EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT 1
AIM
Use of Vernier Callipers to
(i) measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body,
(ii) measure the dimensions of a given regular body of known mass
and hence to determine its density; and
(iii) measure the internal diameter and depth of a given cylindrical object
like beaker/glass/calorimeter and hence to calculate its volume.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Vernier Callipers, Spherical body, such as a pendulum bob or a glass
marble, rectangular block of known mass and cylindrical object like
a beaker/glass/calorimeter

D ESCRIPTION OF THE MEASURING DEVICE

1. A Vernier Calliper has two scales–one main scale and a Vernier
scale, which slides along the main scale. The main scale and Vernier
scale are divided into small divisions though of different
magnitudes.
The main scale is graduated in cm and mm. It has two fixed jaws, A
and C, projected at right angles to the scale. The sliding Vernier scale
has jaws (B, D) projecting at right angles to it and also the main scale
and a metallic strip (N). The zero of
main scale and Vernier scale coincide
when the jaws are made to touch each
other. The jaws and metallic strip are
designed to measure the distance/
diameter of objects. Knob P is used to
slide the vernier scale on the main
scale. Screw S is used to fix the vernier
scale at a desired position.
2. The least count of a common scale
is 1mm. It is difficult to further
Fig. E 1.1 Vernier Calliper
subdivide it to improve the least
count of the scale. A vernier scale
enables this to be achieved.

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

P
RINCIPLE
The difference in the magnitude of one main scale division (M.S.D.)
and one vernier scale division (V.S.D.) is called the least count of the
instrument, as it is the smallest distance that can be measured using
the instrument.
n V.S.D. = (n – 1) M.S.D.
Formulas Used
(a) Least count of vernier callipers

the magnitude of the smallest division on the main scale

=
the total number of small divisions on the vernier scale

mass m m
(b) Density of a rectangular body = = = where m is
volume V l.b.h
its mass, l its length, b its breadth and h the height.

π D′2
(c) The volume of a cylindrical (hollow) object V = πr2h' = . h'
4
where h' is its internal depth, D' is its internal diameter and r is
its internal radius.

P
ROCEDURE
(a) Measuring the diameter of a small spherical or cylindrical
body.
1. Keep the jaws of Vernier Callipers closed. Observe the zero mark of
the main scale. It must perfectly coincide with that of the vernier
scale. If this is not so, account for the zero error for all observations to
be made while using the instrument as explained on pages 26-27.
2. Look for the division on the vernier scale that coincides with a
division of main scale. Use a magnifying glass, if available and
note the number of division on the Vernier scale that coincides
with the one on the main scale. Position your eye directly over the
division mark so as to avoid any parallax error.
3. Gently loosen the screw to release the movable jaw. Slide it enough
to hold the sphere/cylindrical body gently (without any undue
pressure) in between the lower jaws AB. The jaws should be perfectly
perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Now, gently tighten the
screw so as to clamp the instrument in this position to the body.
4. Carefully note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale
against the main scale. Usually, it will not perfectly coincide with
24

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 1
UNIT NAME

any of the small divisions on the main scale. Record the main scale
division just to the left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.
5. Start looking for exact coincidence of a vernier scale division with
that of a main scale division in the vernier window from left end
(zero) to the right. Note its number (say) N, carefully.
6. Multiply 'N' by least count of the instrument and add the product
to the main scale reading noted in step 4. Ensure that the product
is converted into proper units (usually cm) for addition to be valid.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 to obtain the diameter of the body at different
positions on its curved surface. Take three sets of reading in
each case.
8. Record the observations in the tabular form [Table E 1.1(a)] with
proper units. Apply zero correction, if need be.
9. Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter
of the body. Express the results in suitable units with appropriate
number of significant figures.
(b) Measuring the dimensions of a regular rectangular body to
determine its density.
1. Measure the length of the rectangular block (if beyond the limits
of the extended jaws of Vernier Callipers) using a suitable ruler.
Otherwise repeat steps 3-6 described in (a) after holding the block
lengthwise between the jaws of the Vernier Callipers.
2. Repeat steps 3-6 stated in (a) to determine the other dimensions
(breadth b and height h) by holding the rectangular block in proper
positions.
3. Record the observations for length, breadth and height of the
rectangular block in tabular form [Table E 1.1 (b)] with proper
units and significant figures. Apply zero corrections wherever
necessary.
4. Find out the arithmetic mean of readings taken for length, breadth
and height separately.
[c] Measuring the internal diameter and depth of the given beaker
(or similar cylindrical object) to find its internal volume.
1. Adjust the upper jaws CD of the Vernier Callipers so as to touch
the wall of the beaker from inside without exerting undue pressure
on it. Tighten the screw gently to keep the Vernier Callipers in this
position.
2. Repeat the steps 3-6 as in (a) to obtain the value of internal diameter
of the beaker/calorimeter. Do this for two different (angular)
positions of the beaker.
25

