H AW K E R T Y P H O O N B R ITAI N ' S W W I I TAN K H U NTE R

1 945 E N DGAM E

Real stories of the men Interview with Enola Gay Strategic destruction: the
who ended the war navigator 'Dutch' Van Kirk dark path to nuclear weapons

CONFEDERATE TASK FORCE HERO OF THE

LAST STAND GREMLIN TET OFFENSIVE
Civil War's showdown Forgotten story of Japanese ˆˣ˘˖˜˔˟ʹˢ˥˖˘˦ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥ʚ˦
at Appomattox pilots recruited to the RAF daring rescue mission

ISSUE 149
 ISSUE 149

CONTRI BUTORS

IAIN MACGREGOR
Iain is an author, publisher and
historian with a number of best-selling
books. His latest, The Hiroshima Men,
recounts the stories of the people
behind the nuclear bomb. He spoke
with Louis Hardiman (page 26).

STUART HADAWAY
A little-known mission that took place
in the weeks after the end of WWII
– Task Force Gremlin – saw a group
of Japanese airmen seconded into
RAF service in Indochina. Starting on
page 44, Stuart unpacks how this
intriguing story unfolded.

S CA N T O G E T
O U R W E E K LY
NEWSLETTER
Image © Getty

MATTHEW FORD

Welcome
The mobile phone has not just
Above: The crew of the transformed society, but also the
B-29 Enola Gay, which ˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗ʡʼˡ˧˛˜˦˜˦˦˨˘Ϡ˦Frontline
bombed Hiroshima Matthew explains how smartphones
have now become an essential tool
of war in Ukraine, and will continue to
he bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, eighty years ago this month, shape future military tactics (p.18).

T remains one of the most important events in history. The terrible,

destructive weapon kept secret for so long was unleashed, marked
a turning point for the world. However, as Iain MacGregor points out in
this issue, the atomic bomb was just the catastrophic conclusion of an
increasingly brutal war. An example he gives of the escalating destruction, is in the
S U B S C R I B E & S AV E !
Ѓ˥˦˧˦˜˫ˠˢˡ˧˛˦ˢ˙ʤʬʧʨʟ˜ˡ˧˛˘˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʟ˧˛˘ˈˆ˧ˢˢ˞ˠˢ˥˘˖˔˦˨˔˟˧˜˘˦˧˛˔ˡ˜ˡ˧˛˘ˣ˥˘˩˜ˢ˨˦ Take advantage of our fantastic
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˧˛˜˦˕˟ˢˢ˗˦˛˘˗˪˔˦ˠˢ˥˘˧˛˔ˡ˥˘ˣ˔˜˗ʡˇ˛˘Ѓ˥˘˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚ˢ˙ˇˢ˞ˬˢ˜ˡ of War for less than half price!
ˀ˔˥˖˛ʤʬʧʨ˦˔˪ˢ˩˘˥ʤʣʣʟʣʣʣˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘˞˜˟˟˘˗˔ˡ˗˪ˢ˨ˡ˗˘˗ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘
city devastated. Like the atomic attack launched months later, the
morality and legality of the raid is debated to this day, and even its
instigator General Curtis LeMay poignantly remarked: “If we lose,
TURN TO
˪˘Ϡ˟˟˕˘˧˥˜˘˗˔˦˪˔˥˖˥˜ˠ˜ˡ˔˟˦ʡϣ PAGE 24
Tim Williamson
Editor-in-Chief

FOLLOW THE HISTORY OF WAR TEAM /HISTORYOFWARMAG @HISTORYOFWARMAG

 C O N T E N T S I S S U E 149

1 945 E N DGAM E

HIROSHIMA
26 PATH TO HIROSHIMA
Iain MacGregor discusses the escalating tactics and
world-changing technology that led to the atomic bomb

36 STALIN’S BLITZKRIEG
In just a matter of weeks, the Red Army swept into
Manchuria, opening a new front with Imperial Japan

40 INTERVIEW: DUTCH VAN KIRK

The late WWII veteran was the navigator on the Enola Gay,
and took part in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

SUBSCRIBE
& SAVE
Turn to page 24
for incredible
subscription offers

4
FRONTLINE 12
12 THIS MONTH IN HISTORY
A roundup of key dates and anniversaries
from across centuries of military history

14 RAF’S RETURN TO NUCLEAR

Britain’s deterrent is set to return to the air force after
decades of the Royal Navy’s Trident programme

16 CAMBODIA VS THAILAND
Read how the recent clashes are the latest in
 ˔˙˥ˢˡ˧˜˘˥˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˦˧˥˘˧˖˛˜ˡ˚˕˔˖˞˗˘˖˔˗˘˦

18 PHONES ON THE FRONTLINE

Warfare in the 21st century has seen the rise of
 ˧˛˘˦ˠ˔˥˧ˣ˛ˢˡ˘˔˦˔ˡ˘˦˦˘ˡ˧˜˔˟˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗˧ˢˢ˟

20 THE END OF THE SPY?

Mark Lowenthal discusses how modern surveillance
technology may doom human intelligence assets

22 PUTIN’S SUBMARINE FLEET

Paul Metcalfe discusses Russia’s emerging
submerged threat against Europe

06 WAR IN FOCUS
Stunning imagery from across history

44 TASK FORCE GREMLIN

Stuart Hadaway uncovers the story of Japanese

44
airmen seconded into RAF duty in Indochina

MEDAL OF HONOR HERO

48 DREW DIX
 ˇ˛˜˦ˆˣ˘˖˜˔˟ʹˢ˥˖˘˦ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˥˔ˡ˜ˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘˧˛˜˖˞ˢ˙ 
the Tet Offensive to rescue stranded civilians

GREAT BATTLES
52 APPOMATTOX, 1865
Inside Robert E Lee’s last stand and the
 ˕˔˧˧˟˘˧˛˔˧ˣ˥˘˖˘˗˘˗˛˜˦Ѓˡ˔˟˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥

OPERATOR’S HANDBOOK
60 HAWKER TYPHOON
60 48
 ˇ˛˜˦˙˔˜˟˘˗˛˜˚˛ʠ˔˟˧˜˧˨˗˘Ѓ˚˛˧˘˥˙ˢ˨ˡ˗˔
deadly niche in a ground-attack role

HOMEFRONT
68 Q&A: BARNEY WHITE-SPUNNER
 ˅˘˧˜˥˘˗ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˧˨˥ˡ˘˗˛˜˦˧ˢ˥˜˔ˡˢˡ˛˜˦˟˔˧˘˦˧˕ˢˢ˞

72 MUSEUMS AND EVENTS

A roundup of activities and exhibitions

74 WWII THIS MONTH

Key Second World War events in photos

76 REVIEWS
The latest military history books

74 82 ARTEFACT OF WAR
Balaclava pocket watch

5
 WAR IN FOCUS
Image: Getty

6
 WA R
I N FO C U S
A T I M E FO R H E R O E S
7 June 1944
Second Lieutenant Walter Sidlowski kneels over
the blanket-covered body an American soldier on
Omaha beach. Sidlowski had just helped rescue
drowning troops after a German shell struck a landing
craft the morning after D-Day. He swam out with a
rubber dinghy and rope, making multiple trips and
bringing back a few men each time. Unknown
to Sidlowski, the US Army Signal Corps’ Walter
Rosenblum, who later described him as “the
picture of heroic beauty”, was photographing
his valiant efforts. This image appeared
on the front page of New York’s
Newsday under the headline
“A Time for Heroes”.

7
 WA R
I N FO C U S
JA PA N
CA P I T U L AT E S
2 September 1945
The Empire of Japan’s representatives arrive aboard
the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay to sign the Japanese
ʼˡ˦˧˥˨ˠ˘ˡ˧ˢ˙ˆ˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥ʡˇ˛˘˕˔˧˧˟˘˦˛˜ˣ˪˔˦Єˬ˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˦˔ˠ˘
ˈˆЄ˔˚˔˦˛˔˗Єˢ˪ˡˢˡ˧˛˘ˈˆˆ˃ˢ˪˛˔˧˔ˡ˙ˢ˥˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ˢ˙
ʶˢˠˠˢ˗ˢ˥˘ˀ˔˧˧˛˘˪˃˘˥˥ˬϠ˦˧˪ˢ˘˫ˣ˘˗˜˧˜ˢˡ˦˧ˢʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˜ˡ
1853. The iconic meeting came after Emperor Hirohito had
fended off an attempted coup d’état from hardliners in
his military. He then delivered an unprecedented radio
address across the empire on 15 August to announce
his country’s unconditional surrender to the Allies.
Despite this, some Japanese holdouts remained
for decades after the USS Missouri ceremony,
˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˟˔˦˧ʟ˃˥˜˩˔˧˘ˇ˘˥˨ˢˁ˔˞˔ˠ˨˥˔ʟ
surrendering in 1974 on Morotai
island in Indonesia.

8
WAR IN FOCUS

Image: Getty

9
 WA R
I N FO C U S
I L D U C E FA L L S I N
September 1938

Italian dictator Benito Mussolini participates

in a parade of the 11th Bersaglieri Regiment in
Gradisca (north of Trieste). To his left is General
ˆ˘˖˥˘˧˔˥ˬˢ˙˧˛˘ʹ˔˦˖˜˦˧˃˔˥˧ˬʴ˖˛˜˟˟˘ˆ˧˔˥˔˖˘ʡˇ˛˘
11th was one of 13 Bersaglieri regiments mobilised
for the Great War, and Mussolini served in it from
August 1915. He reached the front in September
1915, but his military career ended abruptly in
February 1917 when a mortar accidentally
detonated in his trench on the Isonzo
section of the Italian Front. He was hit
by over 40 shards of shrapnel,
forcing his evacuation.

10
WAR IN FOCUS

Image: Getty

11
 FRONTLINE
T H I S M O N T H I N H I S TO RY: S E P T E M B E R
In this issue’s Frontline: how human intel operations are in peril from AI, the RAF’s
new nuclear capability, Russia’s submarine threat, the Cambodia-Thailand
˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧ʟ˔ˡ˗˛ˢ˪ˈ˞˥˔˜ˡ˜˔ˡ˦˨˦˘˦ˠ˔˥˧ˣ˛ˢˡ˘˦˧ˢ˪˜ˡ˕˔˧˧˟˘˦

F I R S T U S E O F TA N KS 15 SEPTEMBER 1916
I N C O M B AT
Britain uses Mark I tanks at the Battle of Flers-
ʶˢ˨˥˖˘˟˘˧˧˘˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ˆˢˠˠ˘˂˙˙˘ˡ˦˜˩˘ʟ˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˧˜ˠ˘
they are deployed. Most break down or are knocked out,
but those that make it to German machine-gun nests
are effective. Using tanks at Flers-Courcelette has been
criticised as premature, ruining their surprise factor
˕˘˙ˢ˥˘˧˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˖ˢ˨˟˗Ѓ˘˟˗˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥˦ʡ

British troops pose with a Mark I

tank at Flers-Courcelette

12
 THIS MONTH IN HISTORY: SEPTEMBER

B AT T L E O F T H E A L M A
An allied expeditionary force clashes with Russian troops at the Alma River six days after its surprise
landing on the Crimean Peninsula. Outnumbering the Russians by 20,000 men, the expeditionary force
˧˨˥ˡ˦˕ˢ˧˛˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡЄ˔ˡ˞˦˔˙˧˘˥˔˗˔˥˜ˡ˚ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛˔˧˧˔˖˞˨ˣ˖˟˜˙˙˦˔ˡ˗˔˖˖˨˥˔˧˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˥˜Є˘Ѓ˥˘ʡʻˢ˪˘˩˘˥ʟ
a lack of cavalry means allied troops don’t pursue the retreating Russians.
Above:ʴʤʬʦʬ˗˘ˣ˜˖˧˜ˢˡˢ˙ˇ˛˘ʵ˟˔˖˞ˊ˔˧˖˛Ϡ˦˔˗˩˔ˡ˖˘˔˧ʴ˟ˠ˔

20 SEPTEMBER 1854

CIA 8 SEPTEMBER 1941

E S TA B L I S H E D
ˇ˛˘ʤʬʧʪˁ˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˟ˆ˘˖˨˥˜˧ˬ
Act establishes the Central
ʼˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘ʴ˚˘ˡ˖ˬʛʶʼʴʜ
and the position of director of
Central Intelligence. Two years
later, President Harry Truman
authorises the CIA to secretly
fund and conduct operations with
limited oversight through the Above: ˆˢ˩˜˘˧˖˔ˠˢ˨Є˔˚˘˗˔ˡ˧˜ʠ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˚˨ˡ˦ˣˢ˧˧˘˥˦˟ˢˢ˞
Central Intelligence Agency Act. ˢ˨˧˙ˢ˥ʿ˨˙˧˪˔˙˙˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ˆ˜˘˚˘ˢ˙ʿ˘ˡ˜ˡ˚˥˔˗

READ MORE ON PAGE 20 18 SEPTEMBER 1947 LENINGRAD SIEGE BEGINS

The Wehrmacht completes its encirclement of
Leningrad, with Finland’s assistance, after it reaches
Left: ˇ˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ʷ˜˥˘˖˧ˢ˥ˢ˙ʶ˘ˡ˧˥˔˟ Lake Ladoga at Shlisselburg. German High Command
Intelligence Roscoe H Hillenkoetter opts to avoid occupying the city, starving and
bombarding its population instead. They aim to take it a
year later, forcing survivors into exile in central Russia.
I R A N - I R AQ WA R S TA R T S
Saddam Hussein’s Iraq invades Iran to prevent
Ruhollah Khomeini’s Iranian Revolution from SEPTEMBER 1966 RAF ’S L AST N UCLEAR
spreading to Syria. Opening airstrikes fail to
cripple the Iranian Air Force. The following day, Iraq
BOM B E NTE RS SE RVI CE
The WE.177 joins the RAF’s armament and remains
˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˘˦˔˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˜ˡ˩˔˦˜ˢˡ˔˖˥ˢ˦˦˔ʧʣʣʠˠ˜˟˘
its primary air-dropped nuclear weapon until 1998.
ʛʩʧʧ˞ˠʜ˙˥ˢˡ˧ʟ˜ˠˣ˘˗˘˗˕ˬʼ˥˔ˡ˜˔ˡ˔˩˜˔˧˜ˢˡʡ
ˇ˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˩˔˥˜˔ˡ˧ʟˊʸʡʤʪʪʵʛʧʨʣ˞˜˟ˢ˧ˢˡ˦ʜ˜˦˗˘ˣ˟ˢˬ˘˗
to RAF Cottesmore. Demand for Polaris missile
ʻ˨˦˦˘˜ˡ˔˗˗˥˘˦˦˘˦ˠ˘ˠ˕˘˥˦ 22 SEPTEMBER 1980 warheads delays the subsequent deployment of
ˢ˙˛˜˦˔˥ˠ˘˗˙ˢ˥˖˘˦˦˛ˢ˥˧˟ˬ smaller naval and RAF WE.177 variants.
˕˘˙ˢ˥˘˧˛˘˜ˡ˩˔˦˜ˢˡˢ˙ʼ˥˔ˡ
Right: The Hawker
ˆ˜˗˗˟˘ˬˁ˜ˠ˥ˢ˗˪˔˦
˖˔ˣ˔˕˟˘ˢ˙˗˥ˢˣˣ˜ˡ˚˧˛˘
ʤʣ˞˜˟ˢ˧ˢˡˊʸʡʤʪʪʴ˔˦˔
ˡ˔˩˔˟˗˘ˣ˧˛˖˛˔˥˚˘

READ MORE ON PAGE 14

15 SEPTEMBER 2001 KURSK SUBMARINE

R E C OV E RY D E A D L I N E
ˆ˔˟˩˔˚˘˗˜˩˘˥˦ˣ˟˔ˡ˧ˢ˥˘˖ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘ʾʠʤʧʤʾ˨˥˦˞˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘
13 months after it sank, killing all 118 aboard. Poor weather
conditions cause delays until October. Divers detach the
bow, containing unexploded torpedo warheads, and raise
UKRAINE’S KHARKIV 3 SEPTEMBER 2022 ˧˛˘˛˨˟˟ˢˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘ʺ˜˔ˡ˧ʧ˕˔˥˚˘ʡ˅˨˦˦˜˔˗˘˦˧˥ˢˬ˦˧˛˘˕ˢ˪
COUNTER-OFFENSIVE BEGINS the following September.

A month after the Kherson

counter-offensive, Ukraine breaks
through Russian lines in Kharkiv.
By the second day of the attack,
Ukrainian troops have advanced
ʤʥˠ˜˟˘˦ʛʥʣ˞ˠʜ˜ˡ˧ˢ˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡʠ˛˘˟˗
territory. The operation continues
into October, albeit with slower
Images © Alamy, Getty

ˣ˥ˢ˚˥˘˦˦ʟ˧ˢ˥˘˖˔ˣ˧˨˥˘ˢ˩˘˥ʨʣʣ READ MORE ON PAGE 22

settlements in Kharkiv.
ʶ˜˩˜˟˜˔ˡ˦˜ˡʼ˭˜˨ˠ˨˦˘ Above: ˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡˁˢ˥˧˛˘˥ˡʹ˟˘˘˧ʶ˛˜˘˙ˢ˙ˆ˧˔˙˙ˀ˜˞˛˔˜˟ˀˢ˧˦˔˞
a generator to charge
ˠˢ˕˜˟˘ˣ˛ˢˡ˘˦˔ˡ˗˧˔˕˟˘˧˦
READ MORE ON PAGE 18 ˚˜˩˘˦ˢ˥˗˘˥˦˔˦˧˛˘ʺ˜˔ˡ˧ʧ˕˔˥˚˘ʟ˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˥˘˖ˢ˩˘˥˘˗ʾ˨˥˦˞
˕ˢ˪˨ˡ˗˘˥ˡ˘˔˧˛ʟ˔˥˥˜˩˘˦˜ˡ˔ˣˢ˥˧ˡ˘˔˥ˀ˨˥ˠ˔ˡ˦˞

13
 F RON T L INE
Avro Vulcan bombers were a
key part of V Force: Britain’s
Cold War nuclear deterrent

RAF RETURNS
TO N U C L E A R
Nearly 30 years after giving them up, the RAF is poised
to reacquire air-dropped nuclear weapons
WORDS STUART HADAWAY

˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˦˨˖˖˘˦˦˙˨˟˦˧˔˧˜˖˧˘˦˧ˢ˙˔ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛ ˦˨ˣˣ˟˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˘˗˕ˬʥʣ˦ˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡ˦ˢ˙ˇ˛ˢ˥ʼˡ˧˘˥ˠ˘˗˜˔˧˘

T
˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˕ˢˠ˕ʟ˜ˡ˂˖˧ˢ˕˘˥ʤʬʨʥʟ˪˔˦ ˅˔ˡ˚˘ʵ˔˟˟˜˦˧˜˖ˀ˜˦˦˜˟˘˦ʡʺ˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ʠ˕˔˦˘˗˕˨˧ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˘˗
˖ˢˡ˗˨˖˧˘˗˨ˡ˗˘˥˪˔˧˘˥ʟ˕˨˧˜˧˪˔˦˔˟˪˔ˬ˦ ˕ˬ˧˛˘˅ʴʹʟ˧˛˘ˇ˛ˢ˥˪˔˦˔˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧˪˘˔ˣˢˡʡˇ˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘
˜ˡ˧˘ˡ˗˘˗˧˛˔˧˧˛˘Ѓˡ˔˟˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˪ˢ˨˟˗ ˥˘˟˔˧˜˩˘˟ˬ˦˛ˢ˥˧ʠ˥˔ˡ˚˘˗ʟ˧ˢˢ˞˧˜ˠ˘˧ˢ˥˘˔˗ˬ˙ˢ˥˨˦˘ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘
˕˘˔˜˥ʠ˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗˕ˬ˧˛˘˅ˢˬ˔˟ʴ˜˥ʹˢ˥˖˘ʡ ˪˔˥˛˘˔˗˦˪˘˥˘ˢ˪ˡ˘˗˕ˬ˧˛˘ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔ˡ˦ʡʴˈˆˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˛˔˗
ʼˡ˂˖˧ˢ˕˘˥ʤʬʨʩʟ˔ˉ˜˖˞˘˥˦ˉ˔˟˜˔ˡ˧˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗˔ˡ˔˧ˢˠ˜˖ ˧ˢ˕˘ˣ˥˘˦˘ˡ˧˔ˡ˗˔ˣˣ˥ˢ˩˘˔ˡˬ˟˔˨ˡ˖˛ʟˠ˔˞˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˜˥˨˦˘˔˦
˪˘˔ˣˢˡʟ˔ˡ˗˟˘˦˦˧˛˔ˡ˔ˬ˘˔˥˟˔˧˘˥˔ˉ˔˟˜˔ˡ˧˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗ ˔˥˔ˣ˜˗ʠ˥˘˔˖˧˜ˢˡ˥˘˧˔˟˜˔˧ˢ˥ˬ˦ˬ˦˧˘ˠˤ˨˜˧˘˟˜ˠ˜˧˘˗ʛ˔˟˧˛ˢ˨˚˛
˔˛ˬ˗˥ˢ˚˘ˡʟˢ˥ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥ʟ˕ˢˠ˕˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˂ˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡʺ˥˔ˣˣ˟˘ʡ ˇ˛ˢ˥˖ˢˡ˧˥ˢ˟ˣ˔ˡ˘˟˦˖ˢ˨˟˗˔˟˟˘˚˘˗˟ˬ˕˘ϟ˛ˢ˧ʠ˪˜˥˘˗Ϡ˜ˡ˔ˡ
ʵˬ˧˛˜˦˧˜ˠ˘˧˛˘˗˘˩˘˟ˢˣˠ˘ˡ˧ˢ˙˔Є˘˘˧ˢ˙˕ˢˠ˕˘˥˦ ˘ˠ˘˥˚˘ˡ˖ˬ˧ˢ˕ˬˣ˔˦˦˧˛˘˗ˢ˨˕˟˘ʠ˞˘ˬ˦ˬ˦˧˘ˠʜʡ
ʛ˧˛˘˦ˢʠ˖˔˟˟˘˗ϟˉʵˢˠ˕˘˥˦Ϡϝˉ˔˟˜˔ˡ˧ʟʴ˩˥ˢˉ˨˟˖˔ˡ˔ˡ˗ ˉʹˢ˥˖˘˔ˡ˗ˇ˛ˢ˥˪˘˥˘˛˜˚˛˟ˬ˗˘˦˧˥˨˖˧˜˩˘˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦ʡˇ˛ˢ˥Ϡ˦
ʻ˔ˡ˗˟˘ˬ˃˔˚˘ˉ˜˖˧ˢ˥ʜ˔ˡ˗˦˨˜˧˔˕˟˘˦˧˔ˡ˗ʠˢ˙˙˗˘˟˜˩˘˥ˬ ˪˔˥˛˘˔˗˛˔˗˔ˬ˜˘˟˗ˢ˙ʤʡʧʧˠ˘˚˔˧ˢˡ˦ˢ˙ˇˁˇʟ˪˛˜˟˘˧˛˘
˦ˬ˦˧˘ˠ˦˪˘˥˘˔˟˟˪˘˟˟˨ˡ˗˘˥˪˔ˬʡ ʵ˟˨˘ˆ˧˘˘˟˔˜˥ʠ˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˘˗˦˧˔ˡ˗ʠˢ˙˙ˠ˜˦˦˜˟˘˪ˢ˨˟˗˗˘˟˜˩˘˥
ˇ˛˘˦˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˜˥ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˕˘˖˔ˠ˘ϟˉ ʤʡʤˠ˘˚˔˧ˢˡ˦ʡˇ˛˘˦˘˪˘˥˘ˠ˜˚˛˧ˬ˛˔ˠˠ˘˥˦˧ˢ˖˥˔˖˞ˢˣ˘ˡ
ʹˢ˥˖˘Ϡʭʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡϠ˦ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˗˘˧˘˥˥˘ˡ˧ʡˇ˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘˜ˡ˧˘ˡ˗˘˗˧ˢ ˆˢ˩˜˘˧˖˜˧˜˘˦ʟ˕˨˧˜˧˪˔˦˥˘˔˟˜˦˘˗˧˛˔˧˦ˢˠ˘˧˜ˠ˘˦ˠˢ˥˘
ˣ˥ˢ˩˜˗˘˔˥˘˔˖˧˜˩˘˪˔˩˘ˢ˙˔˧˧˔˖˞˦ˢˡ˧˛˘ˆˢ˩˜˘˧ˈˡ˜ˢˡ Ѓˡ˘˦˦˘˪˔˦ˡ˘˘˗˘˗ʡʼˡʤʬʨʬ˔ˡ˂ˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˟˅˘ˤ˨˜˥˘ˠ˘ˡ˧
ʛˢ˥ˢ˧˛˘˥˘ˡ˘ˠ˜˘˦ʜ˪˛ˢ˛˔˗˔˟˥˘˔˗ˬ˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˘˗˔ˡ˔˧˧˔˖˞ ʛ˂˅ʤʤʪʪʜ˪˔˦˜˦˦˨˘˗˙ˢ˥˔˟ˢ˪˘˥ʠˬ˜˘˟˗ʟ˔˜˥ʠ˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗˧˔˖˧˜˖˔˟
ˢˡʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡˢ˥ˁʴˇ˂ʡʼˡ˪˛˔˧˪˔˦˟˔˧˘˥˗˨˕˕˘˗ϟˀ˨˧˨˔˟˟ˬ ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˧ˢ˥˘ˣ˟˔˖˘˧˛˘˕˨˟˞ˬ˔ˡ˗˛˘˔˩ˬϟ˅˘˗
ʴ˦˦˨˥˘˗ʷ˘˦˧˥˨˖˧˜ˢˡϠʟ˧˛˘ˬˣ˥ˢ˩˜˗˘˗˧˛˘˨˟˧˜ˠ˔˧˘˗˘˧˘˥˥˘ˡ˧ ʵ˘˔˥˗Ϡ˔˟˥˘˔˗ˬ˜ˡ˨˦˘ʡ˂˕˩˜ˢ˨˦˟ˬʟ˪˛˘ˡ˗˘˔˟˜ˡ˚˪˜˧˛ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥
˧ˢ˔ˡ˔˚˚˥˘˦˦ˢ˥ϝ˧˛˘˖˘˥˧˔˜ˡ˞ˡˢ˪˟˘˗˚˘˧˛˔˧˧˛˘ˬ˧ˢˢ ˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˧˛˘˧˘˥ˠϟ˧˔˖˧˜˖˔˟Ϡ˜˦˔˟ˢˢ˦˘ˢˡ˘ʡˇ˛˘˜ˡ˧˘ˡ˧˜ˢˡ˪˔˦
˪ˢ˨˟˗˕˘˗˘˦˧˥ˢˬ˘˗ʡˉʹˢ˥˖˘˥˘˔˖˛˘˗ʥʥ˦ˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡ˦ ˙ˢ˥˔˥˘˔ʠ˗˘ˡ˜˔˟˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˧˛˔˧˖ˢ˨˟˗ʟ˜ˡ˔˦˜ˡ˚˟˘˦˧˥ˢ˞˘ʟ˧˔˞˘
ˢ˙˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˕ˬʤʬʩʥʟ˪˛˜˟˘˙˥ˢˠʤʬʨʫ˧ˢʤʬʩʦ˧˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘ ˢ˨˧ˠ˔˦˦˘˗˘ˡ˘ˠˬ˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˙ˢ˥ˠ˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ˢ˥˞˘ˬ˜ˡ˙˥˔˦˧˥˨˖˧˨˥˘ʡ

