Flow measurement:

➢Basic principle of flow meter,

➢Differential pressure flow meters,
➢ Variable area flow meter,
➢Volumetric flow meter,
➢Hotwire anemometer,
➢Magnetic and ultrasonic flow meter,
➢Rota meter,
➢Hall effect transducer working and measurement techniques
 Flow
What is Flow?

Flow is defined as fluid (liquids or/and gases) in motion.

How does a Flow meter works?

A flow meter works by measuring the amount of a liquid,

gas, or steam flowing through or around the flow meter
sensors.
Flow Measurements
What is flow meter and their types?

❖ A flow meter is a flow rate measuring device used to

determine the linear or nonlinear mass and volumetric flow
of a liquid or a gas. The many names of flow meters include
flow gauge, flow indicator, liquid meter, and flow rate sensor.

❖Turbine flow meters are used in petroleum pipelines.

Working of Flow:
Sight Glass Level Measurement:
Capacitive Flow Control:
Basics of Gate Valves:
 Flow measurement Basics:

• There are three different flow quantities to be measured :-

1.The actual velocity of the fluid at a given point (measured in meters

per second).

2.The volume rate of flow (measured in meters cubed per minute).

3.The mass flow rate (measured in kilograms per second).

• It is also possible to measure total flow which is the total volume or
mass which has flowed in a set time period.
❖ Factors Affecting Flow Rates in pipes :
❑The major factors affecting the flow of fluids through pipes are:
• the velocity of the fluid.
• the friction of the fluid in contact with the pipe.
• the viscosity of the fluid.
• the density of the fluid.

❖ Fluid velocity:
• Fluid velocity depends on the head pressure which is forcing the fluid
through the pipe. The greater the head pressure, the faster the fluid
flow rate (all other factors remaining constant), and consequently, the
greater the volume of flow.
• Pipe size also affects the flow rate. For example, doubling the
diameter of a pipe increases the potential flow rate by a factor of four
times.
• Pipe friction
• Pipe friction reduces the flow rate of fluids through pipes and is, therefore,
considered a negative factor.
• Because of the friction of a fluid in contact with a pipe, the flow rate of the
fluid is slower near the walls of the pipe than at the center. The smoother,
cleaner, and larger a pipe is, the less effect pipe friction has on the overall
fluid flow rate.
• Viscosity
• Viscosity (η), or the molecular friction within a fluid, negatively affects the
flow rate of fluids. Viscosity and pipe friction decrease the flow rate of a
fluid near the walls of a pipe. Viscosity increases or decreases with
changing temperature, but not always as might be expected. In liquids,
viscosity typically decreases with increasing temperature.
• However, in some fluids viscosity can begin to increase above certain
temperatures. Generally, the higher a fluid’s viscosity, the lower the fluid
flow rate (other factors remaining constant).
• Viscosity is measured in units of centipoise. Another type of viscosity,
called kinematic viscosity, is measured in units of centistokes. It is obtained
by dividing centipoise by the fluid’s specific gravity.
• Density

• Density (ρ) of a fluid affects flow rates in that a more dense fluid
requires more head pressure to maintain a desired flow rate.
Also, the fact that gases are compressible, whereas liquids
essentially are not, often requires that different methods be
used for measuring the flow rates of liquids, gases, or liquids
with gases in them.
• It has been found that the most important flow factors can be
correlated together into a dimensionless parameter called the
Reynolds Number.
Factors Affecting Flow Rates in pipes :