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

3. Keep the edge of the main scale of Vernier Callipers, to determine

the depth of the beaker, on its peripheral edge. This should be
done in such a way that the tip of the strip is able to go freely
inside the beaker along its depth.
4. Keep sliding the moving jaw of the Vernier Callipers until the strip
just touches the bottom of the beaker. Take care that it does so
while being perfectly perpendicular to the bottom surface. Now
tighten the screw of the Vernier Callipers.
5. Repeat steps 4 to 6 of part (a) of the experiment to obtain depth of
the given beaker. Take the readings for depth at different positions
of the breaker.
6. Record the observations in tabular form [Table E 1.1 (c)] with
proper units and significant figures. Apply zero corrections, if
required.
7. Find out the mean of the corrected readings of the internal diameter
and depth of the given beaker. Express the result in suitable units
and proper significant figures.

O
BSERVATIONS
(i) Least count of Vernier Callipers (Vernier Constant)
1 main scale division (MSD) = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
Number of vernier scale divisions, N = 10
10 vernier scale divisions = 9 main scale divisions
1 vernier scale division = 0.9 main scale division
Vernier constant = 1 main scale division – 1 vernier scale division
= (1– 0.9) main scale divisions
= 0.1 main scale division
Vernier constant (VC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
Alternatively,

1MSD 1 mm
Vernier constant = =
N 10

Vernier constant (VC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm

(ii) Zero error and its correction
When the jaws A and B touch each other, the zero of the Vernier
should coincide with the zero of the main scale. If it is not so, the
instrument is said to possess zero error (e). Zero error may be
26

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 1
UNIT NAME

Fig. E 1.2: Zero error (i) no zero error (ii) positive zero error
(iii) negative zero error

positive or negative, depending upon whether the zero of vernier

scale lies to the right or to the left of the zero of the main scale. This
is shown by the Fig. E1.2 (ii) and (iii). In this situation, a correction
is required to the observed readings.
(iii) Positive zero error
Fig E 1.2 (ii) shows an example of positive zero error. From the
figure, one can see that when both jaws are touching each other,
zero of the vernier scale is shifted to the right of zero of the main
scale (This might have happened due to manufacturing defect or
due to rough handling). This situation makes it obvious that while
taking measurements, the reading taken will be more than the
actual reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied which is
proportional to the right shift of zero of vernier scale.
In ideal case, zero of vernier scale should coincide with zero of
main scale. But in Fig. E 1.2 (ii), 5th vernier division is coinciding
with a main scale reading.
∴Zero Error = + 5 × Least Count = + 0.05 cm
Hence, the zero error is positive in this case. For any measurements
done, the zero error (+ 0.05 cm in this example) should be
‘subtracted’ from the observed reading.
∴True Reading = Observed reading – (+ Zero error)
(iv) Negative zero error
Fig. E 1.2 (iii) shows an example of negative zero error. From this
figure, one can see that when both the jaws are touching each
other, zero of the vernier scale is shifted to the left of zero of the
main scale. This situation makes it obvious that while taking
measurements, the reading taken will be less than the actual
reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied which is
proportional to the left shift of zero of vernier scale.
In Fig. E 1.2 (iii), 5th vernier scale division is coinciding with a
main scale reading.
∴Zero Error = – 5 × Least Count
= – 0.05 cm
27

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

Note that the zero error in this case is considered to be negative.

For any measurements done, the negative zero error, ( –0.05 cm in
this example) is also substracted ‘from the observed reading’,
though it gets added to the observed value.
∴True Reading = Observed Reading – (– Zero error)
Table E 1.1 (a): Measuring the diameter of a small spherical/
cylindrical body

S. Main Scale Number of Vernier scale Measured

No. reading, M coinciding reading, V = N × VC diameter, M + V
(cm/mm) vernier (cm/mm) (cm/mm)
division, N
1
2
3
4

Zero error, e = ± ... cm

Mean observed diameter = ... cm
Corrected diameter = Mean observed diameter – Zero Error
Table E 1.1 (b) : Measuring dimensions of a given regular body
(rectangular block)