14
 RAF RETURNS TO NUCLEAR

Above: A Thor missile ʼˡˣ˔˥˧˜˖˨˟˔˥ʟˆˢ˩˜˘˧˔˜˥Ѓ˘˟˗˦ʟ˔˜˥˗˘˙˘ˡ˖˘˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˦˜˧˘˦ ʴ˧ˠ˜˗ˡ˜˚˛˧ˢˡʦʣʽ˨ˡ˘ʤʬʩʬʟ˧˛˘ˉʹˢ˥˖˘˙ˢ˥ˠ˔˟˟ˬ˛˔ˡ˗˘˗

is loaded into a C-124 ˔ˡ˗˦˨˥˙˔˖˘ʠ˧ˢʠ˔˜˥ˠ˜˦˦˜˟˘˖ˢˡ˖˘ˡ˧˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˪ˢ˨˟˗˕˘ ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˗˘˧˘˥˥˘ˡ˧˥ˢ˟˘˧ˢ˧˛˘˅ˢˬ˔˟ˁ˔˩ˬϠ˦˃ˢ˟˔˥˜˦
Globemaster at a UK
˧˔˥˚˘˧˘˗˧ˢ˖˟˘˔˥˔ˣ˔˧˛˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛˘ˡ˘ˠˬ˗˘˙˘ˡ˖˘˦ʟ˔˟˟ˢ˪˜ˡ˚ ʛ˔ˡ˗˟˔˧˘˥ˇ˥˜˗˘ˡ˧ʜˠ˜˦˦˜˟˘˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘˦ʡˆ˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘˦˔ˡ˗
air base, c.1959
ˉʹˢ˥˖˘Ϡ˦˕ˢˠ˕˘˥˦˧ˢ˘ˡ˧˘˥˜ˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘˛˘˔˥˧ˢ˙˘ˡ˘ˠˬ˧˘˥˥˜˧ˢ˥ˬ ˠ˜˦˦˜˟˘˦˪˘˥˘ˠˢ˥˘Є˘˫˜˕˟˘˧˛˔ˡ˕ˢˠ˕˘˥˦ʟ˘˩˘ˡ˧˛˘
Below: The RAF will
use Lockheed Martin ˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ˠ˜ˡ˜ˠ˨ˠˢ˙˜ˡ˧˘˥˙˘˥˘ˡ˖˘ʡ ˠ˔˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˘ˡ˧˘ˡ˚˜ˡ˘˘˥˜ˡ˚˙˘˔˧˦˧˛˔˧˪˘˥˘˧˛˘ˉ˨˟˖˔ˡ˔ˡ˗
F-35A Lightning II jets ˇ˛˘˥˘˦˨˟˧˜ˡ˚˪˘˔ˣˢˡʟ˧˛˘ˊʸʡʤʪʪʟ˕˘˚˔ˡ˧ˢ˘ˡ˧˘˥ ʶ˔ˡ˕˘˥˥˔ʡˆ˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘˦˪˘˥˘˟˘˦˦˩˨˟ˡ˘˥˔˕˟˘˧ˢˣ˥˘ʠ˘ˠˣ˧˜˩˘
to deliver tactical ˦˘˥˩˜˖˘˜ˡˆ˘ˣ˧˘ˠ˕˘˥ʤʬʩʩʡʼ˧˪ˢ˨˟˗˘˩˘ˡ˧˨˔˟˟ˬ˖ˢˠ˘˜ˡ ˦˧˥˜˞˘˦ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˜˥˦˧˘˔˟˧˛˜ˡ˘˦˦˚˔˩˘˧˛˘ˠ˔ˣ˦ˬ˖˛ˢ˟ˢ˚˜˖˔˟
nuclear weapons ˧˛˥˘˘˩˔˥˜˔ˡ˧˦ʡˇ˛˘ˊʸʡʤʪʪʴ˛˔˗˔˩˔˥˜˔˕˟˘ˬ˜˘˟˗ˢ˙ʣʡʨ˧ˢ ˘˗˚˘ˢ˩˘˥˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ʭ˔ˡ˔˚˚˥˘˦˦ˢ˥ˡ˘˩˘˥˞ˡ˘˪˪˛˘˥˘˧˛˘ˬ
ʤʣ˞˜˟ˢ˧ˢˡ˦ʟ˔ˡ˗˪˛˜˖˛˖ˢ˨˟˗˔˟˦ˢ˕˘˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗˕ˬˡ˔˩˔˟ ˪˘˥˘ʟ˪˛˜˟˘˔˜˥Ѓ˘˟˗˦˪˘˥˘˙˔˥ˠˢ˥˘˘˔˦˜˟ˬˠˢˡ˜˧ˢ˥˘˗ʡʵ˨˧˧˛˘
˛˘˟˜˖ˢˣ˧˘˥˦ˢ˥˝˘˧˦˔˦˔˗˘ˣ˧˛ʠ˖˛˔˥˚˘ʟ˪˛˜˟˘˧˛˘ˊʸʡʤʪʪʵ ˅ʴʹ˗˜˗ˡˢ˧˟ˢ˦˘˜˧˦˧˔˖˧˜˖˔˟˥ˢ˟˘˘ˡ˧˜˥˘˟ˬʡˇ˛˘ˊʸʡʤʪʪ˦˧˔ˬ˘˗
˔ˡ˗ˊʸʡʤʪʪʶ˛˔˗ˬ˜˘˟˗˦ˢ˙ʧʨʣ˞˜˟ˢ˧ˢˡ˦˔ˡ˗ʤʬʣ˞˜˟ˢ˧ˢˡ˦ ˤ˨˜˘˧˟ˬ˜ˡ˦˘˥˩˜˖˘˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˅ʴʹ˨ˡ˧˜˟ˀ˔˥˖˛ʤʬʬʫʡ
˥˘˦ˣ˘˖˧˜˩˘˟ˬʡʵˬˣ˥ˢ˩˜˗˜ˡ˚˔˥˔ˡ˚˘ˢ˙ˬ˜˘˟˗˦ʟ˧˛˘ˊʸʡʤʪʪ ʼˡʽ˨ˡ˘ʥʣʥʨ˧˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛ˣ˥˜ˠ˘ˠ˜ˡ˜˦˧˘˥˔ˡˡˢ˨ˡ˖˘˗˧˛˘
ˣ˥ˢ˩˜˗˘˗˔˥˔ˡ˚˘ˢ˙ˢˣ˧˜ˢˡ˦ʡˇ˛˘˕ˢˠ˕˦˖ˢ˨˟˗˕˘˖˔˥˥˜˘˗ ˜ˡ˧˘ˡ˧˜ˢˡ˧ˢ˕˥˜ˡ˚˧˔˖˧˜˖˔˟ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˕˔˖˞˜ˡ˧ˢ
˕ˬˉʹˢ˥˖˘˕ˢˠ˕˘˥˦˗˘˘ˣ˜ˡ˧ˢˆˢ˩˜˘˧˧˘˥˥˜˧ˢ˥ˬʟˢ˥˨˦˘˗˕ˬ ˧˛˘˅ʴʹϠ˦˔˥˦˘ˡ˔˟ʟ˔˟ˢˡ˚˪˜˧˛ʿˢ˖˞˛˘˘˗ˀ˔˥˧˜ˡʹʠʦʨʴ˦˧ˢ
˔˥˔ˡ˚˘ˢ˙˦ˠ˔˟˟˘˥˙˔˦˧˝˘˧˦˦˨˖˛˔˦˧˛˘˃˔ˡ˔˩˜˔ˇˢ˥ˡ˔˗ˢʟ ˗˥ˢˣ˧˛˘ˠʡʼ˧˦˘˘ˠ˦˔˦˧˘ˣ˕˔˖˞˪˔˥˗˦˜ˡ˧˛˘ˠˢ˗˘˥ˡ˔˚˘
ˆʸ˃ʸʶʴˇʽ˔˚˨˔˥ʟʵ˟˔˖˞˕˨˥ˡʵ˨˖˖˔ˡ˘˘˥ˢ˥ʸˡ˚˟˜˦˛ʸ˟˘˖˧˥˜˖ ˢ˙ˣ˥˘˖˜˦˜ˢˡʠ˚˨˜˗˘˗˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦ʟ˕˨˧ʦʨˬ˘˔˥˦ˢ˙˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˘˥ʠ
ʶ˔ˡ˕˘˥˥˔˧ˢ˦˧˥˜˞˘˧˔˖˧˜˖˔˟˧˔˥˚˘˧˦ʟ˔˦˪˘˟˟˔˦˧ˢ˔˧˧˔˖˞ ˜ˡ˦˨˥˚˘ˡ˖ˬ˔ˡ˗˦ˠ˔˟˟ʠ˦˖˔˟˘˪˔˥˙˔˥˘ˠ˔ˬ˛˔˩˘˕˟˜ˡ˗˘˗
˦˨˥˙˔˖˘ˢ˥˦˨˕ʠ˦˨˥˙˔˖˘ˡ˔˩˔˟˧˔˥˚˘˧˦ʡ ˟˘˔˗˘˥˦˧ˢ˦˘˩˘˥˔˟˙˨ˡ˗˔ˠ˘ˡ˧˔˟ʟ˜˙˨ˡˣ˟˘˔˦˔ˡ˧ʟ˧˥˨˧˛˦ʡ
ˊ˜˧˛ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡˢˡ˖˘˔˚˔˜ˡˣˢ˧˘ˡ˧˜˔˟˟ˬ˙˔˖˜ˡ˚˔ˣ˘˘˥ʠ
˘ˡ˘ˠˬ˪˜˧˛˟˔˥˚˘˥˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˙ˢ˥˖˘˦ʟ˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˖˔ˣ˔˕˟˘ˢ˙
ˠ˔˦˦˜˩˘˗˘˦˧˥˨˖˧˜ˢˡˢ˩˘˥˕˥ˢ˔˗˕˨˧˟˜ˠ˜˧˘˗˔˥˘˔˦ϝ˦˨˖˛
˔˦˧˛ˢ˦˘˖ˢˡ˧˔˜ˡ˜ˡ˚˘ˡ˧˜˥˘˧˔ˡ˞˗˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡ˦ϝ˔˥˘˔ˣˢ˧˘ˡ˧
˘ˤ˨˔˟˜˦˘˥ʡˇ˛˘ˬ˔˟˦ˢЃ˟˟˔˚˔ˣ˜ˡ˥˘˔˖˧˜ˢˡ˦˖˔˟˘˦˕˘˧˪˘˘ˡ
˦ˠ˔˟˟˕˨˧˩˘˥ˬˣ˥˘˖˜˦˘˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˔ˡ˗˔˖˜˧ˬʠ˗˘˦˧˥ˢˬ˜ˡ˚
ˇ˥˜˗˘ˡ˧ʟ˔˟˟ˢ˪˜ˡ˚Є˘˫˜˕˜˟˜˧ˬ˔ˡ˗˚˥˘˔˧˘˥ˣ˥ˢˣˢ˥˧˜ˢˡ˔˟˜˧ˬ˜ˡ
˥˘˦ˣˢˡ˦˘ʡʴˣˢ˧˘ˡ˧˜˔˟˘ˡ˘ˠˬˠ˔ˬ˕˘˟˜˘˩˘ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡ˪ˢ˨˟˗
ˡ˘˩˘˥˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˔ˇ˥˜˗˘ˡ˧˦˧˥˜˞˘ʟ˕˨˧˕˘˨ˡ˦˨˥˘˔˕ˢ˨˧˧˛˘˨˦˘
Images © Alamy, Getty

ˢ˙˔˥˘˟˔˧˜˩˘˟ˬ˦ˠ˔˟˟˘˥˕˨˧˦˧˜˟˟˕˥˨˧˔˟˟ˬ˗˘˦˧˥˨˖˧˜˩˘˕ˢˠ˕ʡ
ʿ˜˞˘˔ˡˬ˪˘˔ˣˢˡʟ˜˧˦˩˘˥ˬ˘˫˜˦˧˘ˡ˖˘˦˛ˢ˨˟˗ˠ˔˞˘˜˧˦˨˦˘
˨ˡˡ˘˖˘˦˦˔˥ˬʡʼˡ˧˛˘ˠˢ˗˘˥ˡ˪ˢ˥˟˗ʟ˔ˡˬ˧˛˜ˡ˚˧˛˔˧ˣ˥ˢ˩˜˗˘˦
ˠˢ˥˘ˢˣ˧˜ˢˡ˦ʟˢ˥ˠ˔˞˘˦˔ˣˢ˧˘ˡ˧˜˔˟˔˚˚˥˘˦˦ˢ˥ˣ˔˨˦˘ʟ˜˦˔
˨˦˘˙˨˟˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˧ˢ˛˔˩˘˜ˡ˧˛˘˔˥˦˘ˡ˔˟ʡ

15
 F RON T L INE

CA M B O D I A
VS THAILAND
R O OT S O F T H E B O R D E R WA R
ʽ˨˟ˬʥʣʥʨϠ˦˖˟˔˦˛˘˦˔˥˘˧˛˘˟˔˧˘˦˧˜ˡ˔˟ˢˡ˚˙˥ˢˡ˧˜˘˥˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˧˛˔˧˛˔˦
gone unresolved, from the era of warrior kings to smart bombs
WORDS MIGUEL MIRANDA
aving preserved its independence at the ʴ˙˧˘˥˥˘ˡ˔ˠ˜ˡ˚˜˧˦˘˟˙ˇ˛˔˜˟˔ˡ˗˜ˡʤʬʦʬʟˠˢ˗˘˥ˡ˜˦˔˧˜ˢˡ

H cost of an economic stranglehold by the

British Empire and its unstoppable merchant
Є˘˘˧ʟ˧˛˘˞˜ˡ˚˗ˢˠˢ˙ˆ˜˔ˠ˦ˣ˘ˡ˧˗˘˖˔˗˘˦
refashioning itself into a modern state. Aiding
the process were treaties with England and France that
ˣ˥ˢ˚˥˘˦˦˘˗˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˨˦˨˔˟˖˛˔˥˔˖˧˘˥˜˦˧˜˖˦ˢ˙ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧
Asian countries – foreign investment and centralised
government – helped along by the country’s location.
ʼ˧˦˖˔ˣ˜˧˔˟ʵ˔ˡ˚˞ˢ˞ˡˢ˧ˢˡ˟ˬЄˢ˨˥˜˦˛˘˗˔˧˧˛˘ˠˢ˨˧˛
of a river delta but also had access to a vast gulf. The
agreed on lasting borders. Having cobbled together Indo- ˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥ˬϠ˦˜ˡ˧˘˥˜ˢ˥˪˔˦ˡ˘˔˧˟ˬ˕˥˔˖˞˘˧˘˗˕ˬ˗˘ˡ˦˘˙ˢ˥˘˦˧
ʶ˛˜ˡ˔˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘ˠ˜˗ʠʤʬ˧˛˖˘ˡ˧˨˥ˬˢˡ˪˔˥˗ʟʹ˥˔ˡ˖˘˪˥˔ˡ˚˟˘˗ ˔ˡ˗ˠˢ˨ˡ˧˔˜ˡ˦ʟ˟˘˔˩˜ˡ˚˨ˡ˜ˡ˧˘˥˥˨ˣ˧˘˗˪˘˧˟˔ˡ˗˦˦˨˜˧˘˗˙ˢ˥
˗˜˦˧˔ˡ˧ˆ˜˔ˠ˘˦˘ˣ˥ˢ˩˜ˡ˖˘˦˪˜˧˛˧˥˘˔˧˜˘˦˜ˡʤʬʣʧ˔ˡ˗ʤʬʣʪʡ large-scale rice cultivation. These advantages gave its
ˆ˜ˠ˜˟˔˥˔˥˥˔ˡ˚˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˦˪˘˥˘˦˘˧˧˟˘˗˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˜ˡʤʬʣʬʟ ˕ˢ˥˗˘˥˦ˣ˔˥˔ˠˢ˨ˡ˧˜ˠˣˢ˥˧˔ˡ˖˘ʟ˘˩˘ˡ˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ˆ˘˖ˢˡ˗
and these were blessings in disguise: at long last Malay World War. The non-aligned Thai state fought Vichy forces
incursions from the peninsula and Burmese invasions from ˜ˡʤʬʧʣ˜ˡ˔˦˨˗˗˘ˡ˥˘˕˨˞˘˧ˢ˗˘˖˔˗˘˦ˢ˙˔ˠ˜˧ˬʡˊ˜˧˛˔˦
the northwest were deterred for good. many as a dozen coup d’etats sweeping its government

Temple ruins are modern border

Є˔˦˛ʠˣˢ˜ˡ˧˦˕˘˖˔˨˦˘ˢ˙˧˛˘˜˥˛˜˦˧ˢ˥˜˖
˖ˢˠˠ˘˥˖˜˔˟˔ˡ˗˥˘˟˜˚˜ˢ˨˦˜ˠˣˢ˥˧˔ˡ˖˘

16
 CAMBODIA VS THAILAND

Above:ˇ˛˘˥˜˦˘ˢ˙ ˦˜ˡ˖˘˧˛˘ʤʬʦʣ˦ˇ˛˔˜˟˔ˡ˗Ϡ˦˗˘ˠˢ˖˥˔˧˜˖˧˥˔˗˜˧˜ˢˡ˜˦ The re-emergence of a viable Cambodian state in

˧˛˘ʾ˛ˠ˘˥˅ˢ˨˚˘ ˨ˡ˖˛˔ˡ˚˘˗˧ˢ˗˔ˬʭ˖˜˩˜˟˜˔ˡ˟˘˔˗˘˥˦˛˜ˣ˜ˡˡ˔ˠ˘ˢˡ˟ˬʟ˪˛˜˟˘ ˧˛˘˟˔˧˘ʤʬʬʣ˦˔ˡ˗˜˧˦ˠˢ˗˘˦˧ˣ˥ˢ˦ˣ˘˥˜˧ˬ˪˔˦ˡˢ˧˧˛˘
˖˥˘˔˧˘˗˔˗˜˟˘ˠˠ˔
former generals enjoy important government positions godsend Thailand needed. Having grown to the second-
˙ˢ˥ˇ˛˔˜˟˔ˡ˗˧˛˔˧
˨ˣ˘ˡ˗˘˗˜˧˦˔˟˟˜˔ˡ˖˘˦ with the monarchy’s blessing. This age-old problem largest economy in the region and with its political fault
Above, right:
ˠ˘˧˔˦˧˔˦˜˦˘˗˔˦˧˛˘ʶˢ˟˗ˊ˔˥˟ˢˢˠ˘˗ˢ˩˘˥ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧ʴ˦˜˔ʡ ˟˜ˡ˘˦˨ˡ˥˘˦ˢ˟˩˘˗ʟʵ˔ˡ˚˞ˢ˞˛˔˗˧˛˘˧˪˜ˡ˛˘˔˗˔˖˛˘˦ˢ˙
ˇ˛˔˜˟˔ˡ˗Ϡ˦˛˜˦˧ˢ˥ˬ ʵˬ˧˛˘ʤʬʩʣ˦ʟʵ˔ˡ˚˞ˢ˞Ϡ˦ˣ˦˘˨˗ˢʠˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˝˨ˡ˧˔ʟ˪˛˘˥˘ ˥˔ˠˣ˔ˡ˧˗˥˨˚˧˥˔˙Ѓ˖˞˜ˡ˚ˢˡ˧˛˘ˀˬ˔ˡˠ˔˥˕ˢ˥˗˘˥˔ˡ˗
ˢ˙˖ˢ˨ˣ˗Ϡ˘˧˔˧˦˔ˡ˗ ˙ˢ˥ˠ˘˥˚˘ˡ˘˥˔˟˦ˠˢˡˢˣˢ˟˜˦˘˗˧˛˘˖˜˩˜˟˜˔ˡ˛˜˚˛ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˦ a post-war refugee crisis on the Cambodian border.
˗˜˖˧˔˧ˢ˥˦˘ˡ˦˛˥˜ˡ˘˗ ˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˘˫ˣ˟˜˖˜˧˕˔˖˞˜ˡ˚ˢ˙˧˛˘ˠˢˡ˔˥˖˛ʟ˘˔˚˘˥˟ˬ˝ˢ˜ˡ˘˗ ˇ˛˘˜ˡ˗˘ˣ˘ˡ˗˘ˡ˖˘ˢ˙˧˛˘˞˜ˡ˚˗ˢˠˢˡ˖˘˞ˡˢ˪ˡ˔˦
˚˘ˡ˘˥˔˟˦˔˦ˠ˔˝ˢ˥
˔ˡˬ˔˥˥˔ˡ˚˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˧ˢ˞˘˘ˣ˧˛˘ˢˡ˚ˢ˜ˡ˚˪˔˥˜ˡˉ˜˘˧ˡ˔ˠ˔˧ ʾ˔ˠˣ˨˖˛˘˔ʟ˟˔˧˘˥˦˨˕˦˨ˠ˘˗˕ˬʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛˖ˢ˟ˢˡ˜˔˟˜˦ˠ˜ˡ˧˛˘
power brokers
bay. This meant the unfailing support and largess of the ˟˔˧˘ʤʬ˧˛˖˘ˡ˧˨˥ˬʟ˔˟˪˔ˬ˦˟˘˙˧˘ˡ˗˔ˡ˚˘˥˘˗˕ˢ˥˗˘˥˦˪˛˘˥˘
ˈˡ˜˧˘˗ˆ˧˔˧˘˦ʡˇ˛˔˜˟˔ˡ˗˪˔˦˔˟˦ˢ˕˥˜˘Єˬ˔ˠ˘ˠ˕˘˥ˢ˙˧˛˘ ˥˘˕˘˟˟˜ˢˡ˔ˡ˗˜˟˟˜˖˜˧˧˥˔˗˘Єˢ˨˥˜˦˛˘˗ʡˇ˛˘˥˜˦˞˪˔˦˔˟˪˔ˬ˦
ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧ʴ˦˜˔ˇ˥˘˔˧ˬ˂˥˚˔ˡ˜˭˔˧˜ˢˡʛˆʸʴˇ˂ʜ˔ˡ˗ˠ˔ˡ˔˚˘˗ ˧ˢˢ˚˥˘˔˧˙ˢ˥ʵ˔ˡ˚˞ˢ˞˧ˢ˪˜˧˛˦˧˔ˡ˗ʟ˪˛˘˧˛˘˥˜ˡ˧˛˘ˣ˥˜ˠ˔˖ˬ
˧ˢ˦˛˔ˣ˘˧˛˘ˡ˘˪˟ˬˠ˜ˡ˧˘˗ʴ˦˦ˢ˖˜˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧ʴ˦˜˔ˡ ˢ˙˧˛˘ʶ˛˔˞˥˜˞˜ˡ˚˦ˢ˥˧ˢ˗˔ˬϠ˦˧˛˜ˡ˟ˬ˩˘˜˟˘˗˝˨ˡ˧˔ʟ˦ˢ˧˛˘
ˁ˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ʛʴˆʸʴˁʜ˥˘˚˜ˢˡ˔˟˕˟ˢ˖˧˛˔˧˕˥ˢ˨˚˛˧˜˧˜ˡ˟˘˔˚˨˘˪˜˧˛ occasional show of force was almost inevitable.
ʼˡ˗ˢˡ˘˦˜˔ʟ˔˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥ˬ˧˛˔˧˦˪˔ˬ˘˗˙˥ˢˠˢˡ˘˔˟˟˜˔ˡ˖˘˧ˢ˧˛˘ ˆ˨˖˖˘˦˦˜˩˘ˣ˥˜ˠ˘ˠ˜ˡ˜˦˧˘˥˦˖˨˟˧˜˩˔˧˘˗˧˛˘˜˥˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˘˥ˣ˔˥˧˦
next depending on its leaders’ calculations. ˜ˡ˃˛ˡˢˠ˃˘ˡ˛ʟ˧˛˘ʶ˔ˠ˕ˢ˗˜˔ˡ˖˔ˣ˜˧˔˟ʟ˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˜ˡ˚˧˛˘
ʵ˨˧˧˛˘ʤʬʪʣ˦˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˩˜˖˧ˢ˥ˬˢ˙ˁˢ˥˧˛ˉ˜˘˧ˡ˔ˠ˜ˡʤʬʪʨʟ˔˦ ˔˙˙˔˕˟˘˔ˡ˗ˡ˘ˣˢ˧˜˦˧˜˖ʻ˨ˡˆ˘ˡʛ˛˜˦˦ˢˡ˛˔˦˦˜ˡ˖˘
well as communists seizing Laos and Cambodia that same ˥˘ˣ˟˔˖˘˗˛˜ˠʜʟ˕˨˧˧˛˘˟˜ˡ˚˘˥˜ˡ˚ˤ˨˘˦˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˧˛˘˕ˢ˥˗˘˥
ˬ˘˔˥ʟ˨ˡ˥˔˩˘˟˟˘˗ˇ˛˔˜˟˔ˡ˗Ϡ˦˛˘˗˚˜ˡ˚ʡʵˬ˧˛˘ˠ˜˗˗˟˘ˢ˙˧˛˔˧ ˥˘ˠ˔˜ˡ˘˗ʟ˘˦ˣ˘˖˜˔˟˟ˬ˜ˡ˧˛˘˥ˢˠ˔ˡ˧˜˖˜˦˘˗ϟ˘ˠ˘˥˔˟˗
decade a refugee crisis almost overwhelmed its eastern triangle’. While neither country sees the status of their
provinces as exiles from Cambodia and the fallen Republic ˕ˢ˥˗˘˥˔ˡ˗˜˧˦˟˔ˡ˗ˠ˔˥˞˦˔˦˘˫˜˦˧˘ˡ˧˜˔˟Ϟ˕ˢ˧˛˛˔˩˘˔ˡ
of Vietnam arrived by any means necessary. Isolated and abundance of arable land blessed by fair weather all
˘ˡ˝ˢˬ˜ˡ˚˗˜ˣ˟ˢˠ˔˧˜˖˦˨ˣˣˢ˥˧˙˥ˢˠʶ˛˜ˡ˔ʟ˧˛˘ˠ˨˥˗˘˥ˢ˨˦ ˬ˘˔˥˥ˢ˨ˡ˗Ϟ˧˛˘˦˧˔˥˞˥˨˜ˡ˦ˢ˙˛˘˥˜˧˔˚˘˦˜˧˘˦˟˜˞˘˧˛˘˃˥˘˔˛
Khmer Rouge regime that dominated Cambodia was ˉ˜˛˘˔˥˧˘ˠˣ˟˘˖ˢˠˣ˟˘˫˕˘˖ˢˠ˘Є˔˦˛ˣˢ˜ˡ˧˦˕˘˖˔˨˦˘ˢ˙
ˡˢ˪˔˛˘˔˩˜˟ˬ˔˥ˠ˘˗ˠ˘ˡ˔˖˘ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˇ˛˔˜˔˥ˠˬ˛˔˗˧˛˘ overzealous border policing.
˧˛˔ˡ˞˟˘˦˦˧˔˦˞ˢ˙˞˘˘ˣ˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ˠ˔˧˕˔ˬʡ The Royal Thai Armed Forces have sought to contest
ˇ˛˘˦˨˗˗˘ˡ˜ˡ˩˔˦˜ˢˡˢ˙ʶ˔ˠ˕ˢ˗˜˔˕ˬˉ˜˘˧ˡ˔ˠ˜ˡʤʬʪʬ ˧˛˘ϟ˘ˠ˘˥˔˟˗˧˥˜˔ˡ˚˟˘Ϡ˥˘˚˜ˢˡ˦˘˩˘˥˔˟˧˜ˠ˘˦˜ˡʦʣˬ˘˔˥˦˕˨˧
created another refugee crisis and replaced the headache have never launched a full-scale war. Prudence has often
of an unstable regime with a Vietnamese occupation now prevailed because the army is preoccupied with domestic
ˢˡˇ˛˔˜˟˔ˡ˗Ϡ˦˗ˢˢ˥˦˧˘ˣʡʽ˨˦˧˔˦˜ˡ˧˛˘˘˔˥˟ˬʥʣ˧˛˖˘ˡ˧˨˥ˬʟ ˣˢ˟˜˧˜˖˦˜ˡ˔ˡ˔˙Є˨˘ˡ˧˦ˢ˖˜˘˧ˬʡʼ˙˥˘˩˜˦˜ˢˡ˜˦ˠ˪˘˥˘˧˛˘˖˔˨˦˘
ʵ˔ˡ˚˞ˢ˞ˣ˥˘˦˘˥˩˘˗˜˧˦˦˧˥˘ˡ˚˧˛˔ˡ˗˦ˢ˨˚˛˧˖ˢˠˣ˥ˢˠ˜˦˘ʡ ˢ˙˧˛˘˕ˢ˥˗˘˥˗˜˦ˣ˨˧˘ʟ˜˧˜˦˔˩˘˥ˬˠ˘˟˟ˢ˪˘˗ʠ˗ˢ˪ˡ˩˘˥˦˜ˢˡ
With a communist rebellion snuffed out through amnesty ˔˦ˡ˘˜˚˛˕ˢ˨˥˜ˡ˚˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥˜˘˦˜ˡ˧˛˘ʴˆʸʴˁ˕˟ˢ˖˜ˡ˦˜˦˧ˢˡ
˔ˡ˗˖˔˦˛˛˔ˡ˗ˢ˨˧˦˜ˡʤʬʫʥʟ˛˘˔˥˧˙˘˟˧˗˜ˣ˟ˢˠ˔˖ˬ˪˜˧˛ʶ˛˜ˡ˔ mediation. The problem endures as the modern statehood
became essential. of Cambodia and Thailand demands that present borders
˕˘˥˘˩˜˦˘˗ʟ˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˩˜˘˪˙˥ˢˠ˃˛ˡˢˠ˃˘ˡ˛˙˔˩ˢ˨˥˜ˡ˚
˜ˡ˧˘˥ˡ˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˟˖ˢ˨˥˧˥˨˟˜ˡ˚˦˪˛˜˟˘ʵ˔ˡ˚˞ˢ˞ˣ˥˘˙˘˥˦˧˛˘
historical approach of bilateral agreements. The Thais