• The major factors affecting the flow of fluids through pipes are:
• the velocity of the fluid.
• the friction of the fluid in contact with the pipe.
• the viscosity of the fluid.
• the density of the fluid.
Flow Measurement Technologies
Variable Area Flow meter:
 Principle of Operation:
• The principles of operation of the Variable Area Flow meters are
described as follows:
• The Variable Area Flow meter is an instrument for measuring the flow of
liquids and gases in pipelines.
• It includes a vertical tube through which the fluid flows whose diameter
increases from the bottom to the top and a float which can move
vertically in the tube.
• As the flow increases this float moves to a higher position until its
resistance to the fluid flow is balanced by the float’s buoyed weight in
the fluid, a value which is constant and independent of the flow rate.
• The position of the float is a measure of the flow rate.
• The flow rate values can be read on a scale.
Basic design:
• The float movement is restricted by the
float stops (4) and a protective housing
(6) surrounds the meter tube.
• The flow rate scale for flow meters
with glass meter tubes is preferably
applied directly on the meter tube.
• Variable Area Flow meters generally
have a 1: 12.5 measurement range
which corresponds to 8 to 100 %.
• The float position, which is a measure
of the instantaneous flow rate.
Basic Construction, Armored Metal Tube Flow
meter:
Viscosity Influence (1/2’’ to 2’’):
Understanding Flow
The Flow Law:
If liquid flow through a pipe of varying diameters,
at any particular time the same volume flows at all
points. This means, the velocity of liquid must
increase at a narrow point (see figure below).
• Continue…
Energy Balance in Flow

Back to the principle that energy is conserved within a

system; it may just change from a state to another, the

same principle applies to the flow within a flow

closed-system. Consider the Below Diagram :

• A liquid with a density of ρo flows constantly in a pipe with reducing
diameters from A to B. Two points on the pipe were tapped with a
small tube, namely Tapping 1 & Tapping 2, and results in two
different levels of pressure.
• The Law of Conservation of Energy, with respect to a flowing fluid,
states that ‘the total energy of a flow of liquid does not change, as
long as the system is kept closed (no external influences)’.
• Neglecting the types of energy which do not change during flow, the
total energy is made up of;
• i. Potential Energy (due to position, and dependent on the height of
head of liquid and on static pressure, equals to m·g·h).
• ii. Kinetic Energy (due to movement, and dependent on the velocity
of flow and on back pressure, equals to ½mv²)
• If the velocity increases as the cross-section decreases,
movement energy increases. As the total energy remains
constant, potential energy and/or pressure must become
smaller as the cross-section decreases.

• There is no measurable change in potential energy. However, the

static pressure changes, dependent upon the back pressure, i.e.
dependent on the velocity of flow.

• It is mainly the static pressure which is of importance in ‘hydro-

static system’, as the height of head of liquid and velocity of flow
are usually too small.
Flow Measurements:
• The measurement of flow rate and quantity is the oldest of all
measurements of process variables in the field of instrumentation.
• It is used to determine the amount of materials flowing in or out of a
process.
• Without flow measurements, plant material balancing, quality control and
the operation of any continuous process would be impossible.
• Flow velocities are also measured by inductive transducers
Continue…
• The measurement of liquids containing suspended solids, such as
sewage or feed to paper mills, present considerable problems.
• This is overcomed by the use of a flow meter.
• The transducer can be used to measure the flow of any flowing
material that is electrically conductive.
• Two saddle coils are arranged opposite each other and electrodes
diametrically opposite are arranged flush with the inside of the lining.
• If the coils are energized, the moving liquid, (as a length of conductor)
cuts the lines of force, resulting in the generation of an electromotive
force that is picked up by the electrodes.
• By suitable circuitry and amplification, an electrical signal
proportional to the flow can be obtained.
Continue…
• Many accurate and reliable methods are available for measuring flow,
some of which are applicable only to liquids, some only to gases and
some others to both.
• Fluids measured may be clear or opaque, clean or dirty, wet or dry,
erosive or corrosive.
• Fluid streams may be multiphase, vapour, liquid or slurries.
• The flow may be turbulent or laminar, and viscosity and pressure may
vary from vacuum to many atmospheres.
• Temperature may range from cryogenic to hundreds of °C.
• Flow rate may vary from a few drops per hour to thousands of gallons
per minute.
 MECHANICAL FLOW METER:
• In mechanical flow meters, there is a mechanism in the path of the flow
which moves continuously at a speed which is proportional to the flow
rate.
• These are generally used for metering liquids however with certain
modifications, they can be designed to meter gases also.
• They can be divided into two main categories, with further subgroups.
1. Displacement type
2. Inferential type
• Inferential type flow meters are current type flow meters are measure
the velocity of flow, from which the volume of flow is inferred.
MAGNETIC FLOW METERS:
• Magnetic flow meters are the first type of flowmeters to be
considered for high corrosive applications and for applications
involving measurement of erosive slurries.
• These meters work on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that whenever a conductor
moves through a magnetic field of given field strength,
• A voltage is induced in the conductor proportional to the relative
velocity between the conductor and the magnetic field.
• This concept is used in electric generators. In case of flowmeters,
electrically conductive flowing liquids work as the other conductor
The induced voltage is given by the equation:-
Magnetic Flow Meter:
Construction:
• The magnetic flow meter consists of an electrically insulated or non
conducting pipe, such as fibre glass, with a pair of electrodes
mounted opposite each other and flush with the inside walls of the
pipe,
• And with the magnetic coil mounted around the pipe so that a
magnetic field is generated in a plane mutually perpendicular to the
axis of the flow meter body and to the plane of the electrodes.
• If a metal pipe is used, an electrically insulating liner is provided on
the inside of the pipe.
 Magnetic Flow Meters:
Working Principle