Dimension S. Main Scale Number of Vernier scale reading, Measured

No. reading, M coinciding V = N × VC (cm/mm) dimension
(cm/mm) vernier M + V (cm/mm)
division, N

1
Length (l) 2
3
1
Breadth (b) 2
3
1
Height (h) 2
3

Zero error = ± ... mm/cm

Mean observed length = ... cm, Mean observed breadth = ... cm
Mean observed height = ... cm
Corrected length = ... cm; Corrected breath = ... cm;
Corrected height = ...cm
28

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 1
UNIT NAME

Table E 1.1 (c) : Measuring internal diameter and depth of a

given beaker/ calorimeter/ cylindrical glass

Dimension S. Main Scale Number of Vernier scale reading, Measured

No. reading, M coinciding V = N × VC (cm/mm) diameter/depth,
(cm/mm) vernier M + V (cm/mm)
division, N

Internal 1
diameter 2
(D′) 3

1
Depth (h′) 2
3

Mean diameter = ... cm

Mean depth= ... cm
Corrected diameter = ... cm
Corrected depth = ... cm

C ALCULATION
(a) Measurement of diameter of the sphere/ cylindrical body

D1 + D2 + ... + D6
Mean measured diameter, Do = cm
6
Do = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Corrected diameter of the given body, D = Do – ( ± e ) = ... × 10–2 m
(b) Measurement of length, breadth and height of the rectangular
block
l1 + l 2 + l 3
Mean measured length, l o = cm
3
lo = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Corrected length of the block, l = lo – ( ± e ) = ... cm

b1 + b2 + b3
Mean observed breadth, bo =
3
Mean measured breadth of the block, b0 = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Corrected breadth of the block,
b = bO – ( ± e ) cm = ... × 10–2 m
29

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

h1 + h 2 + h 3
Mean measured height of block h o =
3

Corrected height of block h = ho – ( ± e ) = ... cm

Volume of the rectangular block,
V = lbh = ... cm3 = ... × 10–6 m3
Density ρ of the block,

m
ρ= =... kg m –3
V

(c) Measurement of internal diameter of the beaker/glass

D1 + D 2 + D 3
Mean measured internal diameter, D o =
3

Do = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m

Corrected internal diameter,
D = Do – ( ± e ) = ... cm = ... × 10–2 m

h1 + h 2 + h 3
Mean measured depth of the beaker, h o =
3

= ... cm = ... × 10–2 m

Corrected measured depth of the beaker
h = ho – ( ± e ) ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Internal volume of the beaker

πD 2 h
V= =...×10 –6 m 3
4

R
ESULT
(a) Diameter of the spherical/ cylindrical body,
D = ... × 10–2m
(b) Density of the given rectangular block,
ρ = ... kg m–3
(c) Internal volume of the given beaker
V'= ... m3
30

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 1
UNIT NAME

P RECAUTIONS
1. If the vernier scale is not sliding smoothly over the main scale,
apply machine oil/grease.
2. Screw the vernier tightly without exerting undue pressure to avoid
any damage to the threads of the screw.
3. Keep the eye directly over the division mark to avoid any error
due to parallax.
4. Note down each observation with correct significant figures
and units.

S
OURCES OF ERROR
Any measurement made using Vernier Callipers is likely to be
incorrect if-
(i) the zero error in the instrument placed is not accounted for; and
(ii) the Vernier Callipers is not in a proper position with respect to the
body, avoiding gaps or undue pressure or both.

D ISCUSSION
1. A Vernier Callipers is necessary and suitable only for certain
types of measurement where the required dimension of the object
is freely accessible. It cannot be used in many situations. e.g.
suppose a hole of diameter 'd' is to be drilled into a metal block.
If the diameter d is small - say 2 mm, neither the diameter nor
the depth of the hole can be measured with a Vernier Callipers.
2. It is also important to realise that use of Vernier Callipers for
measuring length/width/thickness etc. is essential only when
the desired degree of precision in the result (say determination
of the volume of a wire) is high. It is meaningless to use it where
precision in measurement is not going to affect the result much.
For example, in a simple pendulum experiment, to measure
the diameter of the bob, since L >> d.

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. One can undertake an exercise to know the level of skills developed
in making measurements using Vernier Callipers. Objects, such
as bangles/kangan, marbles whose dimensions can be measured
indirectly using a thread can be used to judge the skill acquired
through comparison of results obtained using both the methods.
2. How does a vernier decrease the least count of a scale.
31

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Determine the density of glass/metal of a (given) cylindrical vessel.