“THAILAND’S DEMOCRATIC TRADITION IS ˔˥˘˦˧˜˖˞˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˧˛˘˜˥˦˨˖˖˘˦˦˙˨˟˖ˢˠˣ˥ˢˠ˜˦˘˦˪˜˧˛˖ˢ˟ˢˡ˜˔˟

powers and Cold War rivals.
When cross-border artillery duels erupted in the middle
UNCHANGED TODAY: CIVILIAN LEADERSHIP IN ˢ˙ʥʣʥʨ˧˛˘˔˟ˠˢ˦˧ˤ˨˔˥˧˘˥ʠˠ˜˟˟˜ˢˡʶ˔ˠ˕ˢ˗˜˔ˡ˔ˡ˗
ˇ˛˔˜˖˜˩˜˟˜˔ˡ˦˪˛ˢЄ˘˗˙ˢ˥˧˛˘˜˥˟˜˩˘˦˛˔˦˧˘ˡ˘˗˔˦˨ˠˠ˜˧

NAME ONLY, WHILE FORMER GENERALS ENJOY ˢ˥˚˔ˡ˜˦˘˗˕ˬˀ˔˟˔ˬ˦˜˔ˢ˩˘˥˔˪˘˘˞˘ˡ˗ʡˊ˛˘ˡ˔˦ˠ˜˟˜ˡ˚

Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim eventually settled the
Images © Getty

˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˪˜˧˛˩˔˚˨˘ˣ˥ˢˠ˜˦˘˦˔ˡ˗˚˟ˢ˪˜ˡ˚ˡ˘˪˦˖ˢ˩˘˥˔˚˘

IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT POSITIONS” it seemed the world breathed a sigh of relief. At the very
˟˘˔˦˧ʟ˧˛˘˪ˢ˥˦˧˪˔˦˔˩˘˥˧˘˗˙ˢ˥˔˧˜ˠ˘ʡ

17
 F RON T L INE

A Ukrainian civilian uses her smartphone

to photograph apartments in Zaporizhzhia
damaged by a Russian strike in March 2023

PHONES ON
THE FRONTLINEʼˡˠˢ˗˘˥ˡ˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˦ʟ˦ˠ˔˥˧ˣ˛ˢˡ˘˦˛˔˩˘˕˘˖ˢˠ˘
˔ˡ˘˦˦˘ˡ˧˜˔˟˧ˢˢ˟˙ˢ˥˖˜˩˜˟˜˔ˡ˦˔ˡ˗˦ˢ˟˗˜˘˥˦
WORDS LOUIS HARDIMAN
ladyslav Morozov wakes in eastern Ukraine. weapon), Engage (attack the target) and Assess
In the orange and deep purple dawn light, (evaluate the attack’s effects).

V he spots the armoured troop carriers of

a Russian convoy advancing through the
outskirts of his town. It’s heading to the
frontline, where artillery rumbles day and night. After
Each new piece of surveillance technology arriving
ˢˡ˧˛˘˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗˛˔˦˔˟˧˘˥˘˗˛ˢ˪˞˜˟˟˖˛˔˜ˡ˦˙˨ˡ˖˧˜ˢˡʟ
like observation aircraft in the First World War, which
monitored enemy forces from above. Over the last
discreetly taking pictures on his smartphone, Morozov three-and-a-half years, smartphones have become
shares the intelligence with his country’s military through an essential part of Ukraine’s kill chain, enabling its
the eVorog app. Others have done the same, allowing loyal civilians under occupation to transmit information
intelligence services to track the convoy’s journey towards about Russian forces to the Ukrainian military. Matthew
the frontline. Ukrainian military planners receive the data. Ford, author of War in the Smartphone Age, explains the
Within hours, Ukrainian HIMARS rocket artillery strikes the unique power of the smartphone as an intelligence-
convoy and causes havoc among the Russian ranks. collecting tool: “You can use the same device, a
The civilian in this imagined scenario has taken part smartphone, to produce, publish and consume media.
˜ˡ˔˞˜˟˟˖˛˔˜ˡʟ˪˛˜˖˛˜˦˛ˢ˪˔ˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˙ˢ˥˖˘˜˗˘ˡ˧˜Ѓ˘˦˔ˡ˗ It’s not just a microphone and a camera, but Global
engages enemy targets. Kill chain models vary among Positioning System (GPS), Light Detection and Ranging
militaries, but the most common is the F2T2EA model. The (LiDAR), and other clever technical devices.” Once
acronym stands for Find (identify the target), Fix (ensure intelligence has been collected, smartphones can
the target is worthy of engagement), Track (monitor rapidly transmit it to the military due to the extraordinary
the target’s movement), Target (select an appropriate bandwidth of mobile data.

18
 PHONES ON THE FRONTLINE

MAT TH EW Young Ukrainians play on smartphones and

tablets while sheltering in a subway station
FO R D from a Russian missile and drone attack

Matthew is associate
professor in War Studies
at the Swedish Defence
University in Stockholm.
His latest book, War in the
Smartphone Age, is an
˘˦˦˘ˡ˧˜˔˟˚˨˜˗˘˧ˢ˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧
and information on
today’s data-saturated
˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗˦ʠ˙˥ˢˠ
Ukraine to Gaza.

Ukraine was uniquely positioned to digitally moment where Russians were advancing through civilian
mobilise its civilian population after the full-scale neighbourhoods and connectivity was still there. People
invasion began, and Ukrainians were able to use could get online through a Ukrainian cell phone network [to
˧˛˘˜˥˦ˠ˔˥˧ˣ˛ˢˡ˘˦˧ˢ˛˘˟ˣЃ˚˛˧˧˛˘ˢ˖˖˨ˣ˜˘˥˦ʡϢʹ˥ˢˠ use eVorog securely].”
2022 onwards, particularly after the initial shock and Civilian participation in kill chain construction requires
things started to settle, Ukrainians have gone out astonishing bravery. eVorog users are acting on the
of their way to build an innovation ecosystem that state’s behalf and the line between participant and
harnesses the creativity of civil society in everything bystander has become blurred. Ford explains the issue:
from drone innovation to how to get more out of an “The moment when someone takes a picture [to report
app or a smartphone,” says Ford. an enemy position on eVorog], they are actively involved
One result of digital mobilisation has been ˜ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚ʟ˔˟˧˛ˢ˨˚˛ˢˡ˟ˬ˔˧˧˛˔˧ˣˢ˜ˡ˧ʡʴ˦˦ˢˢˡ˔˦
eVorog, a chatbot application that invites citizens to a [eVorog using] civilian puts their phone down, they
use their smartphones’ tools to report Russian troop are legally a non-combatant. If they are then attacked,
movements. Ukraine uses this data throughout the the soldier has potentially committed a war crime.” The
construction of its kill chains, helping it to organise ˟˘˚˔˟˜˧ˬˢ˙Ѓ˥˜ˡ˚˔˧˖˜˩˜˟˜˔ˡ˦˗˘ˣ˘ˡ˗˦ˢˡ˪˛˘˧˛˘˥˧˛˘
and assess strikes against Russian forces. Since the attacker has a reasonable belief that the individual is still
beginning of the full-scale invasion, almost half-a- participating in hostilities.
million people have used eVorog. Ford says the app All smartphone users, the vast majority of Ukrainians,
saw most use in mid-2022: “That was a particular are now at risk. Simply holding a smartphone near Russian
soldiers can arouse deadly suspicion. This danger has
been particularly disruptive to Ukrainians’ lives under
A Ukrainian soldier takes photos
on his smartphone during occupation because “ordinary life can’t stop. People still
Ukraine’s advance into Kursk need to use their phones to talk to family in other parts of
˧˛˘˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥ˬˢ˥˪˔˧˖˛Ѓ˟ˠ˦˔ˡ˗ˣ˟˔ˬ˚˔ˠ˘˦ʡϣ
Ukrainian smartphone use can also risk helping Russia
to build its kill chains, particularly as the occupier works
to assess their strikes’ effectiveness. Ford believes that
Ukrainians have an understanding of the danger of loose-
lipped smartphone use: “Ukrainians are aware that if they
post images of Russian attacks on social media, then it tells
the Russians about their success. People have become
more media-aware. That’s backed up by Ukrainian law that
can prosecute people for what they post.”
Ukraine’s frontline soldiers share civilians’ risk. Best
practice is to leave devices in rear areas where they
can’t inadvertently reveal a position, but that isn’t always
possible. Ford says: “When military communications fail,
Images © Getty

they might be forced into using a smartphone because

that’s the only way to get a message back at speed given
the complexities of an unfolding operation.”

19
 F RON T L INE

THE END
O F T H E S PY ?
Human intelligence is a dying art, but it is still
crucial for security agencies worldwide
WORDS LOUIS HARDIMAN

CIA Director John Ratcliffe is

committed to expanding
the USA’s HUMINT capabilities

“W
e all know that human intelligence (HUMINT) ʺ˘˥ˠ˔ˡˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ʡʼˡ˧˛˘ʥʤ˦˧˖˘ˡ˧˨˥ˬʟʻˈˀʼˁˇ˖˔ˡ˔˟˦ˢ
collection isn’t where it needs to be,” ˔˗˩˔ˡ˖˘ˆʼʺʼˁˇ˪˛˘ˡ˔˚˘ˡ˧˦˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˙ˢ˥ˠ˔ˡ˧˦˚˔˜ˡ˔˖˖˘˦˦
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Director ˧ˢ˖ˢˠˣ˨˧˘˥˦ˬ˦˧˘ˠ˦ʡ
John Ratcliffe told the US Senate in his “The goal is to get many different types of collection
ʽ˔ˡ˨˔˥ˬʥʣʥʨ˖ˢˡЃ˥ˠ˔˧˜ˢˡ˛˘˔˥˜ˡ˚ʡˆ˜˚ˡ˔˟˦ ˪ˢ˥˞˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˚˘˧˛˘˥ʡˁˢ˧˘˩˘˥ˬ˧ˬˣ˘˔ˣˣ˟˜˘˦˧ˢ˘˩˘˥ˬ
intelligence (SIGINT), information from intercepted digital ˣ˥ˢ˕˟˘ˠʟϣ˘˫ˣ˟˔˜ˡ˦ʿˢ˪˘ˡ˧˛˔˟ʡϢʹˢ˥˘˫˔ˠˣ˟˘ʟ˜˙ˬˢ˨Ϡ˥˘˨˦˜ˡ˚
communications, currently contributes to 60 percent of the imagery from space on a chip factory in Bangalore, you’ll
ˈˆˣ˥˘˦˜˗˘ˡ˧Ϡ˦˗˔˜˟ˬ˕˥˜˘Ѓˡ˚˦˔ˡ˗˛˔˦ˢ˩˘˥˧˔˞˘ˡ˛˨ˠ˔ˡ Ѓˡ˗ˢ˨˧˧˛˘˙˔˖˜˟˜˧ˬϠ˦˟ˢ˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˕˨˧ˡˢ˧˛˜ˡ˚˔˕ˢ˨˧˪˛˔˧ʼˡ˗˜˔
˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘ʡʴ˧˧˛˘˖˘ˡ˧˥˘ˢ˙˘˙˙ˢ˥˧˦˧ˢ˜ˠˣ˥ˢ˩˘ˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡ ˜˦˗ˢ˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˖ˬ˕˘˥ʡϣʴˡ˔˟ˬ˦˧˦˪ˢ˨˟˗ˡ˘˘˗˔˖ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙
HUMINT capabilities is the need to understand China’s ʻˈˀʼˁˇ˔ˡ˗ˆʼʺʼˁˇ˧ˢ˚˔˜ˡ˔˗˘˘ˣ˘˥˨ˡ˗˘˥˦˧˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˚ʡ
threats against Taiwan, Russia’s operations in Ukraine and ʷ˘ˣ˟ˢˬ˜ˡ˚ʻˈˀʼˁˇ˜˦˕˘˖ˢˠ˜ˡ˚ˠˢ˥˘˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧ʡʿˢ˪˘ˡ˧˛˔˟
ʼ˥˔ˡϠ˦˘˙˙ˢ˥˧˦˧ˢ˗˘˩˘˟ˢˣˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˥ˬʡ ˦˨ˠˠ˔˥˜˦˘˦˧˛˘˖˛˔˟˟˘ˡ˚˘˦˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘˦˘˥˩˜˖˘˦˙˔˖˘ʭ
Ϣʻˈˀʼˁˇ˜˦˥ˢˠ˔ˡ˧˜˖ʡˇ˛˔˧Ϡ˦˪˛˔˧˦ˣˬˠˢ˩˜˘˦˔˥˘ Ϣˇ˛˘˥˘Ϡ˦˖˟ˢ˦˘˗ʠ˖˜˥˖˨˜˧˧˘˟˘˩˜˦˜ˢˡʛʶʶˇˉʜ˔˟˟ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘
about,” says Mark Lowenthal, a former assistant director ˣ˟˔˖˘ʡʶ˛˜ˡ˔˜˦˪˜˥˘˗˘ˡ˗ʠ˧ˢʠ˘ˡ˗ˎʵ˘˜˝˜ˡ˚˔˟ˢˡ˘˜˦˧˛ˢ˨˚˛˧
in the CIA and author of Vigilance is Not Enoughʡʻˈˀʼˁˇ ˧ˢ˛˔˩˘˔ˠ˜˟˟˜ˢˡʶʶˇˉ˖˔ˠ˘˥˔˦ː˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˬ˛˔˩˘˙˔˖˜˔˟
˖˔ˡˣ˘ˡ˘˧˥˔˧˘˔˥˘˔˦˜ˡ˔˖˖˘˦˦˜˕˟˘˧ˢˆʼʺʼˁˇʟ˖ˢˡЃ˥ˠ ˥˘˖ˢ˚ˡ˜˧˜ˢˡʡʼ˙˪˘˛˜˥˘˦ˢˠ˘ˢˡ˘ˢ˨˧ˢ˙˖ˢ˟˟˘˚˘˜ˡ˧˛˘˜˥
fragmentary information and aid in understanding ˠ˜˗ʠ˧ˢʠ˟˔˧˘ʥʣ˦ʟ˧˛˘ˬ˟˜˞˘˟ˬ˛˔˩˘˔˦ˢ˖˜˔˟ˠ˘˗˜˔ˣ˥ˢЃ˟˘
˟˘˔˗˘˥˦Ϡ˜ˡ˧˘ˡ˧˜ˢˡ˦ʡʸ˩˘ˡ˔˙˧˘˥ˁ˔˭˜˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˕˘˚˔ˡ ˧˛˔˧˗˔˧˘˦˕˔˖˞ʤʣʠʤʥˬ˘˔˥˦ʡ˃˔˦˦ˣˢ˥˧˦˛˔˩˘˕˘˖ˢˠ˘ˠˢ˥˘
to be cracked at scale at Bletchley Park during the Second secure due to biometric data and there’s nothing you can
ˊˢ˥˟˗ˊ˔˥ʟ˛˨ˠ˔ˡˆˣ˘˖˜˔˟˂ˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ʸ˫˘˖˨˧˜˩˘ˡ˘˧˪ˢ˥˞˦ ˗ˢ˔˕ˢ˨˧ˬˢ˨˥˥˘˧˜ˡ˔˦˖˔ˡʡˇ˥˔˩˘˟˟˜ˡ˚˪˜˧˛˔ˡ˔ˠ˘ˢ˧˛˘˥
˥˘ˠ˔˜ˡ˘˗˘˦˦˘ˡ˧˜˔˟˧ˢ˚˔˧˛˘˥˖ˢˡ˧˘˫˧˔ˡ˗˗˜˥˘˖˧˟ˬ˗˜˦˥˨ˣ˧ ˧˛˔ˡˬˢ˨˥˧˥˨˘ˡ˔ˠ˘˜˦ˠˢ˥˘˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧ʡˎʻ˨ˠ˔ˡ˔˦˦˘˧˦ː˪˜˟˟

20
 THE END OF THE SPY?

MAR K
LOWE NTHAL
Mark has held
˦˘˩˘˥˔˟˦˘ˡ˜ˢ˥
ˈˆ˚ˢ˩˘˥ˡˠ˘ˡ˧
positions,
including
Deputy
Assistant
Secretary of State for
Intelligence, Assistant Director
at the CIA, and Staff Director
of the House Intelligence
ʶˢˠˠ˜˧˧˘˘ʡʻ˜˦ˠˢ˦˧˥˘˖˘ˡ˧
book, Vigilance is Not Enough:
A History of United States
Intelligence, is a broad and
˗˘˘ˣ˦˨˥˩˘ˬˢ˙ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔ˡ
intelligence from before the
ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔ˡ˅˘˩ˢ˟˨˧˜ˢˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘ Double agents like Kim Philby
ˣ˥˘˦˘ˡ˧˗˔ˬʡ wouldn’t have achieved such
longevity against modern
surveillance technology