• Electromagnetic Flow Meters, simply known as mag flow

meter is a volumetric flow meter which is ideally used for
waste water applications and other applications that experience
low pressure drop and with appropriate liquid conductivity
required.

• The device doesn’t have any moving parts and cannot work with
hydrocarbons and distilled water. Mag flow meters are also easy
to maintain.
Electromagnetic Flow Meters
Principle of Magnetic Flow Meter Based on
Faraday’s Law:

• Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of

Electromagnetic Induction. According to this principle, when a
conductive medium passes through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is
generated which is proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the
density of the magnetic field and the length of the conductor.
Basic Principle
Mathematically, we can state Faraday’s law as
E is proportional to V x B x L
• In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils
mounted within or outside the meter body to generate a
magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the
conductor and this induces a voltage which is proportional to
the average flow velocity.

• This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in

the Magflow meter body and sent to a transmitter which
calculates the volumetric flow rate based on the pipe
dimensions.
Mathematically, we can state Faraday’s law as
E is proportional to V x B x L
• E is the voltage generated in a conductor, V is the velocity of the
conductor, B is the magnetic field strength and L is the length of
the conductor.

• It is very important that the liquid flow that is to be measured

using the magnetic flow meter must be electrically conductive.
The Faraday’s Law indicates that the signal voltage (E) is
dependent on the average liquid velocity (V), the length of the
conductor (D) and the magnetic field strength (B). The magnetic
field will thus be established in the cross-section of the tube.
• Basically when the conductive liquid flows through the magnetic
field, voltage is induced. To measure this generated voltage
(which is proportional to the velocity of the flowing liquid), two
stainless steel electrodes are used which are mounted opposite
each other.

