CELL STRUCTURES
AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Learning Outcomes
AFTER YOU COMPLETE THIS LECTURE YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Cell Organization and Functions
1. Define the plasma membrane, organelle, and cytoplasm.
2. List and describe the main functions of cells.
Plasma Membrane
3. Describe the structure of the plasma membrane and the functions
of its phospholipids and proteins.
Movement Through the Plasma Membrane
[Link] the factors that affect the rate and the direction of diffusion of a solute in a solvent.
[Link] the role of osmosis in the movement of water across the plasma membrane.
[Link] mediated transport, list its three characteristics, and describe its transport proteins.
[Link] facilitated diffusion, active transport, and secondary active transport.
[Link] the movement of materials into and out of cells by vesicular transport.
Cytoplasm
[Link] cytoplasm, cytosol, and colloid.
[Link] cytoskeleton and describe its components and their functions.
The Nucleus and Cytoplasmic Organelles
[Link] the structure and functions of the nucleus and nucleoli.
[Link] the structure and functions of the cytoplasmic organelles.
[Link] the interdependence of organelles in maintaining homeostasis.
Protein Synthesis
14. Describe the process of protein synthesis.
Cell Division
15. Compare the outcomes of mitosis and meiosis.
16. Discuss the events of mitosis and cytokinesis.
Differentiation
17. Explain how different cell types develop from the single cell produced by fertilization.
There are three parts to the cell theory
• The cell is the smallest unit of life.
• All organisms are composed one or more
cells.
• New cells arise from previously existing
cells.
Cytology = study of cellular structure
Cell physiology = study of cellular function
Introduction
• The simplest organisms consist of single cells.
• It is estimated that humans are composed of 10 to 100
trillion cells.
• An average-sized cell is one-fifth the size of the
smallest dot you can make on a sheet of paper with a
sharp pencil.
• Light microscopes allow us to visualize general
features of cells.
• Electron microscopes, which achieve higher
magnifications than light microscopes, are used to
study the fine structure of cells.
Intro’ cont’d
• A scanning electron microscope (SEM) allows us to
see features of the cell surface and the surfaces of
internal structures.
• A transmission electron microscope (TEM) allows
us to see “through” parts of the cell and thus to
discover other aspects of cell structure.
• All the cells of an individual originate from a single
fertilized cell.
• During development, cell division and specialization
give rise to a wide variety of cell types, such as nerve,
muscle, bone, fat, and blood cells.
Sizes of Living Things
6
Introduction
• The body has over 200 different cell types, with each
having important characteristics that are critical to the
normal functioning of the body as a whole.
• Maintaining homeostasis is necessary to keep the
trillions of cells that form the body to function
normally.
• Knowledge of chemistry makes it possible to
understand cells because cells are composed of
chemicals responsible for many of the characteristics of
cells.
• Cells, in turn, determine the form and functions of the
tissues of the body. In addition, a great many diseases
and other human disorders have a cellular basis.
The main functions of the cell are:
1. Cell metabolism and energy use. Energy released during
metabolism is used for cell activities, such as the synthesis
of new molecules and muscle contraction. Heat produced
during metabolism helps maintain body temperature.
2. Synthesis of molecules. The structural and functional
characteristics of cells are determined by the types of
molecules they produce. Cells differ from each other
because they synthesize different kinds of molecules,
including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. For example,
bone cells produce and secrete a mineralized material,
making bone hard, whereas muscle cells contain proteins
that enable the cells to shorten, resulting in contraction of
muscles.
Main functions of the cell:
3. Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical
and electric signals that allow them to communicate with
one another. For example, nerve cells communicate with
one another and with muscle cells, causing muscle cells
to contract.
4. Reproduction and inheritance. Most cells contain a copy
of all the genetic information of the individual. This
genetic information ultimately determines the structural
and functional characteristics of the cell. During the
growth of an individual, cells divide to produce new cells,
each containing the same genetic information. Specialized
cells of the body, called gametes, are responsible for
transmitting genetic information to the next generation.
The Cellular Level of an Organism
• A cell is the basic, living, structural and
functional unit of the body
– compartmentalization of chemical reactions within
specialized structures
– regulate inflow & outflow of materials
– use genetic material to direct cell activities
• Cytology = study of cellular structure
• Cell physiology = study of cellular function
Cell Organization and functions
• Each cell is a highly organized unit.
• The plasma membrane, or cell membrane forms the outer
boundary of the cell, through which the cell interacts with its
external environment.
• Within cells, specialized structures called organelles (little
organs) perform specific functions.