˛˔˩˘˧ˢ˧˥˔˩˘˟˧ˢ˧˛˘˥˘ˤ˨˜˥˘˗˟ˢ˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˨ˡ˗˘˥ ˦ˣ˜˘˦˞ˡˢ˪ˡ˔˦˧˛˘ʶ˔ˠ˕˥˜˗˚˘ʹ˜˩˘ʟ˗˘˘ˣ˟ˬ˘ˠ˕˘˗˗˘˗
˧˛˘˜˥˧˥˨˘ˡ˔ˠ˘˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˡ˚ˢ˨ˡ˗˘˥˖ˢ˩˘˥˔ˡ˗ ˜ˡ˧˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˘˦˧˔˕˟˜˦˛ˠ˘ˡ˧ʡʻ˘˥ˢ˦˘˧ˢ˛˜˚˛˥˔ˡ˞˦˜ˡˀʼʩ
˔˦˦˨ˠ˘˔˙˔˟˦˘˜˗˘ˡ˧˜˧ˬʡϣ ˕˘˙ˢ˥˘˦˘˥˩˜ˡ˚˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛ʸˠ˕˔˦˦ˬ˜ˡˊ˔˦˛˜ˡ˚˧ˢˡʟʷʶʡ
ˇ˛˘˥˔ˣ˜˗˘˫ˣ˔ˡ˦˜ˢˡˢ˙˔˥˧˜Ѓ˖˜˔˟˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘ ʴ˙˧˘˥ˣ˔˦˦˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˙ˢ˥ˠ˔˧˜ˢˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘ˆˢ˩˜˘˧˦˙ˢ˥ˬ˘˔˥˦ʟ˃˛˜˟˕ˬ
˖˔ˣ˔˕˜˟˜˧˜˘˦˛˔˦˘ˡ˔˕˟˘˗˧˛˘ʶʼʴϠ˦˔˗˩˘˥˦˔˥˜˘˦ ˙˘˟˟˨ˡ˗˘˥˦˨˦ˣ˜˖˜ˢˡ˜ˡʤʬʨʤ˔ˡ˗˪˔˦˙˨˟˟ˬ˨ˡˠ˔˦˞˘˗˜ˡʤʬʩʦʡ
˧ˢ˥˘˩˜˦˜˧˗˔˧˔˔ˡ˗˖ˢˠˣ˥ˢˠ˜˦˘˙ˢ˥˘˜˚ˡ ʴˡ˔˚˘ˡ˧˟˜˞˘˃˛˜˟˕ˬ˪ˢ˨˟˗ˡϠ˧˦˨˥˩˜˩˘˜ˡ˧˛˘ʥʣʥʣ˦ʮʶʶˇˉ
˔˚˘ˡ˧˦ˠˢˡ˧˛˦ˢ˥ˬ˘˔˥˦˔˙˧˘˥˔ˡˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡʡ footage, online images and past social media posts would
ʺ˟˘ˡˡʶ˛˔˙˘˧˭ʟ˔˙ˢ˥ˠ˘˥ʶʼʴˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥ʟ˧ˢ˟˗The ˖ˢˠˣ˥ˢˠ˜˦˘˧˛˘ˠʡ
Washington Post˧˛˔˧˧ˢ˗˔ˬϠ˦˔˚˘ˡ˧˦˛˔˩˘˧ˢ Donald Trump’s administration has restricted the
˕˘Ϣˣ˘˥˙˘˖˧˙ˢ˥˘˩˘˥ʟ˕˘˙ˢ˥˘˔ˡˬˢˣʟ˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ ˥˘˦ˢ˨˥˖˘˦˔˩˔˜˟˔˕˟˘˧ˢ˧˛˘ʶʼʴʟ˔˗˗˜ˡ˚˧ˢʻˈˀʼˁˇ
ˢˣ˔ˡ˗˙ˢ˥˘˩˘˥˔˙˧˘˥ϣʡ ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦Ϡ˖˛˔˟˟˘ˡ˚˘˦ʡʿ˜˞˘ˠˢ˦˧˙˘˗˘˥˔˟˚ˢ˩˘˥ˡˠ˘ˡ˧
ˇ˛˘˦˘˖˛˔˟˟˘ˡ˚˘˦˛˔˩˘˔˟˟˕˨˧˘ˡ˗˘˗ʶˢ˟˗ ˜ˡ˦˧˜˧˨˧˜ˢˡ˦ʟ˧˛˘ʶʼʴ˜˦˨ˡ˗˘˥ˣ˥˘˦˦˨˥˘˧ˢ˗ˢ˪ˡ˦˜˭˘˜˧˦
ˊ˔˥ʠ˘˥˔˗˘˘ˣʠ˖ˢ˩˘˥˦ˣ˜˘˦˔ˡ˗˗ˢ˨˕˟˘˔˚˘ˡ˧˦ʡ ˪ˢ˥˞˙ˢ˥˖˘˔ˡ˗˜ˠˣ˟˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˖ˢ˦˧ʠ˦˔˩˜ˡ˚ˠ˘˔˦˨˥˘˦ʡˇ˛˘
ʼˡ˧˛˘ʤʬʦʣ˦ʟʾ˜ˠ˃˛˜˟˕ˬ˪˔˦˥˘˖˥˨˜˧˘˗˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘ ˦ˣ˘˘˗˗˘ˠ˔ˡ˗˘˗˕ˬˇ˥˨ˠˣ˛˔˦˟˘˗˧ˢ˦˟˜ˣʠ˨ˣ˦ʡʸ˔˥˟˜˘˥
ˈˡ˜˩˘˥˦˜˧ˬˢ˙ʶ˔ˠ˕˥˜˗˚˘˜ˡ˧ˢ˔˥˜ˡ˚ˢ˙ˆˢ˩˜˘˧ ˧˛˜˦ˬ˘˔˥ʟ˧˛˘ʶʼʴ˦˘ˡ˧˔ˡ˨ˡ˖˟˔˦˦˜Ѓ˘˗˘ˠ˔˜˟˧ˢ˧˛˘˂˙Ѓ˖˘
ˢ˙˃˘˥˦ˢˡˡ˘˟ˀ˔ˡ˔˚˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˖ˢˡ˧˔˜ˡ˜ˡ˚˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ˡ˔ˠ˘˔ˡ˗
˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˜ˡ˜˧˜˔˟ˢ˙˧˛˘˟˔˦˧ˡ˔ˠ˘ˢ˙˘˔˖˛˘ˠˣ˟ˢˬ˘˘˛˜˥˘˗
˜ˡ˧˛˘ˣ˥˘˩˜ˢ˨˦˧˪ˢˬ˘˔˥˦ʡˆˢˠ˘ˡ˔ˠ˘˦˖ˢ˨˟˗˕˘˟ˢˡ˚˧ˢ
˔˚˘ˡ˧˦˜ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˘˟˗ʡ
The CIA’s HUMINT also leans on the USA’s shrinking
ˡ˘˧˪ˢ˥˞ˢ˙˘ˠ˕˔˦˦˜˘˦˔ˡ˗˖ˢˡ˦˨˟˔˧˘˦ʡʷ˜ˣ˟ˢˠ˔˧˜˖
missions offer access to information through diplomats’
ˣ˘˥˦ˢˡ˔˟ˡ˘˧˪ˢ˥˞˦˔ˡ˗ˣ˟˔˨˦˜˕˟˘˗˘ˡ˜˔˕˜˟˜˧ˬ˙ˢ˥˔˚˘ˡ˧˦ʡ
During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Llewellyn Thompson,
˧˛˘˙ˢ˥ˠ˘˥ˈˆ˔ˠ˕˔˦˦˔˗ˢ˥˧ˢ˧˛˘ˆˢ˩˜˘˧ˈˡ˜ˢˡʟ˦˘˥˩˘˗
˔˦˔ˡ˔˗˩˜˦ˢ˥˧ˢʽˢ˛ˡʹʾ˘ˡˡ˘˗ˬʡʻ˘˨˦˘˗˛˜˦˖˟ˢ˦˘
˥˘˟˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˛˜ˣ˪˜˧˛ˁ˜˞˜˧˔ʾ˛˥˨˦˛˖˛˘˩˧ˢˣ˥˜ˢ˥˜˧˜˦˘ˠ˘˦˦˔˚˘˦
˧ˢ˧˛˘ˈˆ˪˥˜˧˧˘ˡ˕ˬʾ˛˥˨˦˛˖˛˘˩ˢ˩˘˥˟˘˦˦˖ˢˡ˦˘ˤ˨˘ˡ˧˜˔˟
˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˖ˢˠˣˢ˦˘˗˪˜˧˛˃ˢ˟˜˧˕˨˥ˢ˜ˡˣ˨˧ʡˇ˛˘ˈˆʴ
˖˨˥˥˘ˡ˧˟ˬˣ˟˔ˡ˦˧ˢ˖˟ˢ˦˘ʤʣ˘ˠ˕˔˦˦˜˘˦˔ˡ˗ʤʪ˖ˢˡ˦˨˟˔˧˘˦ʡ
ˇ˛˘ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥ˢ˙˘˙˙˘˖˧˜˩˘˛˨ˠ˔ˡˢˣ˘˥˔˧ˢ˥˦˪˜˟˟˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˘
˧ˢ˗˪˜ˡ˗˟˘ʟˬ˘˧ʴ˥˧˜Ѓ˖˜˔˟ʼˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘ʛʴʼʜ˖ˢ˨˟˗˛˘˟ˣ
analysts to ensure HUMINT remains at the forefront of
˧˛˘˜˥˪ˢ˥˞ʡˇˢ˗˔ˬϠ˦˔ˡ˔˟ˬ˦˧˦˔˥˘˕ˢˠ˕˔˥˗˘˗˪˜˧˛˔ˡ
Images © Alamy, Getty

Former ambassador to the ˘ˡˢ˥ˠˢ˨˦˔ˠˢ˨ˡ˧˔ˡ˗˩˔˥˜˘˧ˬˢ˙˜ˡ˙ˢ˥ˠ˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˥˥˜˩˜ˡ˚˔˧

Soviet Union Llewellyn Thompson ˔ˡˢ˩˘˥˪˛˘˟ˠ˜ˡ˚˦ˣ˘˘˗˔ˡ˗˪˜˧˛˨ˡ˖˘˥˧˔˜ˡ˩˘˥˔˖˜˧ˬʡʴʼ
gave JFK critical advice during ˦ˬ˦˧˘ˠ˦˖˔ˡˠ˔˞˘˦˘ˡ˦˘ˢ˙˔ˡ˗˖ˢˡ˧˘˫˧˨˔˟˜˦˘˜ˡ˙ˢ˥ˠ˔˧˜ˢˡʟ
the Cuban Missile Crisis
so analysts can draw meaningful conclusions that
˜ˡ˖ˢ˥ˣˢ˥˔˧˘ʻˈˀʼˁˇʡ

21
 F RON T L INE

PUTIN’S
SUBMARINE
FLEET

From the Cold War to modern operations, the threat beneath the waves
has been steadily building, and could be about to escalate

WORDS PAUL METCALFE

hroughout the Cold War, NATO considered ˠ˔ˡˬˢ˙˪˛ˢˠ˛˔˗˚ˢˡ˘˨ˡˣ˔˜˗˙ˢ˥ˠˢˡ˧˛˦ʟ˟˘˙˧˧˛˘

T
˅˨˦˦˜˔Ϡ˦˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘Є˘˘˧˧ˢ˕˘˜ˡ˙˘˥˜ˢ˥˜ˡ ˦˘˥˩˜˖˘ˢ˥˟˔˖˞˘˗ˢ˥˗˘˥˦˙˥ˢˠ˦˘ˡ˜ˢ˥ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦˔ˡ˗˪˘˥˘
most respects to those used by the West. ˦˧˥˔ˡ˗˘˗˜ˡ˥˘ˠˢ˧˘ʟ˗˜˟˔ˣ˜˗˔˧˘˗˕˔˥˥˔˖˞˦˪˜˧˛˟˜˧˧˟˘˛ˢˣ˘
ˇ˛˘˜˥˧˘˖˛ˡˢ˟ˢ˚ˬ˙˘˟˟˕˘˛˜ˡ˗˧˛˔˧ˢ˙˧˛˘ˈˆ ˢ˙˦˘˖˨˥˜ˡ˚ˡ˘˪˪ˢ˥˞ʡ
˔ˡ˗ˈʾʟ˔ˡ˗˜˧˪˔˦˖ˢˠˠˢˡ˙ˢ˥˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡ ˇ˛˘ˠ˜˗ʠʤʬʬʣ˦˪˔˦˔˧˜ˠ˘˪˛˘ˡˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡˡ˔˩˜˘˦
submarines to be detected, tracked and monitored ˘˫˔ˠ˜ˡ˘˗˧˛˘˜˥˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘Є˘˘˧˦ʟ˥˘˩˜˘˪˘˗˕˨˗˚˘˧˦˔ˡ˗
˕ˬ˧˛˘˅ˢˬ˔˟ˁ˔˩ˬʛ˅ˁʜ˔ˡ˗ˈˆˁ˔˩ˬʛˈˆˁʜʡʼ˧˪˔˦˔ˡ ˥˘˗˨˖˘˗Є˘˘˧ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥˦˜ˡ˟˜ˡ˘˪˜˧˛˦˛˜˙˧˜ˡ˚ˣˢ˟˜˧˜˖˔˟ˢ˨˧˟ˢˢ˞˦
˨ˡ˗˘˥˦˘˔˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘˪˔˥˜ˡ˪˛˜˖˛˧˛˘ˊ˘˦˧ˠ˔˜ˡ˧˔˜ˡ˘˗ ˔˦ˡ˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˔˗ˢˣ˧˘˗˧˛˘ϟˣ˘˔˖˘˗˜˩˜˗˘ˡ˗Ϡ˔ˣˣ˥ˢ˔˖˛ʡ
the advantage during the 1970s and 1980s. The nuclear deterrent response remained crucial to
ˇ˛˘˦˨˥˚˘˜ˡ˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡ˧˘˖˛ˡˢ˟ˢ˚ˬʟ˪˛˘ˡ˜˧˧ˢˢ˞ˣ˟˔˖˘ ˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˙ˢ˥˧˛˘ˈˆ˔ˡ˗˘˦ˣ˘˖˜˔˟˟ˬ˧˛˘ˈʾ
˪˜˧˛˜ˡ˅˨˦˦˜˔Ϡ˦˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘Є˘˘˧ʟ˪˔˦ˢ˙˧˘ˡ˔˥˘˦˨˟˧ˢ˙ ˜ˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘ˡ˘˪ˠ˜˟˟˘ˡˡ˜˨ˠʟ˔˦˧˛˘˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˦˧˥˨˚˚˟˘˗
˦ˣ˜˘˦˪˜˧˛˜ˡ˧˛˘ˈˆˁ˘˫˖˛˔ˡ˚˜ˡ˚˦˘˖˥˘˧˧˘˖˛ˡˢ˟ˢ˚ˬ˔ˡ˗ ˧ˢ˘˦˧˔˕˟˜˦˛˜˧˦˚˟ˢ˕˔˟˥ˢ˟˘˔ˡ˗ˠˢ˗˘˥ˡ˜˦˘˜˧˦˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˧ˢ
ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˡ˚ˣ˥ˢ˖˘˗˨˥˘˦˙ˢ˥˖˔˦˛˙˥ˢˠˀˢ˦˖ˢ˪ʡˆˣ˜˘˦˦˨˖˛ ˠ˔˧˖˛ˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡˡ˔˩˜˘˦˧˘˖˛ˡˢ˟ˢ˚˜˖˔˟˟ˬʡ˂˩˘˥˧˛˘˙ˢ˟˟ˢ˪˜ˡ˚
˔˦˅ˢˡ˔˟˗˃˘˟˧ˢˡʟ˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ˁ˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˟ˆ˘˖˨˥˜˧ˬʴ˚˘ˡ˖ˬ ˗˘˖˔˗˘˦ʟ˨ˡ˗˘˥˧˛˘˟˘˔˗˘˥˦˛˜ˣˢ˙˃˥˘˦˜˗˘ˡ˧ˉ˟˔˗˜ˠ˜˥
ʛˁˆʴʜʟ˪˛ˢ˦˨ˣˣ˟˜˘˗˦˘˖˥˘˧˦˜˚ˡ˔˟˦˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘˧ˢ˅˨˦˦˜˔ ˃˨˧˜ˡʟ˧˛˜˦˚ˢ˔˟˪˔˦˚˥˔˗˨˔˟˟ˬ˔˖˛˜˘˩˘˗˔˦˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧
˙˥ˢˠʤʬʫʣʠʫʨʟ˔ˡ˗ʽˢ˛ˡʴˡ˧˛ˢˡˬˊ˔˟˞˘˥ʟ˔ˈˆˁ˪˔˥˥˔ˡ˧ ˜ˡ˩˘˦˧ˠ˘ˡ˧˦˪˘˥˘ˠ˔˗˘˜ˡ˅˨˦˦˜˔Ϡ˦ˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˖˔ˣ˔˕˜˟˜˧˜˘˦ʡ
ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˪˜˧˛˔˥ˢ˟˘˜ˡˈˆˁʶˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ʼˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘ʟ ˀ˘˔ˡ˪˛˜˟˘˧˛˘ˊ˘˦˧ʟ˪˛˜˖˛˙ˢ˖˨˦˘˗ˢˡˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ
˦ˢ˟˗˪˛˔˧˜˦ˡˢ˪˞ˡˢ˪ˡ˔˦˧˛˘ϟ˖˥ˢ˪ˡ˝˘˪˘˟˦Ϡˢ˙ˡ˔˩˔˟ ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˜ˡʼ˥˔ˤ˔ˡ˗˟˔˧˘˥ʴ˙˚˛˔ˡ˜˦˧˔ˡʟ˜ˡ˔˗˩˘˥˧˘ˡ˧˟ˬ
˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘˙˥ˢˠʤʬʩʪ˧ˢʤʬʫʨʡˇ˛˘ ˔˟˟ˢ˪˘˗˧˛˜˦˚˥ˢ˪˧˛˜ˡ˅˨˦˦˜˔Ϡ˦ˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬˣˢ˪˘˥˧ˢ˚ˢ
˥˘ˣ˘˥˖˨˦˦˜ˢˡ˦ʟ˜ˡ˦ˢˠ˘˥˘˦ˣ˘˖˧˦ʟ˔˙˙˘˖˧˘˗ˈˆˁ˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘ ˨ˡ˖˛˘˖˞˘˗ʡʴ˦˙˨ˡ˗˜ˡ˚˗˘˖˥˘˔˦˘˗ʟˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡ˔˧˧˘ˡ˧˜ˢˡ
ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˙ˢ˥˗˘˖˔˗˘˦ʡ ˦˧˔ˬ˘˗Ѓ˫˔˧˘˗ˢˡ˖˨˥˥˘ˡ˧ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˜ˡ˧˛˘ˊ˔˥ˢˡˇ˘˥˥ˢ˥ʟ
ʴ˦˧˛˘ʶˢ˟˗ˊ˔˥˘ˡ˗˘˗˜ˡ˧˛˘˟˔˧˘ʤʬʫʣ˦ʟ˙ˢ˟˟ˢ˪˘˗˕ˬ ˪˛˜˖˛˖ˢˡ˦˨ˠ˘˗˟˔˥˚˘ˣˢ˥˧˜ˢˡ˦ˢ˙˗˘˙˘ˡ˖˘˕˨˗˚˘˧˦ʟ
˧˛˘˕˥˘˔˞˨ˣˢ˙˧˛˘ˆˢ˩˜˘˧ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˜ˡʤʬʬʤʟ˅˨˦˦˜˔Ϡ˦˘˫˧˘ˡ˦˜˩˘ ˪˜˧˛˟˜˧˧˟˘˥˘˚˔˥˗˙ˢ˥˟ˢˡ˚ʠ˧˘˥ˠ˦˧˥˔˧˘˚˜˖ˣ˟˔ˡˡ˜ˡ˚ʡˇ˛˜˦
˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘Є˘˘˧˪˔˦˟˘˙˧˪˜˧˛ˢ˨˧˔ˣ˨˥ˣˢ˦˘ʮˠ˔ˡˬ decision has since come back to haunt Western nations,
˩˘˦˦˘˟˦ʟˢ˩˘˥ʥʣʣ˕ˬʥʣʤʥʟ˪˘˥˘˟˔˜˗˨ˣ˔ˡ˗˟˘˙˧˧ˢ˥˨˦˧ ˠˢ˦˧ˡˢ˧˔˕˟ˬ˧˛˘ˈˡ˜˧˘˗ʾ˜ˡ˚˗ˢˠʡ
ˢˡ˧˛˘˦˛ˢ˥˘˦ˢ˙ˡ˔˩˔˟˕˔˦˘˦˔ˡ˗˦˛˜ˣˬ˔˥˗˦˦˨˖˛˔˦ ˇ˛˘ˈʾϠ˦ˠ˔˥˜˧˜ˠ˘˗˘˧˘˥˥˘ˡ˖˘ʟ˕ˢ˧˛˦˨˥˙˔˖˘˔ˡ˗
ˆ˘˩˘˥ˢ˗˩˜ˡ˦˞ʟˆ˘˩ˠ˔˦˛ʟˀ˨˥ˠ˔ˡ˦˞˔ˡ˗ˍ˩˘˭˗˔ʡʶ˥˘˪˦ʟ ˦˨˕˦˨˥˙˔˖˘ʟ˦˨˙˙˘˥˘˗˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧˟ˬ˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˘˔˥˟ˬ

22
 PUTIN’S SUBMARINE FLEET

Left: Vladimir Putin ʥʣʣʣ˦ʡˊ˜˧˛˗˥˔˪˔˟ˢ˙˦˛˜ˣ˦˔ˡ˗˔˟˔˖˞ˢ˙˙˨ˡ˗˜ˡ˚˙ˢ˥ˡ˘˪ ˕ˬ˘˜˧˛˘˥˅ˁˢ˥ˁʴˇ˂˩˘˦˦˘˟˦ʡˇ˛˜˦˜˦˧˛˘ˢ˩˘˥ʠ˪˔˧˖˛