• The two electrodes which are placed inside the flow meter are
then connected to an advanced electronic circuit that has the
ability to process the signal. The processed signal is fed into the
microprocessor that calculates the volumetric flow of the liquid.
Electromagnetic Flow Meters Formula:
• Electromagnetic flow meters use Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction for making a
flow measurement. Faraday’s law states that, whenever a conductor of length ‘l’ moves
with a velocity ‘v’ perpendicular to a magnetic field ‘B’, an emf ‘e’ is induced in a
mutually perpendicular direction which is given by---
• e = Blv …(eq1)
• where
• B = Magnetic flux density (Wb/m2)
• l = length of conductor (m)
• v = Velocity of the conductor (m/s)
• The volume flow rate Q is given by
• Q = (πd2/4) v …(eq2)
• where
• d = diameter of the pipe
• v = average velocity of flow (conductor velocity in this case)
Magnetic Flow Meter Animation:
magnetic flow meter:
• A magnetic flow meter (mag meter, electromagnetic
flowmeter) is a transducer that measures fluid flow by the
voltage induced across the liquid by its flow through a magnetic
field.
• A magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which results in
a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity
perpendicular to the flux lines. The physical principle at work is
electromagnetic induction.
• The magnetic flow meter requires a conducting fluid, for
example, water that contains ions, and an electrical insulating
pipe surface, for example, a rubber-lined steel tube.
From equation (eq1)
• v = e/Bl
• Q = πd2e/4Bl
• Q = Ke
• where K is a meter constant.
• Thus the volume flow rate is proportional to the induced
emf. In Practical applications we have to enter the meter
constant ‘K’ value in magnetic flow meter which is available in
vendor catalog/manual.
 Limitations of electromagnetic Flow Meters
• (i) The substance being measured must be conductive. Therefore, it can’t be
employed for metering the flow rate of gases and steam, petroleum
products and similar liquids having very low conductivity.
• (ii) To render the meter insensitive to variations in the resistance of liquid,
the effective resistance of the liquid between the electrodes should not
exceed 1% of the impedance of the external circuit.
• (iii) It is a very expensive device.
• (iv) As the meter always measures the volume rate, the volume of any
suspended matter in the liquid will be included.
• (v) To avoid any trouble which would be caused by entrained air, when the
flow tube is installed in a horizontal pipe-line, the electrodes should be on
the horizontal diameter.
• (vi) As a zero check on the installation can be performed only by stopping
the flow, isolating valves are required and a bypass may also be necessary
through which the flow may be directed during a zero check.
 Advantages of Electromagnetic Flow Meter
• (i) The obstruction to the flow is almost nil and therefore this type of meters can be used for
measuring heavy suspensions, including mud, sewage and wood pulp.
• ii) There is no pressure head loss in this type of flow meter other than that of the length of
straight pipe which the meter occupies.
• (iii) They are not very much affected by upstream flow disturbances.
• (iv) They are practically unaffected by variation in density, viscosity, pressure and temperature.
• (v) Electric power requirements can be low (15 or 20 W), particularly with pulsed DC types.
• (vi) These meters can be used as bidirectional meters.
• (vii) The meters are suitable for most acids, bases, water and aqueous solutions because the
lining materials selected are not only good electrical insulators but also are corrosion resistant.
• (viii) The meters are widely used for slurry services not only because they are obstruction less but
also because some of the liners such as polyurethane, neoprene and rubber have good abrasion
or erosion resistance.
• (ix) They are capable of handling extremely low flows.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Flow Meter
• (i) These meters can be used only for fluids which have
reasonable electrical conductivity.

• (ii) Accuracy is only in the range of ± 1% over a flow rate range

of 5%.

• (iii) The size and cost of the field coils and circuitry do not
increase in proportion to their size of pipe bore. Consequently
small size meters are bulky and expensive.
Applications of Magnetic Flow Meters
• This electromagnetic flow meter being non intrusive type, can
be used in general for any fluid which is having a reasonable
electrical conductivity above 10 microsiemens/cm.