• The nucleus is an organelle, usually located centrally in the
cell. It contains the cell's genetic material and directs cell
activities.
• Cytoplasm = that is everything between the membrane and
the nucleus
– cytosol = intracellular fluid
– organelles = subcellular structures with specific functions
The Typical Cell
• Not all cells contain all of these organelles.
Plasma/Cell Membrane
• Flexible but sturdy barrier that surrounds the
cytoplasm of cells
• Fluid mosaic model describes its structure
– “sea of lipids in which proteins float like icebergs”
– membrane is 50 % lipid & 50 % protein
• held together by hydrogen bonds
– lipid acts as a barrier to entry or exit of polar
substances
– proteins are “gatekeepers” i.e. regulate traffic
• 50 lipid molecules for each protein molecule
Lipid Bilayer of the Cell Membrane
• Two back-to-back layers of 3 types of lipid molecules
• Cholesterol and glycolipids scattered among a double row
of phospholipid molecules
Phospholipids
• Comprises 75% of lipids
• Phospholipid bilayer = 2 parallel layers of
molecules
• Each molecule is amphipathic (has both a
polar & nonpolar region)
– polar parts (heads) are hydrophilic and face on
both surfaces in a watery environment
– nonpolar parts (tails) are hydrophobic and line
up next to each other in the interior
Glycolipids within the Cell Membrane
• Comprises 5% of the lipids of the cell membrane
• Carbohydrate groups form a polar head only on
the side of the membrane facing the extracellular
fluid
Cholesterol within the Cell Membrane
• Comprises 20% of cell membrane lipids and gives the
membrane rigidity.
• Interspersed among the other lipids in both layers
• There are also stiff steroid rings & hydrocarbon tail which
are nonpolar and hide in the middle of the cell membrane
Types of Membrane Proteins
• Integral proteins
– extend into or completely across cell membrane
• if extend completely across = transmembrane proteins
– all are amphipathic with hydrophobic portions hiding
among the phospholipid tails
– glycoproteins have the sugar portion facing the
extracellular fluid to form a glycocalyx
• gives cell “uniqueness”, protects it from being digested,
creates a stickiness to hold it to other cells or so it can hold
a fluid layer creating a slippery surface
• Peripheral proteins
– attached to either inner or outer surface of cell
membrane and are easily removed from it
Membrane Proteins
• Integral membrane proteins are permanently anchored or part
of the membrane
• Peripheral membrane proteins are only temporarily attached
to the lipid bilayer or to other integral proteins.
Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Formation of Channel
– passageway to allow
specific substance to
pass through
• Transporter Proteins
– bind a specific
substance, change their
shape & move it across
membrane
• Receptor Proteins
– cellular recognition site -
- bind to substance
Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Cell Identity Marker
– allow cell to recognize
other similar cells
• Linker
– anchor proteins in cell
membrane or to other
cells
– allow cell movement
– cell shape & structure
• Act as Enzyme
– speed up reactions
Selective Permeability of Membrane
• Lipid bilayer
– permeable to nonpolar, uncharged molecules -- oxygen,
CO2, steroids
– permeable to water which flows through gaps that form
in hydrophobic core of membrane as phospholipids move
about
• Transmembrane proteins act as specific channels
– small and medium polar & charged particles
• Macromolecules unable to pass through the
membrane
– vesicular transport
Gradients Across the Plasma Membrane
• Membrane can maintain difference in
concentration of a substance inside versus outside
of the membrane (concentration gradient)
– more O2 & Na+ outside of cell membrane
– more CO2 and K+ inside of cell membrane
• Membrane can maintain a difference in charged
ions between inside & outside of membrane
(electrical gradient or membrane potential)
• Thus, substances move down their concentration
gradient and towards the oppositely charged area
– ions have electrochemical gradients
Gradients Across Membrane
• Concentration
gradient
• Electrical gradient
Transport Across the Plasma Membrane
• Substances cross membranes by a variety of processes:
– mediated transport moves
materials with the help of a
transporter protein
– Non-mediated transport does
not use a transporter protein
– active transport uses ATP to
drive substances against their
concentration gradients
– passive transport moves substances down their concentration
gradient with only their kinetic energy
– vesicular transport move materials across membranes in small
vesicles -- either by exocytosis or endocytosis
Principles of Diffusion
• Random mixing of particles in a solution as a
result of the particle’s kinetic energy
– more molecules move away from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration
• the greater the difference in concentration between the 2
sides of the membrane, the faster the rate of diffusion
• the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion
• the larger the size of the diffusing substance, the slower the
rate of diffusion
• an increase in surface area, increases the rate of diffusion
• increasing diffusion distance, slows rate of diffusion
• When the molecules are evenly distributed,
equilibrium has been reached
Diffusion
• Crystal of dye placed in a
cylinder of water
• Net diffusion from the higher
dye concentration to the
region of lower dye
• Equilibrium has been
reached in the far right
cylinder
Osmosis
• Net movement of water through a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of high water
concentration to an area of lower water
concentration
– diffusion through lipid bilayer
– aquaporins (transmembrane proteins) that function as
water channels
• Only occurs if membrane is permeable to water
but not to certain solutes
Osmosis of Water Through a Membrane
• Pure water on the left side & a membrane impermeable to the solute
found on the right side
• Net movement of water is from left to right, until hydrostatic
pressure (osmotic pressure ) starts to push water back to the left
Effects of Tonicity on RBCs in Lab
• Tonicity is a measure of the effective osmotic
pressure gradient exerted upon a membrane.