addresses sailors ˧˘˖˛ˡˢ˟ˢ˚ˬ˟˘˙˧˧˛˘ˈʾ˩˨˟ˡ˘˥˔˕˟˘˧ˢ˅˨˦˦˜˔Ϡ˦˥˘˩˜˧˔˟˜˦˘˗ patrol designed to circle the target area and establish a
during a visit to the ˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘Є˘˘˧ʡʼ˧Ϡ˦˔ˡˢˣˣˢ˥˧˨ˡ˜˧ˬ˧˛˔˧˃˨˧˜ˡ˗˜˥˘˖˧˘˗ ˗˘˙˘ˡ˦˜˩˘ˣ˘˥˜ˠ˘˧˘˥˔˚˔˜ˡ˦˧ˣ˔˧˥ˢ˟˟˜ˡ˚ˁʴˇ˂˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘˦
Yasen-class nuclear
attack submarine ˧˛˘˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡ˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘Є˘˘˧ʟ˔˟ˢˡ˚˪˜˧˛˦ˣ˘˖˜˔˟˜˦˘˗˦ˣˬ that might snoop around.
K-564 Arkhangelsk at ˦˛˜ˣ˦ʟ˧ˢ˘˫ˣ˟ˢ˜˧˙˨˟˟ˬʡ To reach the cable on the seabed, the Russians
Sevmash, March 2025 The military communication cables and sonar arrays ˘ˠˣ˟ˢˬ˨ˡ˜ˤ˨˘ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥ʠˣˢ˪˘˥˘˗˗˘˘ˣʠ˗˜˩˜ˡ˚˦ˣˬˠ˜ˡ˜ʠ
˟˔˜˗ˢˡ˧˛˘˦˘˔Єˢˢ˥ʟ˪˛˜˟˘˔˦ˢ˨˥˖˘ˢ˙˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘ ˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘˦ʟ˞ˡˢ˪ˡ˜ˡ˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡ˔˦ʴʺˆʡʴʺˆ˛˔˩˘˦˞˜˗˦
˜ˡ˧˘˥˘˦˧ʟ˪˘˥˘˧˘˖˛ˡ˜˖˔˟˟ˬ˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧˧ˢ˘˫ˣ˟ˢ˜˧ʡˇ˛˘ˢˡ˟ˬ ˧ˢ˥˘˦˧ˢˡ˧˛˘˦˘˔˕˘˗˔ˡ˗ˠ˔ˡ˜ˣ˨˟˔˧ˢ˥˔˥ˠ˦˧ˢ˪ˢ˥˞
˗˘˖˟˔˦˦˜Ѓ˘˗ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˔˦˨˖˖˘˦˦˙˨˟˖˔˕˟˘˧˔ˣ˪˔˦˕ˬ on the cable. They can tap, carry out inspections or cut
˧˛˘ˈˆˁ˨ˡ˗˘˥˧˛˘˖ˢ˗˘ˡ˔ˠ˘˂ˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡʼ˩ˬʵ˘˟˟˦˜ˡ˧˛˘ ˖˔˕˟˘˦˜ˡ˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧ʠ˧ˢʠ˥˘˔˖˛ˣ˟˔˖˘˦ʟ˔ˠ˘˧˛ˢ˗˔˟˥˘˔˗ˬ
ʤʬʪʣ˦ʟ˪˛˜˖˛˧˔ˣˣ˘˗˔ˆˢ˩˜˘˧ˁ˔˩ˬ˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ ˗˘ˠˢˡ˦˧˥˔˧˘˗˜ˡ˧˛˘ʵ˔˟˧˜˖ˆ˘˔ʡ
˖˔˕˟˘˥˨ˡˡ˜ˡ˚˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʹ˟˘˘˧ˡ˔˩˔˟˕˔˦˘ ʻˢ˪˘˩˘˥ʟ˧˛˘ʴʺˆˠ˜ˡ˜˦˨˕˦˖˔ˡˡˢ˧˥˘˔˖˛˧˛˘˧˔˥˚˘˧˔˥˘˔
˔˧˃˘˧˥ˢˣ˔˩˟ˢ˩˦˞˧ˢ˧˛˘ˆˢ˩˜˘˧Є˘˘˧Ϡ˦ˠ˔˜ˡ˟˔ˡ˗ ˨ˡ˔˜˗˘˗ʡˇ˛˘ˬ˔˥˘˧˥˔ˡ˦ˣˢ˥˧˘˗˕ˬ˔˟˔˥˚˘˛ˢ˦˧˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘ʮ
˛˘˔˗ˤ˨˔˥˧˘˥˦˔˧ˉ˟˔˗˜˩ˢ˦˧ˢ˞ʡˇ˛˘˖˔˕˟˘˥˔ˡ˨ˡ˗˘˥˧˛˘ ˅˨˦˦˜˔˖˨˥˥˘ˡ˧˟ˬˢˣ˘˥˔˧˘˦˧˪ˢʟ˧˛˘ˠˢ˦˧˔˗˩˔ˡ˖˘˗˕˘˜ˡ˚
ˆ˘˔ˢ˙˂˞˛ˢ˧˦˞ʟ˕˘˧˪˘˘ˡ˧˛˘ʾ˔ˠ˖˛˔˧˞˔˃˘ˡ˜ˡ˦˨˟˔ ˧˛˘ʵˆʠʩʧ˃ˢ˗ˠˢ˦˞ˢ˩ˬ˘ʟ˪˛˜˖˛˜˦˔˟˔˥˚˘˥˩˘˥˦˜ˢˡˢ˙˧˛˘
˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡˠ˔˜ˡ˟˔ˡ˗ʡʹˢ˥ˡ˘˔˥˟ˬ˧˘ˡˬ˘˔˥˦ʟ˧˛˘˧˔ˣ ʷ˘˟˧˔ʠʼˉ˖˟˔˦˦˕˔˟˟˜˦˧˜˖ˠ˜˦˦˜˟˘˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘ʡˇ˛˘ˠ˜ˡ˜˦˨˕˜˦
˪˔˦˥ˢ˨˧˜ˡ˘˟ˬ˘˫˖˛˔ˡ˚˘˗ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˥˘˧˥˜˘˩˘˗˗˔˧˔˪˔˦ ˖˔˥˥˜˘˗˜ˡ˦˧˘˔˗ˢ˙˧˛˘ˠ˜˦˦˜˟˘˦ʡʴˡ˘˪ʟ˟˔˥˚˘˥˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘
˧˔˞˘ˡ˕˔˖˞˧ˢ˧˛˘ˈˆ˙ˢ˥˧˛˘ˁˆʴ˧ˢ˔ˡ˔˟ˬ˦˘ʡˇ˛˘˖ˢ˩˘˥˧ ˖˔˟˟˘˗˧˛˘ʵ˘˟˚ˢ˥ˢ˗ʟ˕˔˦˘˗ˢˡ˧˛˘ˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˖˟˔˦˦ʟ˛˔˦
ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˪˔˦˟˔˧˘˥˘˫ˣˢ˦˘˗˧ˢ˧˛˘ˆˢ˩˜˘˧˦˕ˬ˃˘˟˧ˢˡ˙ˢ˥ already begun trials.
˔˙˘˪˧˛ˢ˨˦˔ˡ˗˗ˢ˟˟˔˥˦˜ˡʤʬʫʤʡ ˇ˛˘˛ˢ˦˧˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘ˣ˔˧˥ˢ˟˦˜ˡ˔˦˧˔˥ʠ˦˛˔ˣ˘˗ˣ˔˧˧˘˥ˡ
ʼˡ˧˛˘ʥʤ˦˧˖˘ˡ˧˨˥ˬʟ˧˛˘ˊ˘˦˧Ϡ˦˥˘˟˜˔ˡ˖˘ˢˡ˨ˡ˗˘˥˦˘˔ above the minisub, maintaining regular voice contact
˖˔˕˟˘˦˜˦˔˧˔ˡ˔˟˟ʠ˧˜ˠ˘˛˜˚˛ʟ˪˜˧˛˔ˡ˘˦˧˜ˠ˔˧˘˗ʬʬ ˪˜˧˛˜˧ʡˇ˛˘ˠ˜ˡ˜˦˨˕˦˖˔ˡ˦˧˔ˬˡ˘˔˥ˢ˥ˢˡ˧˛˘˖˔˕˟˘˙ˢ˥
ˣ˘˥˖˘ˡ˧ˢ˙˧˛˘ˈʾϠ˦˧˥˔ˡ˦ˢ˖˘˔ˡ˜˖˗˔˧˔ˣ˔˦˦˜ˡ˚˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛ ˗˔ˬ˦ˢ˥˨ˣ˧ˢ˔˪˘˘˞˕˘˙ˢ˥˘˦˨˥˙˔˖˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˗ˢ˖˞˕˘ˡ˘˔˧˛
˦˨˖˛˖˔˕˟˘˦ʟ˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˜ˡ˚Ѓˡ˔ˡ˖˜˔˟˧˥˔ˡ˦˔˖˧˜ˢˡ˦ʟ˘ˠ˔˜˟˦ʟ the host submarine’s hull.
˦ˢ˖˜˔˟ˠ˘˗˜˔˔ˡ˗ʟˢ˙˖ˢ˨˥˦˘ʟˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ʡ Operations like this give Russia crucial intelligence
˅˨˦˦˜˔˜˦˩˘˥ˬ˔˪˔˥˘ˢ˙˧˛˜˦˗˘ˣ˘ˡ˗˘ˡ˖˘ʟ˛˔˩˜ˡ˚ˢ˙˧˘ˡ ˔˕ˢ˨˧˧˛˘ˈʾ˔ˡ˗˜˧˦ˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡ˔˟˟˜˘˦ʡʼˡ˥˘˦ˣˢˡ˦˘˧˛˘˅ˁʟ
ϟ˗˔ˠ˔˚˘˗Ϡˢ˧˛˘˥˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˖˔˕˟˘˦ˢ˙ˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡ ˨ˡ˗˘˥˧˛˘˥˘˖˘ˡ˧˚ˢ˩˘˥ˡˠ˘ˡ˧˗˘˙˘ˡ˖˘˥˘˩˜˘˪ʟ˜˦Ѓˡ˔˟˟ˬ
nations, allegedly by mistake. ˦˘˧˧ˢ˥˘˖˘˜˩˘˟ˢˡ˚ʠ˧˘˥ˠ˙˨ˡ˗˜ˡ˚˔ˡ˗ˠˢ˩˘˔˪˔ˬ˙˥ˢˠ
ˊ˛˜˟˘˦˨˥˙˔˖˘˩˘˦˦˘˟˦˔˟˜˚ˡ˘˗˪˜˧˛˅˨˦˦˜˔˛˔˩˘˙˥˘ˤ˨˘ˡ˧˟ˬ ˦˛ˢ˥˧ʠ˧˘˥ˠ˘ˤ˨˜ˣˠ˘ˡ˧˧˛˔˧˕˘˖ˢˠ˘˦˨˦˘˟˘˦˦ˢˡ˖˘˧˛˘
been caught damaging Western undersea cables, similar ˜ˠˠ˘˗˜˔˧˘˧˛˥˘˔˧ˣ˔˦˦˘˦ʡʷ˘˙˘ˡ˖˘ˆ˘˖˥˘˧˔˥ˬʽˢ˛ˡʻ˘˔˟˘ˬ
operations conducted by Russian submarines have also ˔ˡˡˢ˨ˡ˖˘˗˜ˡʽ˨ˡ˘ʥʣʥʨ˧˛˔˧˧˛˘ˈʾ˪ˢ˨˟˗˕˨˜˟˗Ϣ˨ˣ˧ˢϣ
taken place and been uncovered in recent years by a ʤʥˡ˘˪˖ˢˡ˩˘ˡ˧˜ˢˡ˔˟˟ˬ˔˥ˠ˘˗ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥ʠˣˢ˪˘˥˘˗˔˧˧˔˖˞
ˠ˨˖˛ˠˢ˥˘˩˜˚˜˟˔ˡ˧˅ˁʡʴ˟˧˛ˢ˨˚˛˙˘˪˗˘˧˔˜˟˦˛˔˩˘˕˘˘ˡ ˦˨˕ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘˦˧ˢ˥˘ˣ˟˔˖˘˧˛˘˖˨˥˥˘ˡ˧˦˘˩˘ˡʠ˦˧˥ˢˡ˚ʴ˦˧˨˧˘
˥˘˟˘˔˦˘˗˔˕ˢ˨˧˪˛˔˧˜˦˖ˢˡ˦˜˗˘˥˘˗ϟ˧˛˘ˠˢ˦˧˦˘˖˥˘˧˪˔˥Ϡ ˖˟˔˦˦˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘˟˔˧˘ʥʣʦʣ˦ˢˡ˪˔˥˗˦ʡˇ˛˜˦˪˔˦ˢˡ˘ˢ˙ˠ˔ˡˬ
˖˨˥˥˘ˡ˧˟ˬ˖˔˥˥˜˘˗ˢ˨˧˕ˬ˧˛˘˖˟˔ˡ˗˘˦˧˜ˡ˘˘˟˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˦ˢ˙˧˛˘ measures introduced in the Strategic Defence Review,
˅ˁʟ˦ˢˠ˘˜ˡ˙ˢ˥ˠ˔˧˜ˢˡ˛˔˦˘ˠ˘˥˚˘˗˥˘˚˔˥˗˜ˡ˚˛ˢ˪˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡ ˦˜˚ˡ˔˟˟˜ˡ˚˔˦˛˜˙˧˙ˢ˥˧˛˘ˈʾ˧ˢ˪˔˥˗˦ϟ˪˔˥Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˥˘˔˗˜ˡ˘˦˦Ϡ
submarines have conducted these operations recently. ˔ˡ˗˔ϟˁʴˇ˂ʠЃ˥˦˧Ϡ˔ˣˣ˥ˢ˔˖˛˧ˢ˗˘˙˘ˡ˖˘ʡˇ˛˘ˬ˘˔˥˦ˢ˙
ˇ˛˘˜ˡ˜˧˜˔˟˦˜˚ˡ˧˛˘ˊ˘˦˧ˠ˜˚˛˧ˢ˕˦˘˥˩˘ˢ˙˔ˡˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ ˗˘˙˘ˡ˖˘˖ˢˠˣ˟˔˖˘ˡ˖ˬ˨ˡ˗˘˥˩˔˥˜ˢ˨˦˚ˢ˩˘˥ˡˠ˘ˡ˧˦˦˜ˡ˖˘
˜˦˧˛˘˔˥˥˜˩˔˟ˢ˙˔ˡʴ˞˨˟˔ʠ˖˟˔˦˦ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥ʠˣˢ˪˘˥˘˗˔˧˧˔˖˞ ˧˛˘ʤʬʬʣ˦˛˔˩˘˘˙˙˘˖˧˜˩˘˟ˬ˘˫ˣˢ˦˘˗˧˛˘ˈʾϠ˦˗˘˙˘ˡ˖˘
submarine in the area, moving stealthily to avoid detection ˪˘˔˞ˡ˘˦˦˘˦˧ˢ˔ˡ˜ˡ˖˥˘˔˦˜ˡ˚˟ˬ˔˦˦˘˥˧˜˩˘˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡ˗ˢ˖˧˥˜ˡ˘ʡ

“OPERATIONS ON UNDERSEA CABLES GIVE K-564 Arkhangelsk arrives

at the Northern Fleet’s
base, January 2025

RUSSIA CRUCIAL INTELLIGENCE ABOUT

THE UK AND ITS WESTERN ALLIES”
K-329 Belgorod was
commissioned by the
Russian Navy in July 2022
Images © Alamy

23
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 “RAIN OF RUIN”
PATH TO
H I ROS H I MA
ʴ˧˧˛˘˖˟˜ˠ˔˫ˢ˙Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˧˛˘˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʟ˧˛˘ˈˆʴ˥˘˩˘˔˟˘˗˜˧˦
˨˟˧˜ˠ˔˧˘˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˔ˡ˗˨˦˛˘˥˘˗˜ˡ˔ˡ˘˪˘˥˔ˢ˙˪˔˥˙˔˥˘
WORDS LOUIS HARDIMAN

26
 PATH TO HIROSHIMA

“T
he bomber will always get through; the made sure to build the plane in middle America, partly
EXPE RT only defence is offence,” Stanley Baldwin for security — no saboteur could get near it — but also

I N S I G HT told the British Parliament in 1932. Five

years later during the Spanish Civil
because it revived entire regions of the Midwest.”
ʼ˧˪˔˦˧˪ˢʠ˔ˡ˗ʠ˔ʠ˛˔˟˙ˬ˘˔˥˦˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˘˔˧˧˔˖˞ˢˡ˃˘˔˥˟
War, Hitler’s Condor Legion devastated Harbor that the US unleashed the destructive capabilities
Guernica with high-explosive and incendiary bombs. ˧˛˘ʵʠʥʬʟ˙ˢ˥˖˘˗˕ˬ˧˛˘˕˟ˢˢ˗ʠ˦ˢ˔˞˘˗ʴ˦˜˔ʠ˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖
Hamburg, Dresden, Cologne, Coventry and other European campaign. During the war, Japan’s military culture was
cities followed in the Second World War. The destructive ruled by a “suicidal urge”, as co-author of Victory ‘45
power of aerial bombardment was also unleashed in Al Murray puts it, meaning any advances towards the
˧˛˘˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ˇ˛˘˔˧˥˘ʭ˛˨ˡ˗˥˘˗˦ˢ˙˧˛ˢ˨˦˔ˡ˗˦˗˜˘˗˜ˡˇˢ˞ˬˢʟ Home Islands had a staggering cost. “The Japanese
˂˦˔˞˔ʟʾˢ˕˘˔ˡ˗ˠˢ˥˘˪˛˘ˡ˜ˡ˖˘ˡ˗˜˔˥ˬ˕ˢˠ˕˦˜˚ˡ˜˧˘˗ also believed that the American psyche wouldn’t have
˪ˢˢ˗˘ˡ˛ˢˠ˘˦˜ˡ˧ˢ˨ˡ˦˧ˢˣˣ˔˕˟˘Ѓ˥˘˦˧ˢ˥ˠ˦ʡˇ˛˘˖˥˘˦˖˘ˡ˗ˢ the stomach for the brutal, attritional warfare needed
of this devastating strategy came when the atomic bombs to get to the Home Islands. The next three years proved
ʹ˔˧ˀ˔ˡ˔ˡ˗ʿ˜˧˧˟˘ʵˢˬ˙˘˟˟ˢˡʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔˔ˡ˗ˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜ʡ ˧˛˘ˠ˪˥ˢˡ˚ʟϣ˦˔ˬ˦ˀ˔˖ʺ˥˘˚ˢ˥ʟˡˢ˧˜ˡ˚˧˛˔˧˧˛˘ˈˆ˧ˢˢ˞
At the outset of the Second World War President ˠˢ˥˘˖˔˦˨˔˟˧˜˘˦˜ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˦˜˫ˠˢˡ˧˛˦ˢ˙ʤʬʧʨ˧˛˔ˡ˜ˡ˧˛˘
ʹ˥˔ˡ˞˟˜ˡʷ˅ˢˢ˦˘˩˘˟˧˜ˠˣ˟ˢ˥˘˗˧˛˘˕˘˟˟˜˚˘˥˘ˡ˧˦˧ˢ˔˩ˢ˜˗ ˣ˥˘˩˜ˢ˨˦˧˛˥˘˘ˬ˘˔˥˦˖ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˘˗ʡˈˆ˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥˦˟ˢˢ˞˘˗
civilian casualties when bombing. Yet even as he made to the B-29 as the weapon that could crush Japanese
this plea, one of the USA’s greatest aviation achievements resistance and minimise Allied casualties.
and the eventual bearer of weapons of mass destruction, The Americans had outfought Japanese expectations,
the B-29 Superfortress, was already in development. ˕˨˧ˈˆ˗˘˔˧˛˦˜ˡ˧˛˘ʴ˦˜˔ʠ˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʟ˥˔ˣ˜˗˟ˬ˔ˣˣ˥ˢ˔˖˛˜ˡ˚
Ϣˇ˛˘˦˧˥˔˧˘˚ˬ˪ˢ˨˟˗˕˘˧˛˔˧ˠ˔˖˛˜ˡ˘˦˗ˢ˧˛˘Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˧ˢ ˧˛˘˜˥Ѓˡ˔˟˧ˢ˧˔˟ˢ˙ˢ˩˘˥ʤʣʣʟʣʣʣʟ˪˘˥˘ˠ˔˞˜ˡ˚ˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘
save a hell of a lot of casualties. That doctrine dominated ˕˔˖˞˛ˢˠ˘ˤ˨˘˔˦ˬʡϢˇ˛˘ˡ˘˫˧˝˨ˠˣʠˢ˙˙ˣˢ˜ˡ˧˪˔˦˔ˡ
History of War
American policy even before Pearl Harbor,” says Iain amphibious assault on the Japanese mainland. Military
˦ˣˢ˞˘˧ˢ˧˛˘
MacGregor, historian and author of The Hiroshima Men. ˥˘ˣˢ˥˧˦˦˨˚˚˘˦˧˘˗˧˛˔˧˜ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˙˘˪ˠˢˡ˧˛˦˧˛˘˥˘
award-winning
ʻ˘˔˟˦ˢˡˢ˧˘˦˧˛˘˘˖ˢˡˢˠ˜˖˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˖˘ˢ˙˔ˡ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ could easily have been a million Allied and four million
historian Iain
ˣ˥ˢ˚˥˔ˠˠ˘˧˛˔˧˖ˢ˦˧ˠˢ˥˘˧˛˔ˡ˧˛˘ˀ˔ˡ˛˔˧˧˔ˡ˃˥ˢ˝˘˖˧ʭ civilian casualties,” says MacGregor. In New Mexico, the
MacGregor,
Ϣʼˡ˩˘˦˧˜ˡ˚˧˛˔˧˞˜ˡ˗ˢ˙ˠˢˡ˘ˬˠ˘˔ˡ˧˥˘˝˨˩˘ˡ˔˧˜ˡ˚ ˪ˢ˥˟˗Ϡ˦˚˥˘˔˧˘˦˧ˣ˛ˬ˦˜˖˜˦˧˦˪˘˥˘˦˘˖˥˘˧˟ˬ˪ˢ˥˞˜ˡ˚ˢˡ˔
author of The
ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔Ϡ˦˘˖ˢˡˢˠˬʡˇ˛˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˜ˡ˗˨˦˧˥ˬ˛˔˗˧˔˞˘ˡ˔ weapon of mass destruction that could avoid America’s
Hiroshima Men.
pounding during the Great Depression. They deliberately bloodiest campaign yet.
His thrilling
account of the
race for the The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima
reached 60,000ft (18,300m)
atomic bomb,
and Hiroshima’s
destruction, is
“THE LAST HUMAN WILL
told through the
eyes of American
SEE WHAT WE SAW”
and Japanese
participants. Our
PROFESSOR KISTIAKOWSKY
article also draws AFTER THE TRINITY TEST
on commentary
from a previous
interview with
Al Murray and
James Holland
ˢˡ˧˛˘˜˥˕ˢˢ˞
Victory ‘45.

Images © Alamy, Getty

27
 “RAIN OF RUIN”

Manhattan Project and Trinity

˂ˡ˘˔˙˧˘˥ˡˢˢˡ˜ˡʴ˨˚˨˦˧ʤʬʧʥʟˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʿ˘˦˟˜˘ʺ˥ˢ˩˘˦˛˔˗
just concluded a lengthy, dry testimony on military
˛ˢ˨˦˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˔ʻˢ˨˦˘ˢ˙˅˘ˣ˥˘˦˘ˡ˧˔˧˜˩˘˦˖ˢˠˠ˜˧˧˘˘ʡ
Brigadier General Brehon B Somervell, head of the
ʶˢˡ˦˧˥˨˖˧˜ˢˡʷ˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡʟ˖ˢ˥ˡ˘˥˘˗˛˜ˠˢˡ˧˛˘˪˔ˬˢ˨˧ʭϢˇ˛˘
secretary of war has selected you for a very important
assignment, and the president has approved the
selection... If you do the job right, it will win the war.”
ʺ˥ˢ˩˘˦˥˘ˣ˟˜˘˗ʭϢ˂˛ʟ˧˛˔˧˧˛˜ˡ˚ʡϣ
The major’s reputation for running colossal
infrastructure projects had once again hamstrung his
˔ˠ˕˜˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˟˘˔˗˜ˡ˚ˠ˘ˡ˜ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˘˟˗ʡϢʺ˥ˢ˩˘˦˛˔˗˗ˢˡ˘
˕˥˜˟˟˜˔ˡ˧˪ˢ˥˞˜ˡ˥˘˕˨˜˟˗˜ˡ˚ˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˜ˡ˙˥˔˦˧˥˨˖˧˨˥˘˔˖˥ˢ˦˦
˧˛˘ˈˡ˜˧˘˗ˆ˧˔˧˘˦˜ˡ˧˛˘˟˔˧˧˘˥˛˔˟˙ˢ˙˧˛˘ʤʬʦʣ˦ʡˇ˛˔˧
˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˘˗˔˜˥ˣˢ˥˧˦ʟ˗˘ˣˢ˧˦ʟˣˢ˥˧˦ʟ˕˔˥˥˔˖˞˦˔ˡ˗˧˥˔˜ˡ˜ˡ˚
˖˘ˡ˧˥˘˦ʟϣ˦˔ˬ˦ˀ˔˖ʺ˥˘˚ˢ˥ʡϣˇ˛˘˜˖˜ˡ˚ˢˡ˧˛˘˖˔˞˘˪˔˦ Above:ˇ˛˘Ѓ˥˘˕˔˟˟˙˥ˢˠʺ˔˗˚˘˧˪˔˦
building the Pentagon, the world’s largest building at that ˕˥˜˚˛˧˘˥˧˛˔ˡ˧˛˘˦˨ˡ
ˣˢ˜ˡ˧ʡˇ˛˔˧˥˘ˤ˨˜˥˘˗˔˪ˢ˥˞˙ˢ˥˖˘ˢ˙ˢ˩˘˥ʤʣʟʣʣʣˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘ʡϣ Below: ˇ˛˘ʺ˔˗˚˘˧˕˟˔˦˧˖˔˨˦˘˗˔
ˠ˨˦˛˥ˢˢˠ˖˟ˢ˨˗ʪʡʨˠ˜˟˘˦ʛʤʥʡʤ˞ˠʜ˛˜˚˛
The Manhattan Project was to become his reluctant opus.
Groves insisted on a promotion to lieutenant general so
˧˛˘ˣ˥ˢ˝˘˖˧Ϡ˦˛ˬˣ˘˥ʠ˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˧˔˖˔˗˘ˠ˜˖˦˪ˢ˨˟˗˧˔˞˘˛˜ˠ
seriously, but the promotion might not have been needed
˚˜˩˘ˡ˛˜˦˘ˡˢ˥ˠˢ˨˦ˣ˘˥˦ˢˡ˔˟˜˧ˬʡʾ˘ˡˡ˘˧˛ʷˁ˜˖˛ˢ˟˦ʟ
district engineer of the Manhattan Engineer District, wrote
ˢ˙˛˜ˠʭϢʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʺ˥ˢ˩˘˦˜˦˧˛˘˕˜˚˚˘˦˧ˆ˂ʵʼ˛˔˩˘˘˩˘˥
˪ˢ˥˞˘˗˙ˢ˥ʡʻ˘˜˦ˠˢ˦˧˗˘ˠ˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˚ʡʻ˘˜˦ˠˢ˦˧˖˥˜˧˜˖˔˟ʡʻ˘
is always a driver, never a praiser.”
ʺ˥ˢ˩˘˦˦˘˟˘˖˧˘˗˔ˡˢ˧˛˘˥˚˥˘˔˧ˠ˔ˡ˔˚˘˥ʟ˧˛˘ʵ˘˥˞˘˟˘ˬ
˧˛˘ˢ˥˘˧˜˖˔˟ˣ˛ˬ˦˜˖˜˦˧ʽ˅ˢ˕˘˥˧˂ˣˣ˘ˡ˛˘˜ˠ˘˥ʟ˧ˢ˟˘˔˗
Manhattan’s scientists from a laboratory in Los Alamos,
New Mexico. Oppenheimer’s previous associations
˪˜˧˛˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˦ˠ˔ˡ˗˔ˡ˔˙˙˔˜˥˪˜˧˛ʽ˘˔ˡˇ˔˧˟ˢ˖˞ʟ˔
Communist Party USA member, didn’t put Groves off the
decision. MacGregor describes what made him suited to
˧˛˘ˣ˥ˢ˝˘˖˧ʭϢ˂ˣˣ˘ˡ˛˘˜ˠ˘˥˖ˢ˨˟˗˖˔˝ˢ˟˘ʟˣ˘˥˦˨˔˗˘˔ˡ˗
inspire his teams to get the job done. He was constantly
being pulled this way and that by the various teams at
Los Alamos who were having problems, and was always
at the forefront to solve them.”

Below: ˀ˔ˡ˛˔˧˧˔ˡ˃˥ˢ˝˘˖˧ˣ˛ˬ˦˜˖˜˦˧˦ʛ˟˘˙˧˧ˢ˥˜˚˛˧ʜʾ˘ˡˡ˘˧˛
ʵ˔˜ˡ˕˥˜˗˚˘ʟʽˢ˦˘ˣ˛ʻˢ˙˙ˠ˔ˡʟʽ˅ˢ˕˘˥˧˂ˣˣ˘ˡ˛˘˜ˠ˘˥ʟʿˢ˨˜˦
ʻ˘ˠˣ˘˟ˠ˔ˡʟ˅ˢ˕˘˥˧ʵ˔˖˛˘˥ʟˉ˜˖˧ˢ˥ˊ˘˜˦˦˞ˢˣ˙˔ˡ˗˅˜˖˛˔˥˗ʷˢ˗˦ˢˡ

28
 PATH TO HIROSHIMA

F I R E B O M B I N G TO K YO
The devastating attack on Japan’s capital set a terrible
new precedent for aerial mass destruction
While the bombing of Hiroshima and wood and paper housing erupted into
ˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜˦˛ˢ˖˞˘˗˧˛˘˪ˢ˥˟˗ʟ˧˛˘ˬ Є˔ˠ˘˦˔˖˥ˢ˦˦˧˛˘˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥ˬʡʸ˦˧˜ˠ˔˧˘˦
were preceded by years of escalating of the deaths from the bombing
conventional aerial bombardment campaigns against Japan in the
by the Allies. Iain MacGregor says United States Strategic Bombing Survey
Ѓ˥˘˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚˪˔˦˧˛˘ˣˢ˜ˡ˧ˢ˙ˡˢ ˥˘ˣˢ˥˧˦˥˔ˡ˚˘˙˥ˢˠʦʦʦʟʣʣʣ˧ˢʬʣʣʟʣʣʣʟ
return that made atomic bombing ˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˜ˡ˚ʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔˔ˡ˗ˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜ʡ
acceptable to the American leadership. ʿ˘ˀ˔ˬϠ˦˨˦˘ˢ˙ˡ˔ˣ˔˟ˠ˪˔˦˛ˢ˥˥˜Ѓ˖˔˟˟ˬ
Ϣʼ˙˧˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘ˣ˥˘ˣ˔˥˘˗˧ˢЃ˥˘˕ˢˠ˕˧˛˘ ˘˙˙˘˖˧˜˩˘ʟ˪˜˧˛ʨʩʠʫʧˣ˘˥˖˘ˡ˧ˢ˙˧˛˘
˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥ˬ˧ˢ˜˧˦˞ˡ˘˘˦ʟ˪˛ˬ˪ˢ˨˟˗ˡϠ˧˧˛˘ˬ fatalities caused by burns.
drop an atomic bomb?” he says. “It was ʷ˘˦ˣ˜˧˘˧˛˘˗˘˦˧˥˨˖˧˜ˢˡʟЃ˥˘˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚
Above:ˁˢ˥˥˜˦ʵ˥˔˗˕˨˥ˬʟ˚˥ˢ˨ˣ˟˘˔˗˘˥ just another piece of ordnance.” proved a failure in forcing the
˙ˢ˥˕ˢˠ˕˔˦˦˘ˠ˕˟ˬʟ˦˧˔ˡ˗˦ˡ˘˫˧˧ˢ ʼˡʴ˨˚˨˦˧ʤʬʧʧʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʶ˨˥˧˜˦ʿ˘ˀ˔ˬ Japanese government to surrender.
ʺ˔˗˚˘˧˔˧ˢˣ˧˛˘˧˘˦˧˧ˢ˪˘˥ ˧ˢˢ˞˖˛˔˥˚˘ˢ˙ˋˋʵˢˠ˕˘˥ʶˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗ʟ Unimaginable casualties, and the
responsible for the bombing campaign ˘˩˔˖˨˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˔ˤ˨˔˥˧˘˥ˢ˙ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡϠ˦
against Japan. He found that the urban population, could not end
powerful jet stream winds over the support for the war effort. “The
Home Islands made high-altitude Japanese were controlling information
precision bombing almost impossible. so tightly that the population didn’t
So instead of relying on accuracy, he ˘˩˘ˡ˞ˡˢ˪˧˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘˟ˢ˦˜ˡ˚ʟϣ˦˔ˬ˦ʴ˟
harnessed the destructive potential of Murray. “[But] perhaps there was a
tonnes of incendiary bombs. This was ˦ˡ˘˔˞˜ˡ˚˦˨˦ˣ˜˖˜ˢˡ˜ˡ˧˛˘˕˔˖˞˦ˢ˙˧˛˘˜˥
most terribly demonstrated during minds that the war wasn’t going as
Operation Meetinghouse, a large raid well as it could.”
ˢˡ˧˛˘˖˔ˣ˜˧˔˟ˇˢ˞ˬˢˢˡ˧˛˘ˡ˜˚˛˧ˢ˙ The Allies needed a more destructive
ʬʠʤʣˀ˔˥˖˛ʤʬʧʨʡˇ˛˜˦˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚˥˔˜˗ ˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˧ˢ˕˥˘˔˞˧˛˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘
destroyed vast swathes of the capital government’s ironclad commitment to
˔ˡ˗˞˜˟˟˘˗ˢ˩˘˥ʤʣʣʟʣʣʣˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘ʟˠ˔˜ˡ˟ˬ Ѓ˚˛˧˧ˢ˧˛˘˕˜˧˧˘˥˘ˡ˗ʡ
civilians, more than four-times the
estimated deaths during the bombing
of Dresden a month earlier.
Meetinghouse was a new and terrible
“IF WE LOSE, WE’LL
milestone in the destructive capability
of air power, leaving more than an
˔ˠ˕˜˚˨ˢ˨˦ˤ˨˘˦˧˜ˢˡˠ˔˥˞ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘
BE TRIED AS
legality and morality of the tactic. “If
we lose, we’ll be tried as war criminals,”
WAR CRIMINALS”
ʿ˘ˀ˔ˬ˦ˢ˕˘˥˟ˬ˥˘ˠ˔˥˞˘˗ʡ˂˩˘˥˧˛˘
˙ˢ˟˟ˢ˪˜ˡ˚Ѓ˩˘ˠˢˡ˧˛˦ʟʵʠʥʬ˥˔˜˗˦˧˨˥ˡ˘˗ GENERAL LEMAY
66 Japanese cities to ash. Traditional AFTER OPERATION MEETINGHOUSE
ʴˡ˜ˠˣ˥ˢ˩˜˦˘˗ˠ˔˥˞˘˧˔ˠˢˡ˚ˇˢ˞ˬˢϠ˦
Ѓ˥˘˕ˢˠ˕˘˗˥˨˜ˡ˦ʟ˂˖˧ˢ˕˘˥ʤʬʧʨ