• Fluids like sand water slurry, coal powder, slurry, sewage, wood
pulp, chemicals, water other than distilled water in large pipe
lines, hot fluids, high viscous fluids specially in food processing
industries, cryogenic fluids can be metered by the
electromagnetic flow meter.
What is Differential Pressure Flow meter?
• What is a differential Pressure (Δp) meter?
• Differential pressure meters work on the principle of partially obstructing
the flow in a pipe. This creates a difference in the static pressure between
the upstream and downstream side of the device. This difference in the
static pressure (referred to as the differential pressure) is measured and
used to determine the flow rate.
• Differential-pressure meters are hugely popular and it is estimated that at
least 40% of industrial flow meters in use at present are differential-
pressure devices, with the orifice plate being the most popular. Differential-
pressure devices have been used to meter a wide variety of different fluids
from gases to highly viscous liquids.
• The popularity of differential-pressure flow meters is in part due to their
simple design and low cost. By reading this guide you will have a much
clearer idea of the benefits, viable metering options and applications for
using differential-pressure meters.
 Differential Pressure Flow Meter

The concept of using the

pressure drop caused by a fluid
flowing through a restriction in a
pipe as a measurement of flow
rate dates back to the 18th
Century, when it was discovered
by Bernoulli.

The basic principle of how a Δp

flow meter operates is described
in the figure.
Types of Differential Pressure Flow Meter:

• Orifice plates
• Venturi tubes
• Cone meters (e.g. V-cones)
• Nozzles
• Low loss meters (e.g. Dall tubes)
• Variable area meters
• Inlet flow meters
• Venturi cones
• Venturi nozzles
• Drag plates
Advantages and disadvantages of DP meters

• There are a number of general advantages common to most DP meters.

• These include:
• They are simple to make, containing no moving parts
• Their performance is well understood
• They are cheap – especially in larger pipes when compared with
other meters
• They can be used in any orientation
• They can be used for most gases and liquids
• Some types do not require calibration for certain applications
The main disadvantages to DP meters:

• Rangeability (turndown) is less than for most other types of flow

meter
• Significant pressure losses may occur
• The output signal is non-linear with flow
• The discharge coefficient and accuracy may be affected by pipe
layout or nature of flow
• They may suffer from ageing effects, e.g. the build-up of
deposits or erosion of sharp edges
Closed Tank Level Measurement using DP
Transmitters
• Hydrostatic head instruments
for measuring liquid level in
vessels operating above
atmospheric pressure uses the
full capability of the
differential pressure
instruments with both sides of
the measuring element
connected to the vessel.
• HP: High Pressure
• LP: Low Pressure
Transmitter mounted leveled with the min. level
Hotwire Anemometer
Hot Wire Anemometers:
• The hot wire anemometer is a device that is most often used in
research applications to study varying flow conditions. When a fluid
flows over a heated surface, heat is transferred from the surface and
therefore its· (surface's) temperature reduces. The rate of reduction
of temperature is related to flow rate. In a hot wire anemometer, heat
is supplied electrically to a fine wire placed in the flow stream. The
temperature- of wire is determined by measuring its resistance with a
Wheatstone bridge.
• One method involves adjusting the current through the wire so the
temperature remains constant and measuring the heating current. In
this way the bridge remains always balanced: The current is measured
by finding the voltage drop across a standard resistor connected in
series with the beating wire. The voltage drop is found by using a
potentiometer. .
 Hot Wire Anemometer Principle:
• Hot Wire Anemometer works When an
electrically heated wire is placed in a
flowing gas stream, heat is transferred
from the wire to the gas and hence the

• temperature of the wire reduces, and

due to this, the resistance of the wire
also changes. This change in resistance
of the wire becomes a measure of flow
rate.
Continue…
• The main parts of the arrangement • Types of Hot wire Anemometer
are :

• There are two methods of

• Conducting wires placed in a measuring flow rate using
ceramic body. a anemometer bridge
• Leads are taken from the combination namely:
conducting wires and they are
connected to one of the limbs
of the wheat stone bridge to 1. Constant current method
enable the measurement of 2. Constant temperature
change in resistance of the method
wire.
Constant current method Hot wire Anemometer:
• The bridge arrangement along
with the anemometer has been
shown in diagram.
• The anemometer is kept in the
flowing gas stream to measure
flow rate.