• Normally if the osmotic pressure of the inside of
the cell is equal to the fluid outside the cell
– cell volume remains constant (solution is isotonic)
• Effects of fluids on RBCs in lab
– water enters the cell faster than it leaves
– water enters & leaves the cell in equal amounts
– water leaves the cell
Effects of Tonicity on Cell Membranes
• Isotonic solution
– water concentration the same inside & outside of cell results in
no net movement of water across cell membrane
• Hypotonic solution
– higher concentration of water outside of cell results in
hemolysis
• Hypertonic solution
– lower concentration of water outside of cell causes crenation
Diffusion Through the Lipid Bilayer
• Important for absorption of nutrients -- excretion of wastes
• Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules
– oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, fatty acids, steroids, small
alcohols, ammonia and fat-soluble vitamins (A, E, D and K)
Diffusion Through Membrane Channels
• Each membrane channel is specific for a particular ion
(K+, Cl-, Na+ or Ca2+)
• Slower than diffusion through membrane but still 1million
K+ through a channel in one second
• Channels may be open all the time or gated (closed
randomly or as ordered)
Facilitated Diffusion
• Substance binds to specific transporter protein
• Transporter protein conformational change moves
substance across cell membrane
• Facilitated diffusion occurs down concentration
gradient only
– if no concentration difference exists, no net movement
across membrane occurs
• Rate of movement depends upon
– steepness of concentration gradient
– number of transporter proteins (transport maximum)
Facilitated Diffusion of Glucose
• Glucose binds to transport
protein
• Transport protein changes
shape
• Glucose moves across cell
membrane (but only down
the concentration gradient)
• Kinase enzyme reduces
glucose concentration inside
the cell by transforming
glucose into glucose-6-phosphate
• Transporter proteins always bring glucose into cell
Active Transport
• Movement of polar or charged substances across
a cell membrane into a region of higher
concentration against their concentration
gradient
– Assisted by enzymes and requires energy
• energy from hydrolysis of ATP (primary active transport)
• energy stored in an ionic concentration gradient
(secondary active transport)
• Exhibits transport maximums and saturation
• Na+, K+, H+, Ca+2, I- and Cl-, amino acids and
monosaccharides
Primary Active Transport
• Transporter protein also called a pump
– works against concentration gradient
– requires 40% of cellular ATP
• Na+/K+ ATPase pump
most common example
– all cells have 1000s of them
– maintains low concentration of Na+
and a high concentration of K+ in the cytosol
– operates continually
• Maintenance of osmotic pressure across membrane
– cells neither shrink nor swell due to osmosis & osmotic pressure
• sodium continually pumped out as if sodium could not enter the cell
(factor in osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid)
• K+ inside the cell contributes to osmotic pressure of cytosol
Na+/K+ Pump & ATP As Its Energy Source
1. Na+ binding 4. K+ binding
2. ATP split 5. Phosphate release
3. Na+pushed out 6. K+ is pushed in
As 3 Na+ ions are removed from cell, 2 K+ ions are brought
into cell.