Images © Alamy, Getty

29
 “RAIN OF RUIN”

T H E M A N H AT TA N P R O J E C T ’ S S U P P LY C H A I N
Oppenheimer’s Los Alamos Laboratory drew from research and materials
gathered in over 30 locations across the USA, Canada and UK
The Manhattan Project was greater than Los
ʴ˟˔ˠˢ˦˔ˡ˗˔˧˜˧˦ˣ˘˔˞˘ˠˣ˟ˢˬ˘˗ʤʦʣʟʣʣʣ ˇ˛˘ʶ˟˜ˡ˧ˢˡʸˡ˚˜ˡ˘˘˥ˊˢ˥˞˦˜ˡ˂˔˞˅˜˗˚˘ʟˇ˘ˡˡ˘˦˦˘˘ʟ
people. The logistics challenge was bringing ˣ˥ˢ˗˨˖˘˗˨˥˔ˡ˜˨ˠ˙ˢ˥˧˛˘ˀ˔ˡ˛˔˧˧˔ˡ˃˥ˢ˝˘˖˧
˩˔˦˧ˤ˨˔ˡ˧˜˧˜˘˦ˢ˙˛˘˔˩ˬ˪˔˧˘˥˔ˡ˗ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥
ores and metals to the uranium reactor
˔˧ʶ˟˜ˡ˧ˢˡʸˡ˚˜ˡ˘˘˥ˊˢ˥˞˦ʟˇ˘ˡˡ˘˦˦˘˘ʟ˔ˡ˗
the plutonium reactor at Hanford Engineer
ˊˢ˥˞˦ʟˊ˔˦˛˜ˡ˚˧ˢˡʡˊˢ˥˞˘˥˦˧˛˘ˡ˘ˡ˥˜˖˛˘˗
˧˛˘ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥ˠ˔˧˘˥˜˔˟˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘ʤʫʟʬʣʣʟʣʣʣ˟˕
ʛʫʟʨʪʣʟʣʣʣ˞˚ʜˢ˙˨˥˔ˡ˜˨ˠˢ˥˘˔˖ˤ˨˜˥˘˗˙ˢ˥˧˛˘
Manhattan Project. Atomic weapon-grade
uranium and plutonium moved on to Los
Alamos for weapon assembly.

ˊˢ˥˞˘˥˦˚˔˧˛˘˥˔˧˧˛˘ʻ˔ˡ˙ˢ˥˗
ʸˡ˚˜ˡ˘˘˥ˊˢ˥˞˦ʟˊ˔˦˛˜ˡ˚˧ˢˡʟ
˙ˢ˥ˣ˟˨˧ˢˡ˜˨ˠˣ˥ˢ˗˨˖˧˜ˢˡ

G RE E N H EAV Y
WATE R PRODUCTION
FOR ALL N UCLEAR 2
REACTORS 4
Alabama Army Ammunition Plant,
1 Alabama, heavy water production

Morgantown Ordnance Works,

2 West Virginia 2 4 3
5
Wabash River Ordnance Works, 3 3
3 Indiana 2
RE D N UCLEAR 6
MATE RIAL 1 1
PRODUCTION
Clinton Engineer Works, Tennessee, 7 1
1 enriched uranium production

Hanford Engineer Works,

2 Washington, plutonium production

Dayton Project, Ohio,

3 polonium production

Ames Project, Iowa, uranium

4 metal production

GOLD L ABORATORI ES AN D RESEARCH

Los Alamos, University of Metallurgical Montreal Project Project Alamogordo
1 New Mexico, 2 California, 3 Laboratory (Met 4 Laboratory, 5 Alberta, 6 Camel, 7 and McDonald
primary weapons Berkeley, Lab), University of Canada, Wendover Field, California, Ranch House, New
laboratory and California, Chicago, Illinois, nuclear reactor bomb shape detonator Mexico, Gadget
pre-assembly of radiation plutonium production design and design and development assembly and
nuclear bombs laboratory laboratory construction assembly, Utah and drop testing Trinity Test site

30
 PATH TO HIROSHIMA

ʴ˙˧˘˥˔˟ˠˢ˦˧˧˛˥˘˘ˬ˘˔˥˦ʟ˂ˣˣ˘ˡ˛˘˜ˠ˘˥Ѓˡ˔˟˟ˬ˛˔˗˔
˂ˣˣ˘ˡ˛˘˜ˠ˘˥ʛ˟˘˙˧ʜ˔ˡ˗
completed nuclear weapon - Gadget - and a plan to
ʺ˥ˢ˩˘˦˘˫˔ˠ˜ˡ˘˧˛˘
˗˘ˠˢˡ˦˧˥˔˧˘˜˧˔˧˧˛˘ˇ˥˜ˡ˜˧ˬˇ˘˦˧ʡʴ˧ʨʡʥʬ˔ˠˢˡʤʩʽ˨˟ˬʤʬʧʨʟ ˥˘ˠ˔˜ˡ˦ˢ˙˧˛˘˦˧˘˘˟˧˘˦˧
ʺ˔˗˚˘˧˗˘˧ˢˡ˔˧˘˗ʟˬ˜˘˟˗˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˘ˤ˨˜˩˔˟˘ˡ˧ˢ˙ʥʨ˞˜˟ˢ˧ˢˡ˦ ˧ˢ˪˘˥˨˦˘˗˜ˡ˧˛˘ˇ˥˜ˡ˜˧ˬˇ˘˦˧
of TNT. “I am sure that at the end of the world — in the last
millisecond of the Earth’s existence — the last human will
˦˘˘˪˛˔˧˪˘˦˔˪ʟϣ˥˘Є˘˖˧˘˗˃˥ˢ˙˘˦˦ˢ˥ʺ˘ˢ˥˚˘ʾ˜˦˧˜˔˞ˢ˪˦˞ˬ
after watching the blast.

Destroying Hiroshima
Ϣʼ˛˔˩˘˔˧˘˥˥˜Ѓ˖ˣ˔˜ˡ˜ˡ˧˛˘˕˔˖˞ˢ˙ˠˬ˛˘˔˗ϣʟ˅ˢˢ˦˘˩˘˟˧
uttered before slumping forward dead. The death of the
ˈˆʴϠ˦˟ˢˡ˚˘˦˧ʠ˦˘˥˩˜ˡ˚ˣ˥˘˦˜˗˘ˡ˧ˢˡʤʥʴˣ˥˜˟ʤʬʧʨ˦˛ˢ˖˞˘˗
the world, but for the Manhattan Project it signalled a
˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧˧˨˥ˡ˜ˡ˚ˣˢ˜ˡ˧ʡ
ʴ˦˔ˡ˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥ˢˡ˧˛˘ˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡʹ˥ˢˡ˧˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘
First World War, Harry Truman was a man familiar with the
power of explosives. “When Henry Stimson, secretary of
war, briefed Truman on the Manhattan Project and told
˛˜ˠʭϟ˂ˡ˘˕ˢˠ˕˛˔˦˧˛˘˘ˤ˨˜˩˔˟˘ˡ˧ˢ˙ʥʣʟʣʣʣ˧ˢˡ˦ˢ˙ˇˁˇʟϠ
˔ˡ˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬˠ˔ˡ˟˜˞˘ˇ˥˨ˠ˔ˡ˪ˢ˨˟˗˞ˡˢ˪˧˛˔˧˪ˢ˨˟˗˦˪˜ˡ˚
˧˛˘˪˔˥˜ˡ˛˜˦˙˔˩ˢ˨˥ʟϣ˘˫ˣ˟˔˜ˡ˦ˀ˔˖ʺ˥˘˚ˢ˥ʡ˅ˢˢ˦˘˩˘˟˧
˟˜˞˘˟ˬ˪ˢ˨˟˗˛˔˩˘˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗ʹ˔˧ˀ˔ˡ˔ˡ˗ʿ˜˧˧˟˘ʵˢˬʟ˔˟˕˘˜˧
reluctantly. Truman made it a certainty.
Following the success of the Trinity Test, uranium and
the components for Little Boy transferred to the military.
The Portland-class heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis carried
the war-ending cargo, sailing from San Francisco to
˃˘˔˥˟ʻ˔˥˕ˢ˥ˢˡʤʩʽ˨˟ˬ˜ˡ˔˥˘˖ˢ˥˗˧˜ˠ˘ˢ˙ʪʧʡʨ˛ˢ˨˥˦ʡ
Indianapolis then raced on unaccompanied to North
Field on Tinian in the Mariana Islands, arriving on 26
July and transferring the bomb into the hands of the
ʨʣʬ˧˛ʶˢˠˣˢ˦˜˧˘ʺ˥ˢ˨ˣ˥˘˦ˣˢˡ˦˜˕˟˘˙ˢ˥˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˦ˢ˥˧˜˘˦ʡ

“IF DANTE HAD BEEN ON THE PLANE WITH

US, HE WOULD HAVE BEEN TERRIFIED”
ENOLA GAY PILOT PAUL TIBBETS

Images © Alamy, Getty

ʿ˜˧˧˟˘ʵˢˬ˜˦˟ˢ˔˗˘˗ˢˡ˧ˢʸˡˢ˟˔ʺ˔ˬ

31
 “RAIN OF RUIN”

ʼˡ˗˜˔ˡ˔ˣˢ˟˜˦˦˔ˡ˞˦ˢˢˡ˔˙˧˘˥ʟ˦˧˥˨˖˞˕ˬ˧˪ˢˇˬˣ˘ʬʨ The evening before, Enola Gay’s had crew gathered in Above, left: ˇ˛˘ʸˡˢ˟˔
˧ˢ˥ˣ˘˗ˢ˘˦ʡˀ˔ˡˬˢ˙˜˧˦˖˥˘˪˙˔˖˘˗˔˚˥˜˦˟ˬ˘ˡ˗ʟˣ˜˖˞˘˗ˢ˙˙ ˧˛˘˖˔ˡ˧˘˘ˡʟ˗˜˚˘˦˧˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˜˥˕˥˜˘Ѓˡ˚ˢˡ˧˛˘ˠ˜˦˦˜ˢˡϠ˦˧˥˨˘ ʺ˔ˬ˟˔ˡ˗˦˔˙˧˘˥˜˧˦
˕ˬ˦˛˔˥˞˦˔˦˧˛˘ˬ˖˟˨ˡ˚˧ˢ˧˛˘˪˥˘˖˞˔˚˘ʡ purpose. Yet none of them had been at the Trinity Test ˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚
ˠ˜˦˦˜ˢˡˢˡʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔
The B-29 Enola Gay’s target was Hiroshima, HQ of the and could not understand the scale of destruction in their
Above, right: Most of
2nd General Army, responsible for defending western hands. A Los Alamos scientist came over with welder’s ʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔Ϡ˦˦˨˥˩˜˩ˢ˥˦
ʻˢˡ˦˛Ω˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ʾˬΩ˦˛Ω˔ˡ˗ˆ˛˜˞ˢ˞˨˜˦˟˔ˡ˗˦ʡʿ˜˧˧˟˘ʵˢˬ ˚ˢ˚˚˟˘˦ʟ˔˪˔˥ˡ˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˘˫ˣ˘˖˧˔Є˔˦˛˕˥˜˚˛˧˘˥˧˛˔ˡ˧˛˘˦˨ˡʡ ˦˨˙˙˘˥˘˗˕˨˥ˡ˦
could demonstrate its full power on the city that had been ˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦˔ˡ˗˛˜˦˖˥˘˪˧ˢˢ˞ˢ˙˙˔˧ʥʡʧʨ˔ˠˢˡʩʴ˨˚˨˦˧
undamaged by conventional bombing. If weather or ʤʬʧʨʟ˦ˢ˔˥˜ˡ˚ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘˪˥˘˖˞˔˚˘ˢ˙˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˟˘˦˦ʵʠʥʬ˦˔˧˧˛˘
navigational issues prevented the bombing of Hiroshima, ˘ˡ˗ˢ˙˧˛˘ʫʟʨʣʣ˙˧ʛʥʟʩʣʣˠʜ˥˨ˡ˪˔ˬʡˁ˔˩˜˚˔˧ˢ˥ʷ˨˧˖˛˩˔ˡ
˧˛˘ˡʾˢ˞˨˥˔ʟˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜ˢ˥˧˛˘ˢ˖˘˔ˡ˪˘˥˘˧˛˘˔˟˧˘˥ˡ˔˧˜˩˘˦ʡ ʾ˜˥˞ˣ˟ˢ˧˧˘˗˧˛˘ʤʟʨʣʣʠˠ˜˟˘ʛʥʟʧʣʣ˞ˠʜ˥ˢ˨˧˘˧ˢʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔ʡ
Under no circumstances was the bomb to return to Tinian. ʵˬ˧˛˜˦˦˧˔˚˘ˢ˙˧˛˘˪˔˥ˠˢ˦˧ˢ˙ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡϠ˦Ѓ˚˛˧˘˥˦˛˔˗˕˘˘ˡ
ˇ˛˘ˈˆ˔˟˦ˢ˖ˢ˨˟˗ˡϠ˧˥˜˦˞˧˛˘˦˘˖˥˘˧˦ˢ˙˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˥ˬ shot down, and those remaining stood little chance of
falling into Japanese hands. “[Pilot] Tibbets didn’t tell his ˜ˡ˧˘˥˖˘ˣ˧˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˙˔˦˧ʟ˛˜˚˛ʠЄˬ˜ˡ˚ʵʠʥʬʡ
crew that the senior surgeon on the island had given him a Thirty minutes before arrival at Hiroshima, Tibbets
˦˘˔˟˘˗ˣ˔˖˞˘˧ˢ˙˖ˬ˔ˡ˜˗˘ˣ˜˟˟˦˔ˡ˗˦˔˜˗˧˛˔˧ˡˢˡ˘ˢ˙˧˛˘ˠ ˣ˨˦˛˘˗˧˛˘˦˧˜˖˞˗ˢ˪ˡ˧ˢ˪˔˥˗˦˦ˠˢˢ˧˛˘˥˔˜˥ʡˊ˘˔ˣˢˡ˘˘˥
˖ˢ˨˟˗˕˘˧˔˞˘ˡ˔˟˜˩˘ʟϣ˦˔ˬ˦ˀ˔˖ʺ˥˘˚ˢ˥ʡ and mission commander Captain William Parson and

PAU L T I B B E T S ˃˔˨˟ˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦ʛ˥˜˚˛˧ʜ
˗˘˟˜˩˘˥˦˔˕˥˜˘Ѓˡ˚
Who was the man that ˣ˥˜ˢ˥˧ˢ˧˛˘ʸˡˢ˟˔

destroyed Hiroshima?
ʺ˔ˬˠ˜˦˦˜ˢˡ

Tibbets lived and breathed aviation ever since his

ˣ˔˥˘ˡ˧˦ˣ˔˜˗˔˕˔˥ˡ˦˧ˢ˥ˠ˘˥˧ˢ˧˔˞˘˛˜ˠ˨ˣ˜ˡ˔
biplane at a horse racing event. Aged 12, he was
˛ˢˢ˞˘˗ʡʻ˘˦ˣ˘ˡ˧˛˜˦˖ˢ˟˟˘˚˘ˬ˘˔˥˦˦ˤ˨˘˘˭˜ˡ˚˜ˡ
Єˬ˜ˡ˚˟˘˦˦ˢˡ˦˪˛˘˥˘˩˘˥ˣˢ˦˦˜˕˟˘ʡʻ˘˖˔˦˧˔˦˜˗˘˛˜˦
parents’ dream of a son in medicine and enlisted as
˔ˣ˜˟ˢ˧˜ˡ˧˛˘ˈˡ˜˧˘˗ˆ˧˔˧˘˦ʴ˥ˠˬʴ˜˥ʶˢ˥ˣ˦˜ˡʤʬʦʪʡ
ʹˢ˨˥ˬ˘˔˥˦˟˔˧˘˥ʟˢ˩˘˥ʦʨʣʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧
savaged Pearl Harbor. America was at war and
Tibbets, now promoted to captain, dived into the
˧˛˜˖˞ˢ˙˜˧ʡʴ˦˦˜˚ˡ˘˗˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˚ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥ˢ˙˧˛˘ʦʧʣ˧˛
ʵˢˠ˕˔˥˗ˠ˘ˡ˧ˆˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡʟ˛˘˪˔˦ˢˡ˘ˢ˙˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˜ˡ
the Eighth Air Force deployed to England. Tibbets
˪˘ˡ˧˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛˛˘˟˟Єˬ˜ˡ˚˅˘˗ʺ˥˘ˠ˟˜ˡʟ˔ʵʠʤʪʷʡϢʻ˘˦˔˪
some of the hardest raids in terms of losses because
their tactics and armament weren’t correct. I would
argue Tibbets had PTSD before he even got the
Manhattan job,” says historian Iain MacGregor.
ʶˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗ˢ˙˧˛˘ʨʣʬ˧˛ʶˢˠˣˢ˦˜˧˘ʺ˥ˢ˨ˣ˖˔ˠ˘˧ˢ
ˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦˜ˡˆ˘ˣ˧˘ˠ˕˘˥ʤʬʧʧʡʻ˘˪˔˦˔ˡ˔˧˨˥˔˟˖˛ˢ˜˖˘ʟ
˛˔˩˜ˡ˚˪ˢ˥˞˘˗˔˦˔ʵʠʥʬ˧˘˦˧ˣ˜˟ˢ˧˪˜˧˛˖ˢˡˡ˘˖˧˜ˢˡ˦
to the Silverplate project. Tibbets spent the next year
˪ˢ˥˞˜ˡ˚˪˜˧˛˛˜˦ʵʠʥʬ˖˥˘˪˦˔˧ˊ˘ˡ˗ˢ˩˘˥ʹ˜˘˟˗˔ˡ˗
Tinian Island, preparing them for the two missions
that would end the war.

32
 PATH TO HIROSHIMA

S I LV E R P L AT E B -2 9 S U P E R FO R T R E S S
Enola Gay and Bockscar were far from ordinary B-29s
The B-29 Superfortress was the most Despite its strengths, a standard B-29 could Japan for extended periods, with the speed
impactful weapon of the Second World ˡˢ˧ˣ˨˟˟ˢ˙˙˔ˡ˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˦˧˥˜˞˘ʡʼ˧˦˘ˠˣ˧ˬ˪˘˜˚˛˧ ˔ˡ˗ˠ˔ˡˢ˘˨˩˥˔˕˜˟˜˧ˬ˧ˢ˔˖˛˜˘˩˘ʤʣˠ˜˟˘˦
ˊ˔˥ʟ˗˘˦˜˚ˡ˘˗˦ˣ˘˖˜Ѓ˖˔˟˟ˬ˙ˢ˥˟ˢˡ˚ʠ was too high, reducing the maximum payload, ʛʤʩ˞ˠʜ˗˜˦˧˔ˡ˖˘˙˥ˢˠ˔ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˪˘˔ˣˢˡϠ˦
range missions behind the frontline. and its bomb bay was separated into two ˗˘˧ˢˡ˔˧˜ˢˡʡˇ˛˘ˈˡ˜˧˘˗ˆ˧˔˧˘˦˕˨˜˟˧ʩʧ
Bombing missions against Japan soon sections, one behind the other. Both Fat Man ˆ˜˟˩˘˥ˣ˟˔˧˘ʵʠʥʬ˦ʟ˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ʨʣʬ˧˛Єˬ˜ˡ˚ʤʨ
became its bread and butter. The B-29 ˔ˡ˗ʿ˜˧˧˟˘ʵˢˬ˖ˢ˨˟˗Ѓ˧˜ˡ˦˜˗˘˔˦˜ˡ˚˟˘˦˘˖˧˜ˢˡ ˢ˙˧˛˘ˠʡˆ˜˟˩˘˥ˣ˟˔˧˘˦˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˘˗˧ˢЄˬ˙ˢ˥
˛˔˗˧˛˘˪ˢ˥˟˗Ϡ˦Ѓ˥˦˧˔˜˥ʠˣ˥˘˦˦˨˥˜˦˘˗ ˕˨˧˥˘ˤ˨˜˥˘˗˔˥ˢ˕˨˦˧˥˘˟˘˔˦˘˦ˬ˦˧˘ˠʡʴ˦˔ several years after the war as the America’s
cabin, to operate at altitudes over ˥˘˦˨˟˧ʟʸˡˢ˟˔ʺ˔ˬ˔ˡ˗ʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥˛˔˗ˠˢ˗˜Ѓ˘˗ ˦ˢ˟˘ˣ˟˔˧˙ˢ˥ˠ˙ˢ˥ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˦˧˥˜˞˘˦ʡ
ʦʣʟʣʣʣ˙˧ʛʬʟʤʧʣˠʜʡʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˜ˡ˧˘˥˖˘ˣ˧ˢ˥˦ Silverplate airframes. These aircraft were
struggled to get to that height and their lighter, stripped of all but the rear guns, and
weaponry was ineffective against the capable of carrying a heavier bomb and fuel
B-29’s formidable defensive gunnery. It load, giving the aircraft superior range and
had a bigger bomb bay for larger loads altitude performance. The bomb bay was
of ordnance, and four advanced fuel- combined into a single compartment that
injected engines which gave it the power ˪˔˦ʦʦ˙˧ʛʤʣˠʜ˟ˢˡ˚ʡ
to carry twice the tonnage of bombs than ˇ˛˘˦˘ˠˢ˗˜Ѓ˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˖ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˘˗˧ˢ˘ˡ˦˨˥˘
˔ʵʠʤʪʟ˔ˡ˗Єˬ˧˪˜˖˘˔˦˙˔˥ʡ Silverplate B-29 aircraft could remain over

Below: ˇ˛˘ˆ˜˟˩˘˥ˣ˟˔˧˘ʵʠʥʬˆ˨ˣ˘˥˙ˢ˥˧˥˘˦˦
ʸˡˢ˟˔ʺ˔ˬ˪˜˧˛˜˧˦˖˥˘˪ʡ˃˜˟ˢ˧˃˔˨˟ˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦˜˦
˦˘˖ˢˡ˗˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘˟˘˙˧
Inset, right: ˇ˛˘ˈˆˣ˥ˢ˗˨˖˘˗ʦʟʬʪʣ
ʵʠʥʬ˦˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ˆ˘˖ˢˡ˗ˊˢ˥˟˗ˊ˔˥

“TIBBETS HAD PTSD BEFORE HE

EVEN GOT THE MANHATTAN JOB”
Images © Alamy, Getty

IAIN MACGREGOR

33
 “RAIN OF RUIN”

HERSEY’S HIROSHIMA
One intrepid reporter’s iconic work continues to
shape perceptions of nuclear warfare “THEY MAY EXPECT A RAIN
ʼˡˀ˔ˬʤʬʧʩʟ˧˛˘˪˔˥˥˘ˣˢ˥˧˘˥˔ˡ˗
˃˨˟˜˧˭˘˥˃˥˜˭˘ʠ˪˜ˡˡ˜ˡ˚ˡˢ˩˘˟˜˦˧ʽˢ˛ˡ
ʻ˘˥˦˘ˬ˔˥˥˜˩˘˗˜ˡʽ˔ˣ˔ˡʟ˦˛˔˞˘ˡ
OF RUIN FROM THE AIR, THE
˕ˬ˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗˘˫ˣ˘˥˜˘ˡ˖˘˦˔˖˥ˢ˦˦
Europe and Asia and near misses in LIKES OF WHICH HAS NEVER
four plane crashes. The New Yorker
had commissioned him to deliver a
human-focussed report, simply titled
BEEN SEEN ON THIS EARTH”
Hiroshima. Hersey’s masterpiece TRUMAN TO JAPAN’S RULERS
tells the story of six survivors, from
the day Enola Gay dropped Little Boy
AFTER THE HIROSHIMA BOMBING
to its lasting impacts after several
months. At a time when millions
of US servicemen had returned
home alive and the suffering of the
Japanese was not on Americans’
minds, Hersey sought to show the
bombing’s human impact.
ʴ˧ʦʣʟʣʣʣ˪ˢ˥˗˦ʟThe New Yorker
˗˘˩ˢ˧˘˗˜˧˦˘ˡ˧˜˥˘ʦʤʴ˨˚˨˦˧ʤʬʧʩ
issue to Hiroshima, timed for the
Ѓ˥˦˧˔ˡˡ˜˩˘˥˦˔˥ˬʡˊ˜˧˛˜ˡ˔˪˘˘˞ʟ Above: ˇ˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˘˗˜˧˜ˢˡˢ˙ʻ˘˥˦˘ˬϠ˦
Manhattan’s newsstands were cleared ʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔˔˦ˣ˨˕˟˜˦˛˘˗˕ˬ˃˘ˡ˚˨˜ˡ
ˢ˨˧ʡˇ˛˘ˠ˔˚˔˭˜ˡ˘˛˔˗˦ˢ˟˗ʦʣʣʟʣʣʣ
copies and received widespread end of the Second World War, there was
˔˖˖˟˔˜ˠʡʴ˙˘˪˪˘˘˞˦˟˔˧˘˥ʟʵʵʶ˅˔˗˜ˢ an atomic programme that could wipe
dramatised Hiroshima and the story ˢ˨˧˔˛˨˚˘˖˛˨ˡ˞ˢ˙˔˖˜˧ˬˢ˥˗˘˦˧˥ˢˬ
spread to Europe. ˔˪˛ˢ˟˘˛˔˥˕ˢ˨˥ʡʵˬ˧˛˘ʤʬʨʣ˦ʟˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥
HiroshimaϠ˦˜ˡЄ˨˘ˡ˖˘˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˘˗ technology delivered the hydrogen
˟ˢˡ˚˔˙˧˘˥ʤʬʧʩʡ˃˘ˡ˚˨˜ˡ˕ˢ˨˚˛˧ ˕ˢˠ˕ʟ˪˛˜˖˛˪˔˦˜ˡЃˡ˜˧˘˟ˬˠˢ˥˘
˧˛˘˕ˢˢ˞˥˜˚˛˧˦˪˜˧˛˜ˡ˔ˬ˘˔˥˔ˡ˗˜˧ powerful than an atomic bomb. It’s a
remains in print. The publisher has genocidal weapon. Survivor testimonies
sold over 3 million copies and it has of what an atomic bomb did caused
˕˘˘ˡ˧˥˔ˡ˦˟˔˧˘˗˜ˡ˧ˢˢ˩˘˥˔˗ˢ˭˘ˡ imaginations to run wild with what
˟˔ˡ˚˨˔˚˘˦ʡʼ˔˜ˡˀ˔˖ʺ˥˘˚ˢ˥˥˘Є˘˖˧˦ a hydrogen bomb can do. Hersey’s
on HiroshimaϠ˦˜ˠˣˢ˥˧˔ˡ˖˘ʭϢʼ˧˗˥ˢ˩˘ message hasn’t changed and remains
the fear of a nuclear holocaust. At the completely relevant.”