2. Measure thickness of doors and boards.

3. Measure outer diameter of a water pipe.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISE

1. In the vernier scale normally used in a Fortin's barometer, 20 VSD

coincide with 19 MSD (each division of length 1 mm). Find the least
count of the vernier.
2. In vernier scale (angular) normally provided in spectrometers/sextant,
60 VSD coincide with 59 MSD (each division of angle 1°). Find the least
count of the vernier.

3. How would the precision of the measurement by Vernier Callipers be

affected by increasing the number of divisions on its vernier scale?

4. How can you find the value of π using a given cylinder and a pair of
Vernier Callipers?

[Hint : Using the Vernier Callipers, - Measure the diameter D and find
the circumference of the cylinder using a thread. Ratio of circumference
to the diameter (D) gives π.]

5. How can you find the thickness of the sheet used for making of a steel
tumbler using Vernier Callipers?

[Hint: Measure the internal diameter (Di) and external diameter (Do) of
the tumbler. Then, thickness of the sheet Dt = (Do – Di)/2.]

32

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 2
AIM
Use of screw gauge to
(a) measure diameter of a given wire,
(b) measure thickness of a given sheet; and
(c) determine volume of an irregular lamina.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Wire, metallic sheet, irregular lamina, millimetre graph paper, pencil
and screw gauge.

D ESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
With Vernier Callipers. you are usually able to measure length
accurately up to 0.1 mm. More accurate measurement of length, up
to 0.01 mm or 0.005 mm, may be made by using a screw gauge. As
such a Screw Gauge is an
instrument of higher precision than
a Vernier Callipers. You might have
observed an ordinary screw [Fig E2.1
(a)]. There are threads on a screw. The
separation between any two
consecutive threads is the same. The
screw can be moved backward or
forward in its nut by rotating it anti-
Fig.E 2.1 A screw (a) without nut (b) with nut
clockwise or clockwise [Fig E2.1(b)].
The distance advanced by the screw
when it makes its one complete
rotation is the separation between
two consecutive threads. This
distance is called the Pitch of the
screw. Fig. E 2.1(a) shows the pitch
(p) of the screw. It is usually 1 mm
or 0.5 mm. Fig. E 2.2 shows a
screw gauge. It has a screw ’S’
which advances forward or
backward as one rotates the head Fig.E 2.2: View of a screw gauge
C through rachet R. There is a linear

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

scale ‘LS’ attached to limb D of the U frame. The smallest division on

the linear scale is 1 mm (in one type of screw gauge). There is a circular
scale CS on the head, which can be rotated. There are 100 divisions
on the circular scale. When the end B of the screw touches the surface
A of the stud ST, the zero marks on the main scale and the circular
scale should coincide with each other.
ZERO ERROR
When the end of the screw and the surface of the
stud are in contact with each other, the linear scale
and the circular scale reading should be zero. In
case this is not so, the screw gauge is said to have
an error called zero error.
Fig. E 2.3 shows an enlarged view of a screw gauge
with its faces A and B in contact. Here, the zero
mark of the LS and the CS are coinciding with each
other.
When the reading on the circular scale across the
linear scale is more than zero (or positive), the
instrument has Positive zero error as shown in
Fig.E 2.3: A screw gauge with no zero error Fig. E 2.4 (a). When the reading of the circular scale
across the linear scale is less than zero (or negative),
the instrument is said to have negative zero error
as shown in Fig. E 2.4 (b).

Fig.E 2.4 (a): Showing a positive zero error

Fig.E 2.4 (b): Showing a negative zero error

TAKING THE LINEAR SCALE READING

The mark on the linear scale which lies close to the
left edge of the circular scale is the linear scale
reading. For example, the linear scale reading as
shown in Fig. E 2.5, is 0.5 cm.
TAKING CIRCULAR SCALE READING
The division of circular scale which coincides with
Fig.E 2.5: Measuring thickness with a screw the main scale line is the reading of circular scale.
guage For example, in the Fig. E 2.5, the circular scale
reading is 2.
34

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 2
UNIT NAME

TOTAL READING
Total reading
= linear scale reading + circular scale reading × least count
= 0.5 + 2 × 0.001
= 0.502 cm

P
RINCIPLE
The linear distance moved by the screw is directly proportional to the
rotation given to it. The linear distance moved by the screw when it is
rotated by one division of the circular scale, is the least distance that
can be measured accurately by the instrument. It is called the least
count of the instrument.
pitch
Least count =
No. of divisions on circular scale