• A constant current is passed

through the sensing wire. That is,
the voltage across the bridge
circuit is kept constant, that is, not
varied.
Constant temperature method Hot wire
Anemometer:
• Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes
place from the sensing wire to the
flowing gas and hence the temperature
of the sensing wire reduces causing a
change in the resistance of the sensing
wire. (this change in resistance becomes
a measure of flow rate).

• Due to this, the galvanometer which was

initially at zero position deflects and this
deflection of the galvanometer becomes
a measure of flow rate of the gas when
calibrated
Continue…
• It can be shown that the loss of heat from the heated wire is :
= a(vp + b)1/2 J/s
• where v = velocity of heat flow
• p=density of fluid, and
• a and b are constants.
• Constants a and b depend upon dimensions and physical properties
of wire and fluid. Th~ values of these constants are found by
calibrating the instrument against a static pitot tube.
• The bridge arrangement along with • The principle in this method is to
the anemometer has been shown in maintain the temperature and
diagram. The anemometer is kept in resistance of the sensing wire at a
the flowing gas stream to measure constant level. Therefore, the
flow rate. current through the sensing wire
is increased to bring the sensing
wire to have its initial resistance
• A current is initially passed through and temperature.
the wire.
• The electrical current required in
• Due to the gas flow, heat transfer bringing back the resistance and
takes place from the sensing wire to hence the temperature of the wire
the flowing gas and this tends to to its initial condition becomes a
change the temperature and hence measure of flow rate of the gas
the resistance of the wire. when calibrated.
All About Variable Area Flow Meters:

• Variable Area Flow Meters

• The variable area flow meter’s operation is based on the variable area
principle: fluid flow raises a float in a tapered tube, increasing the
area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the higher the float
is raised.

• The float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the fluid

flow rate and the annular area between the float and the tube wall.
The float reaches a stable position in the tube when the upward force
exerted by the flowing fluid equals the downward gravitational force
exerted by the weight of the float.
Installation – Variable area Meter:
• A variable-area meter should be
installed in a location that is free from
vibration and has sufficient clearance
for occasional float removal for service
or inspection. The meter should be
readable and readily accessible for
operation and maintenance. In
general, when a meter is to be used in
regulating service, it should be placed
as close as possible to the throttling
point.
• These meters are always mounted
vertically with an outlet on the top and
inlet connection at the bottom.
• Most variable area measurement is
independent of upstream piping
conditions. Elbows, valves, and other
fittings have no effect on
measurement accuracy.
 Continue…
• Block and bypass valves should be
provided where operating
conditions don’t
allow shutdown as the meter is
being replaced. The bypass line
and valves should be the same
size as the meter. Block valves are
installed upstream and
downstream of the meter. Care
must be taken to ensure that
valves are tightly closed while the
meter is in service.
Ultrasonic Flow Sensor:
What is Ultrasonic Flow Meter ?
• Ultrasonic flow meter measure fluid velocity by passing high-
frequency sound waves along the fluid flow path.

• Fluid motion influences the propagation of these sound waves,

which may then be measured to infer fluid velocity.
• Two major sub-types of ultrasonic flow meters exist: Doppler
and transit-time. Both types of ultrasonic flowmeter work by
transmitting a high-frequency sound wave into the fluid stream
(the incident pulse) and analyzing the received pulse.
• Doppler flowmeters exploit the Doppler effect, which is the
shifting of frequency resulting from waves emitted by or
reflected by a moving object.
Ultrasonic sensor:
• The ultrasonic sensor is installed at the bottom of a pipe or channel.
To measure water level the sensor transmits ultrasonic pulses that
travel through the water and reflect off the liquid surface. The
instrument precisely measures the time it takes for echoes to return
to the sensor. Based on the speed of sound in water, the level is
measured with accuracy of ±0.25%.
• Flow velocity is measured with an ultrasonic Doppler signal
continuously injected into the water. This high frequency sound (640
KHz) is reflected back to the sensor from particles or bubbles
suspended in the liquid. If the fluid is in motion, the echoes return at
an altered frequency proportionate to flow velocity. With this
technique the instrument measures flow velocity with accuracy of
±2%.
Ultrasonic Flow Meter – Doppler Flow meter
Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters equation
• The mathematical relationship between fluid velocity (v) and the Doppler frequency shift
(Δf) is as follows, for fluid velocities much less than the speed of sound through that fluid
(v << c):

• Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters equation

• Delta f = 2 v f Cos(theta)/c

• Where,
• Δf = Doppler frequency shift
• v = Velocity of fluid (actually, of the particle reflecting the sound wave)
• f = Frequency of incident sound wave
• θ = Angle between transducer and pipe centerlines
• c = Speed of sound in the process fluid
Ultrasonic Pressure & Area velocity Flow
Meter:
Separate Level and Velocity Sensors:

• A separate down-
looking ultrasonic sensor can be
used for highly aerated or
turbulent flow applications.
• It measures level by transmitting
ultrasonic pulses through the air
to the liquid surface with
accuracy of ±0.25%.
• Along with the level sensor, a
submerged Doppler velocity
sensor is used to measure the
water velocity.
Ultrasonic flow meters:
• operate using the transit-time
differential method.
The Transit-time differential
measurement is based on a
simple physical fact.
• Imagine two canoes crossing
a river on the same diagonal
line, one with the flow and the
other against the flow. The
canoe moving with the flow
needs much less time to reach
the opposite bank.
Applications and Advantages of Ultrasonics:
• Applications • Advantages:
• Ultrasonic flow meters are • Ultrasonic meters are made up
perfect for wastewater of no moving parts.
applications or any other dirty
liquid which is conductive or • They experience no pressure
water based. loss.
• Ultrasonic flow meters normally • They endow with maintenance-
does not work with distilled free operation. It is a key
water or drinking water. advantage as compared to
Aerations would be needed in conventional mechanical meters
the clean liquid applications. such as positive displacement
meters, turbines etc.
• Ultrasonic flow meters are also
best suited for applications • Furthermore, Ultrasonic flow
where low pressure drop, meters are consistently more
chemical compatibility, and low accurate and reliable than a lot
maintenance are involved. of other metering systems.
Hall Effect Sensor:
Hall Effect Sensor Working Principle:
• Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its
output voltage in response to a magnetic
field. Hall effect sensors are used for proximity
switching, positioning, speed detection, and
current sensing applications.
• In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an
analog transducer, directly returning a voltage.
With a known magnetic field, its distance from
the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups
of sensors, the relative position of the magnet
can be deduced.
• Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with
circuitry that allows the device to act in a digital
(on/off) mode, and may be called a switch in this
configuration.
•
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
• A Hall probe contains an indium • ADVANTAGES
compound semiconductor crystal such as • A Hall effect sensor may operate as an
indium antimonide, mounted on an electronic switch.
aluminum backing plate, and
encapsulated in the probe head. • Such a switch costs less than a mechanical
• When the Hall probe is held so that the switch and is much more reliable.
magnetic field lines are passing at right • It can be operated up to 100 kHz.
angles through the sensor of the probe,
the sensor gives a reading of the value of • It does not suffer from contact bounce
magnetic flux density (B). because a solid state switch with
hysteresis is used rather than a
• A current is passed through the crystal mechanical contact.
which, when placed in a magnetic field
has a “Hall effect” voltage developed • It will not be affected by environmental
across it. The Hall effect is seen when a contaminants since the sensor is in a
conductor is passed through a uniform sealed package. Therefore it can be used
magnetic field. The hall effect voltage under severe conditions.
produced is an indication of magnetic
object passed around it. Hence the Hall
effect voltage is the signal output and
used to sense an object near it.
Disadvantages and Applications:
• DISADVANTGAES
• Hall effect sensors provide much lower measuring accuracy than fluxgate
magnetometers or magnetoresistance-based sensors. Moreover, Hall effect
sensors drift significantly, requiring compensation.
• APPLICATIONS
• Position sensing
• Sensing the presence of magnetic objects (connected with the position
sensing) is the most common industrial application of Hall effect sensors,
especially those operating in the switch mode (on/off mode). The Hall
effect sensors are also used in the brushless DC motor to sense the
position of the rotor and to switch the transistors in the right sequence.
• Smartphones use hall sensors to determine if the Flip Cover accessory is
closed.
Rotameter
Rotameter Working Principle