Secondary Active Transport
• Uses energy stored in an ion concentration
gradient to move other substances against their
own concentration gradient
• Na+/K+ pump maintains low concentration of
Na+ inside of cells
– provide route for Na+ to leak back in and use energy
of motion to transport other substances
Vesicular Transport of Particles
• Endocytosis = bringing something into cell
– phagocytosis = cell eating by macrophages & WBCs
• particle binds to receptor protein
• whole bacteria or viruses are engulfed & later digested
– pinocytosis = cell drinking (ingesting of liquids into the cell
by budding of small vesicles)
• no receptor proteins
– receptor-mediated endocytosis = selective input
• mechanism by which HIV virus enters cells
• Exocytosis = release something from cell
• Vesicles form inside cell, fuse to cell membrane
• Release their contents
– digestive enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters or waste products
• replace cell membrane lost by endocytosis
Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis
• Pseudopods extend
• No pseudopods form to form phagosome
• Nonselective drinking • Lysosome joins it
of extracellular fluid
Cytosol = Intracellular fluid
• 55% of cell volume
• 75-90% water with other components
– large organic molecules (proteins, carbos & lipids)
• suspended by electrical charges
– small organic molecules (simple sugars) & ions
• dissolved
– inclusions (large aggregates of one material)
• lipid droplets
• glycogen granules
• Site of many important chemical reactions
– production of ATP, synthesis of building blocks
Cell Organelles
• Non membranous organelles lack membranes & are in direct
contact with cytoplasm
• Membranous organelles surrounded by one or two lipid bilayer
membranes
Cytoskeleton
• Network of protein
filaments throughout the
cytosol
• Functions
– cell support and shape
– organization of chemical
reactions
– cell & organelle
movement
• Continually reorganized
The Cytoskeletal Filaments
• Microfilaments
– thinnest filaments (actin)
– locomotion & division
– support microvilli
• Intermediate filaments
– several different proteins
– anchor organelles
• Microtubules
– large cylindrical structures
(composed of tubulin)
– flagella, cilia & centrosomes
Centrosome
• Found near nucleus
• Pericentriolar area
– formation site for mitotic
spindle and microtubules
• Centrosome
– 2 centrioles(90 degrees to
each other)
– 9 clusters of 3 microtubules
(9+0 array)
– Plays a role in formation of
cilia & flagella
Cilia and Flagella
• Structure
– pairs of microtubules
(9+2 array)
– covered by cell membrane
– basal body is centriole
responsible for initiating
its assembly.
• Differences
– cilia
• short and multiple
– flagella
• longer and single
Ribosomes
• Packages of Ribosomal RNA & protein
• Free ribosomes lie loosely in the cytosol
– synthesize proteins found inside the cell
• Membrane-bound ribosomes
– attached to endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear
membrane
– synthesize proteins needed for plasma membrane
or for export
– 10 to 20 together form a polyribosome
• Inside mitochondria, synthesize mitochondrial
proteins
Ribosomal Subunits
• Large + small
subunits
– made in the nucleolus
– assembled in the
cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Network of membranes forming flattened sacs or
tubules called cisterns
– half of membranous surfaces within cytoplasm
• Rough ER
– continuous with nuclear envelope & covered with
ribosomes
– synthesizes, processes & packages proteins for export
– free ribosomes synthesize proteins for local use
• Smooth ER -- no attached ribosomes
– synthesizes phospholipids, steroids and fats
– detoxifies harmful substances (alcohol)
Smooth & Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Rough ER is
covered with
fixed ribosomes.
Golgi Complex
• Has 3-20 flattened,
curved membranous
sacs called cisterns
• Convex side faces ER &
concave side faces cell
membrane
• Processes & packages
proteins produced by
rough ER
Packaging by Golgi Complex
• Proteins pass from rough ER to golgi complex in transport vesicles
• Processed proteins pass from entry cistern to medial cistern to exit cistern in transfer
vesicle
• Finished proteins exit golgi as secretory, membrane or storage vesicle (lysosome)
• Proteins are customized and re-packaged in the golgi body.