For example for a screw gauge with a pitch of 1mm and 100 divisions
on the circular scale. The least count is
1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm
This is the smallest length one can measure with this screw gauge.
In another type of screw gauge, pitch is 0.5 mm and there are 50
divisions on the circular scale. The least count of this screw gauge
is 0.5 mm/50 = 0.01 mm. Note that here two rotations of the
circular scale make the screw to advance through a distance of 1
mm. Some screw gauge have a least count of 0.001 mm (i.e. 10–6
m) and therefore are called micrometer screw.
(a) Measurement of Diameter of a Given Wire

P
ROCEDURE
1. Take the screw gauge and make sure that the rachet R on the
head of the screw functions properly.
2. Rotate the screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe
the distance through which it has receded. This distance is the
reading on the linear scale marked by the edge of the circular
scale. Then, find the pitch of the screw, i.e., the distance moved by
the screw in one complete rotation. If there are n divisions on the
circular scale, then distance moved by the screw when it is rotated
through one division on the circular scale is called the least count
of the screw gauge, that is,
pitch
Least count =
n
35

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

3. Insert the given wire between the screw and the stud of the screw
gauge. Move the screw forward by rotating the rachet till the wire
is gently gripped between the screw and the stud as shown in
Fig. E 2.5. Stop rotating the rachet the moment you hear a click
sound.
4. Take the readings on the linear scale and the circular scale.
5. From these two readings, obtain the diameter of the wire.
6. The wire may not have an exactly
circular cross-section. Therefore. it is
necessary to measure the diameter of the
wire for two positions at right angles to
each other. For this, first record the
reading of diameter d1 [Fig. E 2.6 (a)]
and then rotate the wire through 90° at
the same cross-sectional position.
Record the reading for diameter d2 in this
position [Fig. E 2.6 (b)].
7. The wire may not be truly cylindrical.
Fig.E 2.6 (a): Two magnified views (a) and (b) of a wire
showing its perpendicular diameters d1
Therefore, it is necessary to measure the
and d2. d2 is obtained after the rotating diameter at several different places and
the wire in the clockwise direction obtain the average value of diameter. For
through 90°. this, repeat the steps (3) to (6) for three
more positions of the wire.
8. Take the mean of the different values of diameter so obtained.
9. Substract zero error, if any, with proper sign to get the corrected
value for the diameter of the wire.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

The length of the smallest division on the linear scale = ... mm
Distance moved by the screw when it is rotated
through x complete rotations, y = ... mm

y
Pitch of the screw = = ... mm
x

Number of divisions on the circular scale n = ...

Least Count (L.C.) of screw guage

pitch
= = ... mm
No. of divisions on the circular scale

Zero error with sign (No. of div. × L. C.) = ... mm

36

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 2
UNIT NAME

Table E 2.1: Measurement of the diameter of the wire

S. Reading along Reading Measured

No. one direction along diameter
(d1) perpendicular
direction (d2) d1 + d2
d=
2
Linear Circular Diameter Linear Circular Diameter
scale scale d1 = M + n × L.C. scale scale d = M + n × L.C.
reading reading reading reading 2 (mm)
M (mm) (n) (mm) M (mm) (n) (mm)

Mean diameter = ... mm

Mean corrected value of diameter
= measured diameter – (zero error with sign) = ... mm

R ESULT
The diameter of the given wire as measured by screw gauge is ... mm

P RECAUTIONS
1. Rachet arrangement in screw gauge must be utilised to avoid undue
pressure on the wire as this may change the diameter.
2. Move the screw in one direction else the screw may develop “play”.
3. Screw should move freely without friction.
4. Reading should be taken atleast at four different points along the
length of the wire.
5. View all the reading keeping the eye perpendicular to the scale to
avoid error due to parallax.

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire may not be of uniform cross-section.
2. Error due to backlash though can be minimised but cannot be
completely eliminated.
37

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

BACKLASH ERROR
In a good instrument (either screw gauge or a spherometer) the
thread on the screw and that on the nut (in which the screw moves),
should tightly fit with each other. However, with repeated use,
the threads of both the screw and the nut may get worn out. As
a result a gap develops between these two threads, which is called
“play”. The play in the threads may introduce an error in
measurement in devices like screw gauge. This error is called
backlash error. In instruments having backlash error, the screw
slips a small linear distance without rotation. To prevent this, it
is advised that the screw should be moved in only one direction
while taking measurements.
3. The divisions on the linear scale and the circular scale may not be
evenly spaced.