• What is Rota meter?

• A rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or

gas in a closed tube.

• It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which

measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid
travels through, to vary, causing a measurable effect.
Working Principle of Rota meter:
• A rotameter consists of a tapered
tube, typically made of glass with a
‘float’, made either of anodized
aluminum or a ceramic, actually a
shaped weight, inside that is
pushed up by the drag force of the
flow and pulled down by gravity.
• The drag force for a given fluid and
float cross section is a function of
flow speed squared only.
•A higher volumetric flow
rate through a given area increases
flow speed and drag force, so the
float will be pushed upwards.
Rota Meter:
• However, as the inside of the rotameter is cone
shaped (widens), the area around the float through
which the medium flows increases, the flow speed
and drag force decrease until there is mechanical
equilibrium with the float’s weight.
• Floats are made in many different shapes, with
spheres and ellipsoids being the most common.
The float may be diagonally grooved and partially
colored so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes.
• This shows if the float is stuck since it will only
rotate if it is free. Readings are usually taken at the
top of the widest part of the float; the center for an
ellipsoid, or the top for a cylinder. Some
manufacturers use a different standard.
How to Select a Rotameter ?
• A rotameter has a tapered tube with a float inside. As the
measured fluid flows upward through the tube, it pushes the
float upward along the length of the tube.
• As the float rises in the tube, the cross sectional area of the tube
increases and more fluid can bypass around the float. At some
point, the upward force of the fluid flow acting on the float will
balance with the downward force of gravity.
• The position of the float along the length of the tube correlates
with a certain flow rate when certain properties of the fluid are
known. Flow rate scale graduations on the tube can be read by
the operator.
Rotameter selection parameters:

• Desired flow rate range

• Fluid specific gravity
• Ambient temperature
• Operating and maximum pressure
• Line size
• Connection type
• Connection orientation
• With or without a valve
• Material requirements to
accommodate fluid
• Scale units of measure. Smallest
scale divisions needed.
Rotameter applications:
• Simple design and operation provide a modest cost solution.
• No external power is required for operation. Inherent fluid properties and gravity
are used to measure flow rate.
• Clear glass used for the measuring tube is highly resistant to thermal shock and
corrosion.
• Instrument orientation must be vertical, with fluid flowing upward.
• Scale graduations are accurate for a given substance at a given temperature,
making the devices application specific.
• Operation of the rotameter may be impacted by changes in the viscosity of the
fluid. Consult with a product and application specialist to explore your
application.
• Direct flow indication provides resolution that may not be as good as some other
flow measurement methods.
• Visual reading of the scale is subject to uncertainty due to float oscillation,
parallax, and location on the scale.
• Make sure the fluid turbidity, or another fluid characteristic will not obscure the
visibility of the float.
 Limitations:
• Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must
always be vertically oriented and right way
up, with the fluid flowing upward.
• Due to its reliance on the ability of the
fluid or gas to displace the float,
graduations on a given rotameter will only
be accurate for a given substance at a
given temperature. The main property of
importance is the density of the fluid;
however, viscosity may also be significant.
Floats are ideally designed to be
insensitive to viscosity; however, this is
seldom verifiable from manufacturers’
specifications. Either separate rotameters
for different densities and viscosities may
be used, or multiple scales on the same
rotameter can be used.
Thank You