Below: ʻ˘˥˦˘ˬϠ˦˔˖˖ˢ˨ˡ˧ˢ˙˧˛˘˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚˦˛ˢ˖˞˘˗˧˛˘˪ˢ˥˟˗

A mushroom cloud rises

ˢ˩˘˥ˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜˔˙˧˘˥ʹ˔˧
ˀ˔ˡϠ˦˗˘˧ˢˡ˔˧˜ˢˡ

34
 PATH TO HIROSHIMA

ʹ˔˧ˀ˔ˡʟ˧˛˘ˣ˟˨˧ˢˡ˜˨ˠ˜ˠˣ˟ˢ˦˜ˢˡ
˕ˢˠ˕˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗ˢˡˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜

his assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris Jeppson, moved ˧˛˘ˢ˕˦˘˥˩˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ʵ˜˚ˆ˧˜ˡ˞ʡʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥ˣ˥ˢ˖˘˘˗˘˗

through the cramped crawl space into the bomb bay. ˧ˢʾˢ˞˨˥˔˕˨˧˧˛˘˖˜˧ˬ˪˔˦ˢ˕˦˖˨˥˘˗˕ˬ˦ˠˢ˞˘˙˥ˢˠ˔
ˇ˛˘˥˘ʟ˧˛˘ˬ˜ˡ˦˘˥˧˘˗˧˛˘˔˥ˠ˜ˡ˚ˣ˟˨˚˦ʡʶ˟˜ˠ˕˜ˡ˚˕˔˖˞˧ˢ Ѓ˥˘˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚˥˔˜˗ʡˇ˛˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ˠ˔˗˘˧˛˥˘˘˨ˡ˦˨˖˖˘˦˦˙˨˟
altitude, Enola Gay soon reached Hiroshima. Little Boy ˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚˥˨ˡ˦ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘ˡ˘˫˧ʨʣˠ˜ˡ˨˧˘˦ʟ˗˥˔˪˜ˡ˚Ѓ˥˘˙˥ˢˠ
dropped and Enola Gay suddenly shot upwards, relieved the city’s anti-aircraft defences.
ˢ˙˜˧˦ʬʟʪʣʣ˟˕ʛʧʟʧʣʣ˞˚ʜˣ˔ˬ˟ˢ˔˗ʡˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦˕˔ˡ˞˘˗˧˛˘ˣ˟˔ˡ˘ ʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥˧˛˘ˡЄ˘˪ˢˡ˧ˢ˜˧˦˦˘˖ˢˡ˗˔˥ˬ˧˔˥˚˘˧ʭˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜ʡ
hard and pushed the throttle to maximum. The aircraft ˇ˛˜˦ˢ˩˘˥˖˔˦˧˛˔˥˕ˢ˨˥˖˜˧ˬ˪˔˦˟ˢ˖˔˧˘˗ʤʬʣˠ˜˟˘˦ʛʦʣʣ˞ˠʜ
could disintegrate if too close to the detonation. ˦ˢ˨˧˛˪˘˦˧ˢ˙ʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔ʡʴ˟˔˦˧ʠˠ˜ˡ˨˧˘˕˥˘˔˞˜ˡ˧˛˘˖˟ˢ˨˗˦
ʿ˘˦˦˧˛˔ˡ˔ˠ˜ˡ˨˧˘˟˔˧˘˥ʟʿ˜˧˧˟˘ʵˢˬ˥˘˔˖˛˘˗ʤʟʬʣʣ˙˧ ˔˟˟ˢ˪˘˗ʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥˧ˢ˗˥ˢˣʹ˔˧ˀ˔ˡʟ˖˔˨˦˜ˡ˚ʩʣʟʣʣʣʠʫʣʟʣʣʣ
ʛʨʫʣˠʜ˔ˡ˗˘˫ˣ˟ˢ˗˘˗˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˙ˢ˥˖˘ˢ˙ʤʩ˞˜˟ˢ˧ˢˡ˦ˢ˙ˇˁˇʮ deaths. Although it had a greater explosive yield, the bomb
ʤʤʡʨˠ˜˟˘˦ʛʤʫʡʨ˞ˠʜ˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘˗˘˧ˢˡ˔˧˜ˢˡʟ˧˛˘˦˛ˢ˖˞˪˔˩˘˙˘˟˧ ˪˔˦˟˘˦˦˗˘˦˧˥˨˖˧˜˩˘˔˦ˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜˜˦˪˜˧˛˜ˡ˔˩˔˟˟˘ˬʟ˪˛˜˖˛
˟˜˞˘˔˖˟ˢ˦˘˕˨˥˦˧ˢ˙˔ˡ˧˜ʠ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧Ѓ˥˘˧ˢ˧˛˘ˠ˘ˡ˔˕ˢ˔˥˗ contained the blast.
Enola Gay. “My God!” someone gasped as the men ʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥˪˔˦˔˟˥˘˔˗ˬ˥˨ˡˡ˜ˡ˚ˢˡ˙˨ˠ˘˦˔ˡ˗˪˜˧˛ˡˢ
Є˜ˡ˖˛˘˗˙˥ˢˠ˔˕˟˔˦˧˧˛˔˧˦˖˔˟˗˘˗˧˛˘˜˥˖ˢ˩˘˥˘˗˘ˬ˘˦ʡʴ time to observe the destruction, Sweeney raced to the
˗˔˥˞ˠ˨˦˛˥ˢˢˠ˖˟ˢ˨˗˥ˢ˦˘ˢ˩˘˥ʸˡˢ˟˔ʺ˔ˬʡˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦˖˜˥˖˟˘˗ ˡ˘˔˥˘˦˧˙˥˜˘ˡ˗˟ˬ˟˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˚˦˧˥˜ˣʭˌˢˡ˧˔ˡʴ˜˥Ѓ˘˟˗ʟ˂˞˜ˡ˔˪˔ʡ
for two minutes before returning home. “If Dante had ʴ˥˥˜˩˜ˡ˚˨ˡ˔ˡˡˢ˨ˡ˖˘˗˔ˡ˗˥˘˟˘˔˦˜ˡ˚Є˔˥˘˦˧ˢ˖˟˘˔˥˧˛˘
˕˘˘ˡ˪˜˧˛˨˦ˢˡ˧˛˘ˣ˟˔ˡ˘ʟ˛˘˪ˢ˨˟˗˛˔˩˘˕˘˘ˡ˧˘˥˥˜Ѓ˘˗ʟϣ ˥˨ˡ˪˔ˬʟʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥˟˔ˡ˗˘˗˛˔˥˗˪˜˧˛˜˧˦˘ˡ˚˜ˡ˘˦˦˧˔˥˩˘˗ˢ˙
˛˘˦˔˜˗˜ˡ˔ʥʣʣʨ˜ˡ˧˘˥˩˜˘˪ʡˀ˜˟˘˦˕˘˟ˢ˪ʟʧʣʟʣʣʣ˗˜˘˗ ˚˔˦ˢ˟˜ˡ˘ʡˆ˪˘˘ˡ˘ˬ˗˥˔˚˚˘˗˧˛˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˜ˡ˧ˢ˔ʬʣʠ˗˘˚˥˘˘
immediately, some vapourised by the unimaginable heat, turn at the runway’s end to avoid running off. It screeched
leaving behind only a shadow on the pavement. Countless ˧ˢ˔˛˔˟˧˜ˡ˔˖˟ˢ˨˗ˢ˙˦ˠˢ˞˘˔ˡ˗˜˧˦˖˥˘˪˦˧˔˚˚˘˥˘˗ˢ˨˧˧ˢ
˕˟˔˭˘˦ˠ˘˥˚˘˗˜ˡ˧ˢ˔Ѓ˥˘˦˧ˢ˥ˠʟ˞˜˟˟˜ˡ˚˧˛ˢ˨˦˔ˡ˗˦˧˥˔ˣˣ˘˗ a bemused welcome.
in the rubble. Others jumped into Hiroshima’s rivers and ˇ˛˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˛˔˗˟ˢˡ˚˜ˡ˗˜˖˔˧˘˗˧˛˘ˬ˪ˢ˨˟˗Ѓ˚˛˧˧ˢ
drowned. One-third of the city had been destroyed and by the end but had been privately begging the Soviets to
˧˛˘ˬ˘˔˥Ϡ˦˘ˡ˗˨ˣ˧ˢʤʩʩʟʣʣʣ˪˘˥˘˗˘˔˗ʡ mediate a conditional peace. Now the bombings forced
Emperor Hirohito towards a less favourable negotiating
A pathway to peace table. His orders to his Supreme Council for the Direction of
“It was to spare the Japanese people from utter the War to accept unconditional surrender were delayed
destruction that the ultimatum of 26 July was issued at ˕ˬ˧˛˘ʾˬΩ˝Ώ˜ˡ˖˜˗˘ˡ˧ʟ˔ˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˛˔˥˗˟˜ˡ˘˥˦Ϡ˖ˢ˨ˣ˗Ϡ̻˧˔˧ʡ
Potsdam. Their leaders promptly rejected that ultimatum. ʿ˘˦˦˧˛˔ˡ˔ˡ˛ˢ˨˥˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˘˖ˢ˨ˣϠ˦˟˘˔˗˘˥˦ʟˆ˛˜˭˨˜˖˛˜
If they do not now accept our terms they may expect a ˇ˔ˡ˔˞˔˔ˡ˗ʾ˘ˡ˝˜ʻ˔˧˔ˡ˔˞˔ʟ˛˔˗˞˜˟˟˘˗˧˛˘ˠ˦˘˟˩˘˦ˢˡʤʨ
˥˔˜ˡˢ˙˥˨˜ˡ˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘˔˜˥ʟ˧˛˘˟˜˞˘˦ˢ˙˪˛˜˖˛˛˔˦ˡ˘˩˘˥˕˘˘ˡ ʴ˨˚˨˦˧ʟʻ˜˥ˢ˛˜˧ˢ˧ˢˢ˞˧ˢ˧˛˘˔˜˥˪˔˩˘˦˧ˢ˔ˡˡˢ˨ˡ˖˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡϠ˦
seen on this earth,” Truman told his countrymen and the surrender. The Allied occupation began 13 days later and
Japanese in a radio proclamation delivered after the ˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˘˗˨ˡ˧˜˟ʤʬʨʥʡˇ˛˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥˘˗˙ˢ˥ˠ˔˟˟ˬ
Hiroshima bombing. Two days later, the Japanese shot and unconditionally on 2 September.
down, captured and tortured Lieutenant Marcus McDilda, In the aftermath debates raged over whether the
˔˃ʠʨʤˣ˜˟ˢ˧ʡˀ˖ʷ˜˟˗˔˧ˢ˟˗˛˜˦˖˔ˣ˧ˢ˥˦˧˛˔˧˧˛˘ˈˆ˛˔˗ˢ˩˘˥ ˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚˦˪˘˥˘˝˨˦˧˜Ѓ˘˗ʟ˕˘˚˜ˡˡ˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˘˔˥ˡ˘˦˧˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˘
ʤʣʣϟ˔ˡ˧˜ˠ˔˧˧˘˥Ϡ˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦˥˘˔˗ˬ˧ˢ˕ˢˠ˕ˇˢ˞ˬˢ˔ˡ˗ʾˬˢ˧ˢʟ ˪˔˥˥˘ˣˢ˥˧˘˥ʽˢ˛ˡʻ˘˥˦˘ˬ˥˘˩˘˔˟˘˗˙ˢ˥˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˧˜ˠ˘˧˛˘˧˥˨˘
˧˛˘ˢˡ˟ˬ˖˜˧˜˘˦˛˘˞ˡ˘˪˧˛˘ˡ˔ˠ˘˦ˢ˙ʡʴ˗˔ˬ˟˔˧˘˥ʟ˧˛˘ˈˆ human impact to a Western audience. Tibbets survived
˦˧˥˨˖˞˔˚˔˜ˡʟ˧˛˜˦˧˜ˠ˘˔˧ˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜ʡ the war and spent the rest of his life answering these
ˇ˛˘ʵʠʥʬʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥ʟˣ˜˟ˢ˧˘˗˕ˬˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʶ˛˔˥˟˘˦ˊˆ˪˘˘ˡ˘ˬʟ ˤ˨˘˦˧˜ˢˡ˦ʡϢʻ˘˗˜˗˛˨ˡ˗˥˘˗˦ˢ˙˜ˡ˧˘˥˩˜˘˪˦˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛ˢ˨˧˛˜˦
Images © Alamy, Getty

set off from Tinian on the morning of 9 August, bound for life and always said he did the right thing. He continued to
ʾˢ˞˨˥˔ʡʵ˨˧˘˩˘˥ˬ˧˛˜ˡ˚˧˛˔˧˛˔˗˚ˢˡ˘˦ˠˢˢ˧˛˟ˬ˔˕ˢ˔˥˗ believe that they had saved lives because the Japanese
ʸˡˢ˟˔ʺ˔ˬ˪˘ˡ˧˪˥ˢˡ˚ˢˡʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥ʡʹ˟ˬ˜ˡ˚˪˜˧˛ˢ˨˧ surrendered earlier than they intended,” says MacGregor.
˥˘˦˘˥˩˘˙˨˘˟˗˨˘˧ˢ˔˙˔˨˟˧ˬ˧˥˔ˡ˦˙˘˥ˣ˨ˠˣʟʵˢ˖˞˦˖˔˥˛˜˧˔ ˆˣ˘˔˞˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˧˛˘ʴ˧ˢˠ˜˖ʻ˘˥˜˧˔˚˘ʹˢ˨ˡ˗˔˧˜ˢˡ˜ˡʤʬʫʬʟˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦
˧˛˨ˡ˗˘˥˦˧ˢ˥ˠ˪˛˜˟˘˜ˡ˕ˢ˨ˡ˗˔ˡ˗˙˔˜˟˘˗˧ˢ˥˘ˡ˗˘˭˩ˢ˨˦˪˜˧˛ ˦˔˜˗ʭϢˇ˛˘˥˘˜˦ˡˢˠˢ˥˔˟˜˧ˬ˜ˡ˪˔˥˙˔˥˘ʡϣ

35
 STALI N ’S
B LITZ KR I EG
ʼˡ˧˛˘Ѓˡ˔˟ˠˢˡ˧˛ˢ˙ˊˊʼʼʟ˧˛˘˅˘˗ʴ˥ˠˬ˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˘˗
˔˗˘˩˔˦˧˔˧˜ˡ˚˦˧˥˜˞˘˜ˡ˧ˢˀ˔ˡ˖˛˨˥˜˔ʟˢˣ˘ˡ˜ˡ˚˔ˡ˘˪˙˥ˢˡ˧
˪˜˧˛ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˔ˡ˗˧˛˥˘˔˧˘ˡ˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˩˔˦˜ˢˡˢ˙˧˛˘ʻˢˠ˘ʼ˦˟˔ˡ˗˦
WORDS ANTHONY TUCKER-JONES
y the summer of 1944 the triumphant Red Army Manchuria, numerous groups waged guerrilla warfare

B was deep inside eastern Europe. Soviet leader

Joseph Stalin was well on the way to creating
a massive European security buffer with the
creation of Communist satellite states. Never
again would Germany launch a surprise attack on Mother
against the occupation, until the Japanese then invaded
Manchuria, forcing them back deeper into China and the
Soviet Union.

Japan’s puppet state

Russia. In the Soviet Far East, Stalin planned to create a The Japanese occupied Manchuria’s three provinces
similar buffer to permanently keep the Japanese away in northeastern China in the early 1930s, creating an
from the Soviet border. enormous puppet state known as Manchukuo. They
Stalin, although not at war with Japan, had little reason appointed the last and deposed Chinese emperor,
to trust the Japanese. They had attacked the Imperial Pu Yi, to rule it in their name. His administration was
˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡЄ˘˘˧˔˧˃ˢ˥˧ʴ˥˧˛˨˥˜ˡʤʬʣʧʟ˦˘˜˭˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˟˔˧˧˘˥˔ˡ˗ overseen by Major General Togo, who at the time was
gaining Russia’s concessions in the southern part of head of the Kempeitai, Japan’s brutal military police.
Chinese Manchuria. Six years later Japan annexed Korea Large numbers of Japanese and Korean settlers moved
and the Japanese proceeded to colonise the country, into the region. The Japanese ensured that Emperor Pu
suppressing Korean culture and language. It recruited Yi remained compliant and did not seek to cooperate
Koreans into the Japanese armed forces and used them with China’s Nationalists or Communists. They did this
as slave labour throughout the Empire of Japan. by keeping him a virtual prisoner and closely monitoring
All this led to the rise of the Korean independence his communications. They likewise kept a close eye on
movement. The Japanese crushed opposition in Korea Prince Teh Wang, the ruler of Inner Mongolia, who was
˔ˡ˗˧˛ˢ˨˦˔ˡ˗˦ˢ˙ˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘Є˘˗˧ˢʶ˛˜ˡ˔ʡʹ˥ˢˠˡ˘˜˚˛˕ˢ˨˥˜ˡ˚ another Japanese ally not altogether trusted.

Below: A Soviet armoured column rolls through Manchuria

36
 STALIN’S BLITZKRIEG

Above: Red Army troops gather captured Above: The Japanese Kwantung Army deployed in Manchuria
Japanese weapons in Mukden was not capable of withstanding the Red Army

The humiliation of Russia’s forces by post-war. By May 1945 Hitler was dead, Berlin
the Japanese ensured that simmering
resentment marred their relations throughout
“STALIN, ALTHOUGH NOT ˢ˩˘˥˥˨ˡ˕ˬ˧˛˘˅˘˗ʴ˥ˠˬ˔ˡ˗ˁ˔˭˜ʺ˘˥ˠ˔ˡˬ
had surrendered. All eyes were now on Japan.
the 1920s and 1930s. After the Japanese
occupation of Korea and Manchuria, friction
between Japan and the Soviet Union rapidly
AT WAR WITH JAPAN, Yamada’s Kwantung
While the Japanese were anticipating a Soviet
escalated. In 1939 they fought a brief border
war in Outer Mongolia, culminating in the HAD LITTLE REASON TO attack on Manchuria they assessed it would
not be until October 1945 or in the spring of
Battle of Khalkhin-Gol, which the Japanese the following year. The vastness of Manchuria
˟ˢ˦˧ʡˇ˛˘ˆˢ˩˜˘˧ʠʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˪˔˦˦˘˧˧˟˘˗
with a border treaty in June 1940 and 12
TRUST THE JAPANESE” made it impossible for them to completely
control; large areas were occupied by Chinese
months latter Adolf Hitler attacked the Soviet unnecessary, disgraceful and potentially bandits and guerrillas. In the north and east,
ˈˡ˜ˢˡʡʹˢ˟˟ˢ˪˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˖˘˔˦˘Ѓ˥˘˕˘˧˪˘˘ˡʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ disastrous document has ever been signed Communist guerrillas resisted the Japanese
and the Soviet Union the Japanese, content by a president of the United States.” and the puppet Manchukuo Imperial Army
that the Red Army was fully distracted, turned Nonetheless, Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The Japanese
south to attack Chinese, British, American and and Chiang had agreed to punish Japan for considered the latter unreliable and were
Dutch interests. As a result, Stalin did not have its brutal campaigns of conquest in China, reluctant to supply it with heavy equipment,
˧ˢЃ˚˛˧˔˧˪ˢʠ˙˥ˢˡ˧˪˔˥ʡ ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧ʴ˦˜˔˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʡʼ˧˦˘ˠˣ˜˥˘˪˔˦ such as artillery or tanks. Many Manchurian
By the time of the Yalta Conference in to be dissolved and the country disarmed troops had no option but to serve the
February 1945 Prime Minister Winston Churchill and occupied. The only problem with this in Japanese: their families were registered with
and President Franklin D Roosevelt, still at war strategic terms was that it would neutralise a ˧˛˘˔˨˧˛ˢ˥˜˧˜˘˦˔ˡ˗˜˙˧˛˘ˬ˥˘˙˨˦˘˗˧ˢЃ˚˛˧ˢ˥
with the Japanese in the Far East and the regional counterweight to China and the Soviet deserted, their loved ones faced execution.
˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʟˡ˘˘˗˘˗˧ˢ˞˘˘ˣˆ˧˔˟˜ˡˢˡ˕ˢ˔˥˗˪˜˧˛˛˜˦ Union. This was especially the case once Stalin By the spring of 1945 the Japanese
ˣ˥ˢˠ˜˦˘˧˛˔˧ˢˡ˖˘ˁ˔˭˜ʺ˘˥ˠ˔ˡˬ˪˔˦˗˘˙˘˔˧˘˗ moved into Manchuria, southern Sakhalin Kwantung Army, under the command of
he would declare war on Japan. This would and northern Korea. The granting of southern ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟˂˧ˢ˭Ώˌ˔ˠ˔˗˔ʟ˖ˢˠˣ˥˜˦˘˗˧˛˘ʦ˥˗
inevitably make Japan’s military position in Sakhalin to the Soviets placed them perilously and 44th armies in the south, with the 1st and
Manchuria and northern China untenable. close to the northern Japanese island of 4th in the far north. On paper Yamada could
Roosevelt, in order to secure Stalin’s Hokkaido. It also meant they could dominate Ѓ˘˟˗ˢ˩˘˥ʩʣʣʟʣʣʣˠ˘ˡˢ˥˚˔ˡ˜˦˘˗˜ˡ˧ˢʥʨ
assistance, was prepared to let things slide the northern approaches to the Sea of Japan. divisions equipped with 1,215 armoured cars
regarding the fate of Poland. He was also The Soviet invasion of Manchuria would ˔ˡ˗˟˜˚˛˧˧˔ˡ˞˦ʟʩʟʪʣʣˣ˜˘˖˘˦ˢ˙˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬ˔ˡ˗
prepared to give away Japanese territory. ˛˔˩˘ˢ˧˛˘˥˦˘˥˜ˢ˨˦˥˔ˠ˜Ѓ˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ʡˆ˧˔˟˜ˡ˪ˢ˨˟˗ 1,800 aircraft (of which just 50 were frontline);
In a secret session with Stalin at Yalta on undoubtedly back Chinese Communist leader they were supported by the wholly inadequate
8 February 1945, he agreed the Soviet Union Mao Zedong once the latter’s alliance with divisions of the Manchukuo Imperial Army
could have the southern half of Sakhalin Chiang against the Japanese came to an numbering by this stage just 40,000 men.
island off the east coast of Siberia, the Kuril end. If the Red Army took Japanese occupied In addition Korea was held by the weak
Islands, the ports of Dalian and Port Arthur in Manchuria and northern China then Stalin ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ʤʪ˧˛˔ˡ˗ʦʧ˧˛˔˥ˠ˜˘˦ʡ
return for attacking the Japanese Kwantung could easily hand these areas over to Mao’s Although Japan intended to defend
Army in Manchuria. forces. “[Soviet Foreign Minister] Molotov Manchuria, because of its vital industries and
These concessions would give Stalin told General Patrick Hurley that the Soviet raw materials, Japanese forces were in no
complete control of the Sea of Okhotsk and a Union was not interested in the Chinese condition to do so effectively. The Kwantung
Images: Alamy, Getty