D ISCUSSION
1. Try to assess if the value of diameter obtained by you is realistic
or not. There may be an error by a factor of 10 or 100 . You can
obtain a very rough estimation of the diameter of the wire by
measuring its thickness with an ordinary metre scale.
2. Why does a screw gauge develop backlash error with use?

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Is the screw gauge with smaller least count always better? If you
are given two screw gauges, one with 100 divisions on circular
scale and another with 200 divisions, which one would you prefer
and why?
2. Is there a situation in which the linear distance moved by the screw
is not proportional to the rotation given to it?
3. Is it possible that the zero of circular scale lies above the zero line
of main scale, yet the error is positive zero error?
4. For measurement of small lengths, why do we prefer screw gauge
over Vernier Callipers?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Think of a method to find the ‘pitch’ of bottle caps.

2. Compare the ‘pitch’ of an ordinary screw with that of a screw guage.
In what ways are the two different?
3. Measure the diameters of petioles (stem which holds the leaf) of
different leaf and check if it has any relation with the mass or surface
area of the leaf. Let the petiole dry before measuring its diameter by
screw gauge.
38

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 2
UNIT NAME

4. Measure the thickness of the sheet of stainless steel glasses of

various make and relate it to their price structure.
5. Measure the pitch of the ‘screw’ end of different types of hooks and
check if it has any relation with the weight each one of these hooks
are expected to hold.
6. Measure the thickness of different glass bangles available in the
Market. Are they made as per some standard?
7. Collect from the market, wires of different gauge numbers, measure
their diameters and relate the two. Find out various uses of wires of
each gauge number.

(b) Measurement of Thickness of a Given Sheet

P
ROCEDURE
1. Insert the given sheet between the studs of the screw gauge and
determine the thickness at five different positions.
2. Find the average thickness and calculate the correct thickness by
applying zero error following the steps followed earlier.

O
BSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION
Least count of screw gauge = ... mm
Zero error of screw gauge = ... mm
Table E 2.2 Measurement of thickness of sheet

S. Linear scale Circular Thickness

No. reading M scale reading
t = M + n × L.C.
(mm) n
(mm)
1

Mean thickness of the given sheet = ... mm

Mean corrected thickness of the given sheet
= observed mean thickness – (zero error with sign) = ... mm

R
ESULT
The thickness of the given sheet is ... m.
39

2025-26
LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The sheet may not be of uniform thickness.
2. Error due to backlash though can be minimised but cannot be
eliminated completely.

D ISCUSSION
1. Assess whether the thickness of sheet measured by you is realistic
or not. You may take a pile of say 20 sheets, and find its thickness
using a metre scale and then calculate the thickness of one sheet.
2. What are the limitations of the screw gauge if it is used to measure
the thickness of a thick cardboard sheet?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Find out the thickness of different wood ply boards available in the
market and verify them with the specifications provided by the
supplier.
2. Measure the thickness of the steel sheets used in steel almirahs
manufactured by different suppliers and compare their prices. Is it
better to pay for a steel almirah by mass or by the guage of steel
sheets used?
3. Design a cardboard box for packing 144 sheets of paper and give
its dimensions.
4. Hold 30 pages of your practical notebook between the screw and
the stud and measure its thickness to find the thickness of one
sheet.
5. Find the thickness of plastic ruler/metal sheet of the geometry box.

(C) Determination of Volume of the Given Irregular Lamina

P ROCEDURE
1. Find the thickness of lamina as in Experiment E 2(b).
2. Place the irregular lamina on a sheet of paper with mm graph.
Draw the outline of the lamina using a sharp pencil. Count the
total number of squares and also more than half squares within
the boundary of the lamina and determine the area of the lamina.
3. Obtain the volume of the lamina using the relation
mean thickness × area of lamina.

O BSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

Same as in Experiment E 2(b). The first section of the table is now for
readings of thickness at five different places along the edge of the
40

2025-26
 EXPERIMENT 2
UNIT NAME

lamina. Calculate the mean thickness and make correction for zero
error, if any.
From the outline drawn on the graph paper:-
Total number of complete squares = ... mm2 = ... cm2
Volume of the lamina = ... mm3 = ... cm3

R
ESULT
Volume of the given lamina = ... cm3

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Find the density of cardboard.

2. Find the volume of a leaf (neem, bryophyte).
3. Find the volume of a cylindrical pencil.

41

2025-26