Cystic Fibrosis
• Deadly inherited disorder
• Chloride ion pump protein is
not properly secreted from
the golgi or rough ER
• Result is an imbalance in the
transport of fluid and ions
across the plasma membrane
– Build-up of thick mucus
outside of certain cells
• respiratory and digestive
problems
Lysosomes
• Membranous vesicles
– formed in Golgi complex
– filled with digestive enzymes
– pumps in H+ ions until internal
pH reaches 5.0
• Functions
– digest foreign substances
– Autophagy
– recycles own organelles
– autolysis
• lysosomal damage after death
Tay-Sachs Disorder
• Affects children of eastern European-
Ashkenazi descent
– seizures, muscle rigidity, blind, demented and
dead before the age of 5
• Genetic disorder caused by absence of
single lysosomal enzyme
– enzyme normally breaks down glycolipid
commonly found in nerve cells
– as glycolipid accumulates, nerve cells lose
functionality
– chromosome testing now available
Peroxisomes
• Membranous vesicles
– smaller than lysosomes
– form by division of pre-existing peroxisomes
– contain enzymes that oxidize organic material
• Functions
– part of normal metabolic breakdown of amino acids
and fatty acids
– oxidizes toxic substances such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
– contains catalase which decomposes H2O2
Mitochondria
• Double membrane organelle
– central cavity known as matrix
– inner membrane folds known as
crista
• surface area for chemical reactions
of cellular respiration
• Functions
– generation of ATP
– powerhouse of cell
• Mitochondria self-replicate
– increases with need for ATP
– circular DNA with 37 genes
– only inherited from mother
Nucleus
• Large organelle with double membrane nuclear envelope
– outer membrane continuous with rough ER (membrane bound)
– perforated by water-filled nuclear pores
– Contains the DNA
• Nucleolus
– spherical, dark bodies within the nucleus (no membrane)
– site of ribosome assembly
Functions of Nucleus
• 46 human DNA molecules or chromosomes
– genes found on chromosomes
– gene is directions for a specific protein
• Non-dividing cells contain nuclear chromatin
– loosely packed DNA
• Dividing cells contain chromosomes
– tightly packed DNA
– it doubled (copied itself) before condensing
Protein Synthesis
• This is the process whereby
biological cells generate new
proteins.
• Cells are continuously making new
proteins through the process
of protein synthesis.
• Protein synthesis has two main
steps: transcription and
translation.
• Instructions for making specific
proteins is found in the DNA
(your genes)
Transcription
• DNA is the ultimate blueprint for the
cell and holds all the instructions for
making proteins.
• Transcription is the first step of gene
expression, in which a particular
segment of DNA is copied into RNA by
an enzyme.
• The process of transcription copies
DNA to mRNA using a protein called
RNA polymerase.
• After the copying, the mRNA is sent to
a compartment of the cell called a
ribosome, which does the next step,
translation
Translation
• Process where mRNA, rRNA & tRNA are used to
form a specific protein
– sequence of nucleotides on mRNA is “read” by rRNA
to construct a protein (with its specific sequence of
amino acid)
• 3 nucleotide sequences on mRNA are called codons
– specific tRNA molecule carry specific amino acids
– anticodons on tRNA are matched to specific codons on
mRNA so proper amino acids can be strung together to
create a protein molecule
Ribosomal RNA
• 2 Subunits in each ribosome
– large has P site and A site for tRNA molecules
– small hold mRNA
• rRNA are responsible for reading the order of amino acids
and linking amino acids together during protein synthesis
The Cell Cycle in Somatic Cells
• Process where cell duplicates its contents &
divides in two
– 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes must be
duplicated
– genes must be passed on correctly to the next
generation of cells
• Nuclear division = mitosis
– continuous process divided into 4 stages
– prophase, metaphase, anaphase & telophase
• Cytoplasmic division = cytokinesis
Normal Cell Division
• Mitosis (somatic cell division)
– one parent cell gives rise to 2 identical daughter cells
• mitosis is nuclear division
• cytokinesis is cytoplasmic division
– occurs in billions of cells each day
– needed for tissue repair and growth
• Meiosis (reproductive cell division)
– egg and sperm cell production
– in testes and ovary only
Stages of Nuclear Division: Mitosis
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
Cancer = out of control cell division
• Hyperplasia = increased number of cell divisions
– benign tumor does not metatasize or spread
– malignant---spreads due to cells that detach from tumor
and enter blood or lymph
• Causes -- carcinogens, x-rays, viruses
– every cell has genes that regulate growth & development
– mutation in those genes due to radiation or chemical
agents causes excess production of growth factors
• Carcinogenesis
– multistep process that takes years and many different
mutations that need to occur
Control of Cell Destiny
• Cell destiny is either to remain alive &
functioning, to grow & divide or to die
• Homeostasis must maintain balance between cell
multiplication & cell death
• The protein cyclin builds up during interphase and
triggers mitosis
• Programmed cell death (apoptosis) occurs if a
triggering agent turns on suicide enzymes that kills
the cell
• Necrosis is cell death caused by injury or infection
Aging
• Age alters the body’s ability to adapt to changes in
the environment
• Theories to explain aging
– cells have a limited number of divisions
– glucose bonds irreversibly with proteins
– free radical theory---electrically charged molecules
with an unpaired electron cause cell damage
– autoimmune responses due to changes in cell identity
markers
• Evidence of aging
– damaged skin, hardened arteries, stiff joints
QUESTIONS????
