders with both religious and political power, who
often controlled resources and guided the people.
o Men’s roles: The primary responsibility for farming and tilling the land fell to
men, reinforcing gender roles in early societies.

4. Bronze Age
 Key Locations:
o Çatal Hüyük (Turkey): One of the earliest urban settlements, where linen was first
woven, marking an early advancement in textile production.
o Mesopotamia: Known as the Fertile Crescent, it was an area of early human
development and innovation.
 Technological Advancements:
o The first use of copper for tools, marking a transition from stone tools to
metalworking.
 Social Changes:
o The rise of priest-kings, leaders with both religious and political power, who often
controlled resources and guided the people.
o Men’s roles: The primary responsibility for farming and tilling the land fell to men,
reinforcing gender roles in early societies.

5. Iron Age
 Technological Advances:
o The discovery of iron revolutionized tool-making and warfare, replacing bronze
with more durable materials.
o The Greek innovations of shadow clocks and the Olympic Games laid the
foundation for advancements in timekeeping and cultural events.
o The Phoenicians developed the alphabet, which significantly influenced written
communication, and they introduced the purple dye that became a symbol of
royalty.
 Social and Military Changes:
o The Assyrians built military empires, expanding their territories through conquest.
o The City of Rome was founded, marking the rise of the Roman Empire.

6. Democratization
 Development of Democracy:
o In 508 BCE, Athens implemented a direct democracy, where citizens (males) had a
say in government decisions through the Ecclesia, a form of assembly.
o 10 leaders (one from each tribe) were chosen to oversee governance and military
decisions.
o Patriarchal Society: While democracy allowed male citizens to participate, women
and slaves remained excluded from political life.
 Influence on Future Governments: This form of governance influenced the
development of democratic systems in later civilizations.

7. Specific and General Evolution

 Cultural Evolution: The development of early civilizations can be explained through
two main processes:
 Specific Evolution: Refers to the adaptation of societies to their environment, such as
the shift from nomadic to sedentary lifestyles.
 General Evolution: Involves more complex changes as cultures evolve and increase in
specialization, becoming more efficient and capable of harnessing greater energy.
 Marshall Sahlins & Elman Service: They emphasized that cultural change, like
biological evolution, can occur through gradual adjustments or more significant
transformations, leading to societies that are increasingly complex and specialized.