˦˜˭˘˔˕˟˘˙ˢˢ˧˛ˢ˟˗˜ˡ˧˛˘ˌ˘˟˟ˢ˪ˆ˘˔ʡˇ˛˜˦˪˥˜˧˧˘ˡ Communists; these weren’t really Communists was in poor shape and really only capable of
agreement was made without consulting anyway,” noted US Secretary of State Edward local policing operations. Although it could
Churchill or the Chinese leader Chiang Kai- Stettinius. It seemed hard to believe that muster considerable manpower it lacked the
shek. William Bullitt, former US ambassador Stalin would not want a Communist ally in modern accoutrements of war. At this stage
to the Soviet Union, declared: “No more ʴ˦˜˔˧ˢ˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˘˥ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔ˡ˔ˡ˗ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˜ˡЄ˨˘ˡ˖˘ ˢ˙˧˛˘˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˜˧˪˔˦Ѓ˥ˠ˟ˬ˔ˡ˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬ˙ˢ˥˖˘ʡ

37
 STALIN’S BLITZKRIEG

O P E R AT I O N
AU G U S T
S TO R M
TIMELINE The Japanese had few weapons
capable of dealing with the T-34/85 tank
8 FEBRUARY
26 JULY As the Second World War progressed this once
At Yalta President
Roosevelt offers Allies issue large, well-trained and well-equipped army
Stalin’s August Storm
Stalin Japanese the Potsdam At the end of July the Allies issued the
(by Chinese standards) could not be held in
territory in return Declaration Potsdam Declaration demanding Japan’s
˦˧˥˔˧˘˚˜˖˥˘˦˘˥˩˘˜ˡ˗˘Ѓˡ˜˧˘˟ˬʡ
for joining the war calling for Japan’s unconditional surrender. They refused and on
unconditional In the closing stages of the war many of its
against Japan. ʩʴ˨˚˨˦˧ʤʬʧʨ˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔ˡ˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˕ˢˠ˕
surrender or face better frontline divisions were systematically
was dropped, on the city of Hiroshima.
6 AUGUST utter destruction. stripped of their most experienced troops
When the Japanese surrender was still not
America drops Japan refuses. ˔ˡ˗˕˘˦˧˘ˤ˨˜ˣˠ˘ˡ˧ʟ˪˛˜˖˛˪˘˥˘˦˘ˡ˧˧ˢЃ˚˛˧
forthcoming three days later a second bomb
atomic bomb on ˧˛˘ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔ˡ˦˜ˡ˧˛˘˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʼ˦˟˔ˡ˗˦˔ˡ˗˧˛˘
was dropped, on Nagasaki. Stalin honoured
Hiroshima. Still 8 AUGUST Philippines. They also sent some of its units
his agreement with the Allies to join the war
Japan refuses Stalin declares war to Burma and Sumatra on garrison duties.
to surrender. against Japan on 9 August with Operation
on Japan. Notably the Kwantung’s armoured formations
August Storm. The scale of his armoured
were diverted to southern China, Korea and
9 AUGUST assault on Manchuria was vast, enveloping
10 AUGUST the Philippines so it was no longer able to
America drops ˔ˡ˔˥˘˔˧˛˘˦˜˭˘ˢ˙ˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡʸ˨˥ˢˣ˘ʡ
Japan signals it is ˖ˢˡ˗˨˖˧ˠ˘˖˛˔ˡ˜˦˘˗ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ˢ˙˔ˡˬ˦˜˭˘ʡ
atomic bomb on Stalin threw about 80 divisions, totalling
willing to consider In particular many of its units were sent south
Nagasaki and the 1.5 million battle-hardened men, supported
the Potsdam into China to support the Operation Ichi-Go
Red Army invades by over 5,000 tanks, around 28,000 artillery
Declaration. offensive during 1944-45.
Japanese- pieces and 4,300 aircraft at the Japanese.
Fighting continues. In desperation, Yamada hastily tried to
controlled
Employing a massive pincer offensive, the
Manchuria from organise large numbers of poorly trained
15 AUGUST Red Army rolled into Manchuria, parts of Inner
the east and west. conscripts and ‘volunteers’ into eight new
Emperor Hirohito Mongolia and northern China and Korea. In
infantry divisions and seven new infantry
broadcasts to his a case of British understatement Field Marshal
16 AUGUST brigades. The Kwantung’s dubious Chinese
people that Japan Alan Brooke, Chief of the Imperial General
General Yamada allies, the Manchukou Army, comprised eight
will end the war. Staff, noted in his diary: “A memorable day as
in Manchuria infantry and seven cavalry divisions. In the
orders his divisions regards the war with Japan.” The ill-equipped
˙˔˖˘ˢ˙˔˙˨˟˟ˬЄ˘˗˚˘˗ˠ˘˖˛˔ˡ˜˦˘˗ˢ˙˙˘ˡ˦˜˩˘
to cease resisting. 18 AUGUST by the Red Army , the Japanese had little
Japanese and puppet Manchukuo armies
Not all obey. Red Army conducts were simply swept sway.
˖ˢˡЃ˗˘ˡ˖˘˧˛˔˧˧˛˘˦˘ʶ˛˜ˡ˘˦˘˧˥ˢˢˣ˦˪ˢ˨˟˗
amphibious From the west the Soviet juggernaut
20 AUGUST landings in northern ˦˧˔ˡ˗˔ˡ˗Ѓ˚˛˧ʡˇ˛˘ˀ˔ˡ˖˛˨˞˨ˢ˙ˢ˥˖˘˦ˠ˨˦˧
directed by the Transbaikal Front headed for
Red Army has Korea, Sakhalin have known that their best prospect was to
Port Arthur, Mukden, Changchun and Qiqihar.
reached the and the Kurils. ˗˘˙˘˖˧˔˧˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ˢˣˣˢ˥˧˨ˡ˜˧ˬʟˢ˥˙˔˖˘˕˘˜ˡ˚
The Soviet pincer from the east commanded
cities of Mukden, run down by Soviet tanks.
by two Far Eastern Fronts crossed the Ussuri
Changchun and 21 AUGUST and advanced around Khanka Lake and
Qiqihar. Red Army marches
attacked towards Suifenhe. Although the
into Harbin.
2 SEPTEMBER Japanese defenders there fought hard and
Japan formally offered strong resistance, the Soviets proved
surrenders to unstoppable. Their goal pushing westward
the Allies, ending was the city of Harbin and northern Korea.
WWII. Red Army Right: Japanese ˇ˛˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ʟ˗˔˭˘˗˕ˬ˧˛˘˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˕ˢˠ˕˦
forces remain ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦˦˧˜˟˟˪˜˧˛ and the enormity of Stalin’s assault, initially
in Manchuria their swords after
signalled their intention to accept the terms
until 1946. surrender at Mukden

38
 STALIN’S BLITZKRIEG

Above: The victorious Red Army took Above: Residents of the city of Harbin welcome a truckload
over half-a-million Japanese prisoners of Soviet sailors from the Amur Military Flotilla

of the Potsdam Declaration on 10 August. ˢ˙˧˛˘ˆˢ˩˜˘˧ˁ˔˩ˬϠ˦˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʹ˟˘˘˧˦ˬˠ˕ˢ˟˜˖˔˟˟ˬ This had recognised the Nationalists’
Five days later Japanese Emperor Hirohito ˛ˢ˜˦˧˘˗˧˛˘˜˥Є˔˚ˢ˩˘˥˃ˢ˥˧ʴ˥˧˛˨˥ʡ sovereignty over Manchuria in return for
˥˘˖ˢ˥˗˘˗˧˛˘ʺˬˢ˞˨ˢˡʠ˛Ώ˦Ώʟ˪˛˜˖˛˪˔˦ recognition of the Mongolian People’s
then broadcast on radio to the Japanese The aftermath Republic once the Soviets withdrew. Now
nation. While it stated Japan would accept Although a brief campaign, August Storm cost under Soviet protection, Outer Mongolia had
the terms of Potsdam it made no direct Stalin about 35,000 casualties, while Japanese freed itself from Chinese control in 1911 but
reference to surrender. losses were put as high as 100,000 killed and failed to gain recognition of its independence
The emperor’s vague statement caused wounded. The survivors of the Kwantung were from China. At Dalian the US Fleet was not
widespread confusion as to whether Japan disarmed and rounded up, but they did not prepared to force a landing and sailed away.
had capitulated or not, and Japanese forces get to go home. Over half-a-million prisoners When the Nationalists tried to land at Huludao
in China and Korea did not bring the Second were sent to Soviet labour camps in Siberia, and Yingkou, cities on the Bohai Sea, they
World War to an immediate end. Although the Russian Far East and Mongolia. Not all found they were also held by the Communists.
Yamada ordered the Kwantung to surrender would eventually return to Japan. Chiang’s troops would eventually have to be
the day after the emperor’s announcement, Mao welcomed the presence of Soviet transported north by railway and air. All this
some of his divisions refused to lay down their troops because he knew they were his ticket meant that crucial time was lost in trying to
weapons and fought on for the next few days. to power – following the Japanese surrender, assert control over Manchuria.
Meanwhile Stalin continued with his land grab. China’s two factions were once again at each ˉ˜˖˧ˢ˥ˬˢ˩˘˥ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˛˔˗˦˘˥˜ˢ˨˦˥˔ˠ˜Ѓ˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˦
On 18 August Soviet amphibious landings ˢ˧˛˘˥Ϡ˦˧˛˥ˢ˔˧˦ʡˀ˔ˢϠ˦˙ˢ˥˖˘˦˦˪˜˙˧˟ˬ˜ˡЃ˟˧˥˔˧˘˗ for the region. While Stalin’s successful invasion
were conducted ahead of the ground forces: Soviet-liberated Manchuria, unopposed by of Manchuria undoubtedly hastened the
three in northern Korea, one in Sakhalin and the Red Army, which provided him with a safe Japanese surrender, it did not bode well for
one in the Kuril Islands. haven. “If we have Manchuria,” he had told his the future of Chiang’s Nationalists. When the
A major battle was fought for the Kurils. The comrades earlier in the year, “our victory will Red Army eventually withdrew it meant the
Japanese 11th Armoured Regiment, which had be guaranteed.” region became a base of operations for Mao’s
been transferred to the control of the Japanese The Soviet military responded to the Communists. Furthermore, those Manchurian
5th Area Army, was redesignated the 91st presence of Mao’s forces by transferring troops captured from the Manchukuo Army
Division in February 1945. It was stationed in large quantities of Japanese weapons to were rapidly pressed into the service of Mao.
the northern Kuril Islands, where it resisted the them. The Red Army had captured in the It also meant Mao would have direct access
Red Army at Paramushir during the landings. In ˥˘˚˜ˢˡˢ˙ʦʣʣʟʣʣʣ˥˜Є˘˦ʟ˔˦˪˘˟˟˔˦ʧʟʫʦʩ to Soviet arms for his renewed war against
˧˛˘˙˔˖˘ˢ˙ˆˢ˩˜˘˧Ѓ˥˘ˣˢ˪˘˥˜˧˟ˢ˦˧ʬʪ˧˔ˡ˞˦˔ˡ˗ ˠ˔˖˛˜ˡ˘˚˨ˡ˦ʟʥʟʦʣʣ˩˘˛˜˖˟˘˦ʟʤʟʥʥʩˣ˜˘˖˘˦ Chiang’s Nationalists.
˔˟ˠˢ˦˧ʤʣʣˠ˘ˡʡˇ˛˘˗˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡ˪˔˦ˡˢ˧ˢ˙Ѓ˖˜˔˟˟ˬ ˢ˙˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬʟʬʥʨ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˔ˡ˗ʦʩʬ˧˔ˡ˞˦ʡˇ˛˘ China was about to be plunged back into
demobilised until September 1945 along with Soviets also prevented Chiang from landing widespread civil war, with the prospect of it
the rest of the Imperial Japanese Army. Nationalist troops in Manchuria’s southern being taken over by Mao. This encouraged
In Manchuria the Red Army continued its ports, which gave Mao much-needed North Korea’s Communists, who would be
advance, largely by-passing the pockets of breathing space to build up his strength. emboldened to reunite their divided country
resistance, reaching Mukden, Changchun ʶ˛˜˔ˡ˚˧˥˜˘˗˧ˢ˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˘˥ˀ˔ˢϠ˦˜ˡЃ˟˧˥˔˧˜ˢˡ by force.
and Qiqihar by 20 August. The following day it of Manchuria by sending 30,000 soldiers, To facilitate a smooth transition of power to
entered Harbin to be met by cheering crowds. ˧˥˔ˡ˦ˣˢ˥˧˘˗˕ˬ˧˛˘˦˛˜ˣ˦ˢ˙˧˛˘ˈˆʪ˧˛ʹ˟˘˘˧ʟ Mao, Stalin delayed the Red Army’s withdrawal
Images: Alamy, Getty

Soviet forces in Korea were to stop at the 38th to Dalian on the Liaodong peninsula just to ˙˥ˢˠˀ˔ˡ˖˛˨˥˜˔˨ˡ˧˜˟ˀ˔ˬʤʬʧʩʡʻ˜˦˂ˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ
Parallel, cutting the country in half. Six days the east of Port Arthur in October 1945. Stalin August Storm not only hastened the defeat of
after the emperor’s announcement American would not let them ashore on the grounds this Japan, but it also sowed the seeds for the Cold
forces landed at Incheon to take control of was against the conditions of the Sino-Soviet War spreading into Asia and ultimately the
southern Korea from the Japanese. Marines friendship treaty. Korean War.

39
FLYING INTO HISTORY - ENOLA GAY

DUTCH
VA N
KIRK
Having served
58 missions in
Africa and Europe
during the Second
World War, Dutch
transferred to the
509th Composite
Group. He was the
navigator on the
Enola Gay, which
on 6 August 1945
˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧
nuclear bomb on
the Japanese city
of Hiroshima. When
he passed away
in 2014 he was the
last surviving crew
member of the
Enola Gay.
 F LY I N G I N T O H I S T O RY
E N O L A GAY
ˇ˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˕ˢˠ˕˪˔˦˗˥ˢˣˣ˘˗ˢˡʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˕ˬ˔ˡʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔ˡʵʠʥʬ˕ˢˠ˕˘˥ʟ
ˣ˥˘˖˘˗˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥ˬϠ˦˖˔ˣ˜˧˨˟˔˧˜ˢˡ˜ˡˊˊʼʼʡʻ˘˥˘ˡ˔˩˜˚˔˧ˢ˥ˇ˛˘ˢ˗ˢ˥˘ˉ˔ˡ
ʾ˜˥˞˥˘˖˔˟˟˦˛˜˦˘˫ˣ˘˥˜˘ˡ˖˘ˢ˙˧˛˘˗˔ˬ˧˛˔˧˖˛˔ˡ˚˘˗˛˜˦˧ˢ˥ˬ
WORDS ADAM MILLWARD
heodore Van Kirk, known to ˧˛˘Ѓˡ˔˟˛ˢ˨˥ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘˗˘˖˜˦˜ˢˡ˧ˢ˨˦˘˧˛˘ making sure they did what they were there to

T everyone as ‘Dutch’, was having

trouble sleeping.
ʼ˧˪˔˦˔˖ˢˠˠˢˡ˔˙Є˜˖˧˜ˢˡ
among servicemen before
a mission, but then again Dutch and his
A-bomb. However, although Japan was
presented with an ultimatum to surrender
on 26 July – which they rejected two days
later – Dutch personally felt it was always
a foregone conclusion the bomb would be
do, and that they did it right.”
While the Enola Gay and Bockscar (the
plane that dropped the Nagasaki bomb)
are the two that have gone down in history,
Dutch is keen to point out that the operation
ʤʤ˖˥˘˪ˠ˔˧˘˦˦˧˔˧˜ˢˡ˘˗ˢˡ˧˛˘˧˜ˡˬ˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ dropped: “I knew that I was going to drop was a lot wider than that: seven aircraft
island of Tinian had more reason than most the atomic bomb from February of that year were involved in Special Bombing Mission
to be suffering from insomnia that night. [1945]. It didn’t come as a surprise. We were #13 to Hiroshima on 6 August. Three were
The date was 5 August 1945 and tomorrow posted to the US air base at Tinian for about ˢ˕˦˘˥˩˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˟ˣ˟˔ˡ˘˦˧˛˔˧Є˘˪˔˛˘˔˗˧ˢ
ˠˢ˥ˡ˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘˧ˢ˗˥ˢˣ˧˛˘˪ˢ˥˟˗Ϡ˦Ѓ˥˦˧ a month prior to dropping the bomb, just ensure conditions were right, Top Secret was
atomic bomb on Hiroshima. keeping in shape.” a backup to the Enola Gay which landed on
To pass the time, some of the crew Around 10pm, the crew were called from Iwo Jima, while the other two aircraft – The
– including navigator Dutch, bombardier the barracks to have breakfast before one Great Artiste and Plane #91 (later named
Tom Ferebee and pilot Paul Tibbets – played ˟˔˦˧˕˥˜˘Ѓˡ˚˔ˡ˗Ѓˡ˔˟˖˛˘˖˞˦ˢ˙˧˛˘ʸˡˢ˟˔ Necessary Evil) – accompanied the Enola
poker. In a matter of hours they would be Gay. Dutch remembers they had pineapple Gay for the full operation over Japan.
gambling again, but this time with much fritters – he hated them, but Tibbets loved “The Great Artiste had instruments that
higher stakes. them. While he might not have seen eye to were to be dropped at the same time as we
Sure, the United States had successfully eye with his commander when it came to dropped the bomb. If you were to ask me the
˗˘˧ˢˡ˔˧˘˗˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˗˘˩˜˖˘˧˛˘ breakfast, he has only praise for the man name of them, I couldn’t tell you; I just always
previous month during the Trinity test in ˧˛˔˧ˣ˜˟ˢ˧˘˗˧˛˘˦ˣ˘˖˜˔˟˟ˬˠˢ˗˜Ѓ˘˗ʵʠʥʬ˧ˢ called them ‘blast meters’ because that’s
New Mexico, and Dutch, like all the crew, Hiroshima – and back again. what they were measuring. The other aircraft
had several months’ intensive training at “He was an outstanding pilot. His skill ˎ˃˟˔ˡ˘ʖʬʤː˪˔˦Єˬ˜ˡ˚˔˕ˢ˨˧ʥʣˠ˜˟˘˦ˎʦʥ˞ˠː
Wendover Air Force Base in Utah under his saved all of the crew’s lives a number of behind with a large camera to get pictures of
belt. But what they were about to do had times in Europe and Africa. When he got in the explosion. Unfortunately on the day the
never before been attempted in warfare. an aeroplane he [became] part of it. When camera didn’t work, so the best pictures we
Dutch recalls: “One of the atomic scientists ˬˢ˨Є˘˪˪˜˧˛˃˔˨˟ˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦ˬˢ˨˗˜˗ˡϠ˧˛˔˩˘ got were from the handheld camera of the
told us: ‘We think you’ll be okay if the plane to have your shoes polished or your pants navigator on that plane.”
is nine miles [14.5km] away when the bomb pressed and all that sort of stuff, but when The three aircraft arrived at Hiroshima
detonates.’” When challenged on his use of you got in the plane you better damn well without incident around 8am. The city had
the word ‘think’, he levelled with them: “We know what you were doing!” been made the primary target for several
just don’t know.” It’s hard to imagine what the mood on the reasons: there was a large number of military
Dutch had been hand-picked to join the Enola Gay must’ve been like as it took off at facilities and troops there, as well as a port
509th Composite Group – the unit tasked 2.45am, but from Dutch’s perspective this with factories supplying a lot of the materials
with deploying nuclear weapons – by his mission was the same as any other. “We were that would be used to defend Japan in the
˙ˢ˥ˠ˘˥˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥ʭϢʼЄ˘˪˪˜˧˛˃˔˨˟ˇ˜˕˕˘˧˦ going a long distance over water, using Iwo event of an invasion. Beyond these factors,
˔˟˟˧˛˘˧˜ˠ˘˜ˡʸˡ˚˟˔ˡ˗ʡˊ˘Є˘˪ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ Jima as a checkpoint… If you got lost between Hiroshima hadn’t been previously targeted
Dwight Eisenhower [later to become US Iwo Jima and Japan, you really were a sorry by Allied forces, so any damage recorded
president] from Hurn [on the south coast of navigator! Everybody onboard was doing his later could solely be attributed to the nuclear
Britain] down to Gibraltar, for example, to own thing. Ferebee took a nap, for example, bomb. Tragically for its citizens, it also meant
command the North African invasion. [while] our radio operator was reading a the Japanese authorities had very little
“Then we were all separated and doing whodunnit about some boxer. Everybody was reason to suspect an attack there – even
various things – I was at a navigation school,
for example, teaching other navigators.
Tibbets was picked to take command of the
509th group and that’s when he looked up
‘‘I DIDN’T FEEL TOO GOOD ABOUT DROPPING
some of the people he’d worked with in the
97th [Bombardment Group].” THE BOMB – BUT I DIDN’T FEEL TOO BAD ABOUT
Images: Alamy

The history books often paint a picture

that the US government and other Allied
powers were hand-wringing right up until DROPPING IT EITHER. IT COULD HAVE BEEN US… ’’
41
 FLYING INTO HISTORY

when the tiny squadron of three B-29s was no doubt

H I ROSH I MA spotted approaching.

3 The Enola Gay reaches

Hiroshima around 8am
On the actual bomb run, Tibbets relinquished control
of the Enola Gay to bombardier Major Tom Ferebee. As
local time and releases the the Little Boy bomb – which actually was not so little,
Little Boy bomb at 8.15am; it weighing in at 9,700lb (4,400kg) – was released, the B-29
detonates 43 seconds later. surged upwards, but Tibbets managed to stabilise the
CITIES HIT aircraft and beat a hasty retreat.
“We made the 150-degree turn that we’d practised
POTENTIAL many times and pushed down the throttle to get away,”
OTHER TARGETS says Dutch. “All people were doing was holding on to
something [in preparation for] the turbulence that was
Niigata sure to follow. A loose person or a loose anything in the
ˣ˟˔ˡ˘˪˔˦˚ˢ˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˚ˢЄˬ˜ˡ˚ʟ˦ˢ˪˘˔˟˟ˠ˔˗˘˦˨˥˘˪˘
were in position and wearing our goggles.”
They were about nine miles (14.5km) away when the
Hiroshima Kyoto bomb exploded, 43 seconds after it had been released.
“We couldn’t hear a thing over the engines, but we saw

Nagasaki Kokura ˔˕˥˜˚˛˧Є˔˦˛˔ˡ˗˜˧˪˔˦˦˛ˢ˥˧˟ˬ˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˔˧˪˘˚ˢ˧˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧

shockwave. When we turned to take a look back, all we
could see of Hiroshima was black smoke and dust. The
IWO JI MA
2
mushroom cloud was well above us at about 40,000ft
The Enola Gay rendezvous [12,190m] and still rising. You could still see that cloud
with the observation 300 miles away [480km].”
planes over Iwo Jima, in the What the crew of the Enola Gay couldn’t have known
Volcano Island chain. at that point was just how destructive the atomic bomb
had been. Underneath all that smoke and dust nearly
70 percent of the city’s buildings had been instantly
laid to waste and 80,000 people were dead – and that
Ѓ˚˨˥˘˪˔˦˦˘˧˧ˢ˥˜˦˘˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ˠ˨˖˛ʠ˨ˡ˗˘˥˘˦˧˜ˠ˔˧˘˗
effects of radiation.
Unlike The Great Artiste with its faulty camera, as
far as Dutch was concerned onboard the Enola Gay
“everything had gone exactly according to plan. The
NAGASAKI
5 Three days later, another
TI N IAN
weather was perfect; I could probably see Hiroshima

bombing crew on board

Bockscar departs Tinian to 4 TOUCH DOWN
from 75 miles [120km] away. My navigation was only
off by six seconds… Tom put the bomb exactly where
he expected. We got a lot of turbulence, but the plane
drop the Fat Man atomic bomb ʴ˙˧˘˥˔ʤʥʠ˛ˢ˨˥Є˜˚˛˧ʟ˧˛˘ʸˡˢ˟˔
on Kokura, but due to overcast Gay lands back at Tinian, where did not break up, which it could have done, and we got
conditions they switch to their the crew are debriefed before home. As for the second mission to Nagasaki, everything
secondary target of Nagasaki. going to bed. went wrong. They had a lot of luck on that mission.”
Three days later, on 9 August, a different bombing
crew on Bockscar almost didn’t make it to Nagasaki due
to a combination of bad weather and logistical errors.
However, they managed to salvage the mission; the
result of their success, or “luck” as Dutch describes it,
was the instant obliteration of another city and at least
40,000 of its inhabitants. Less than a week later, Emperor
Hirohito made an unprecedented radio announcement
to his subjects, declaring Japan’s surrender due to
“a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which is
incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives”.
TAKE- OFF
1 The Enola Gay leaves North
Field Air Base on the island
A few weeks after the devastating bombings, Dutch
was part of the crew transporting scientists to Nagasaki
to measure the devastation of one of these “new and
of Tinian at 2.45am, along with
three other B-29s: Plane #91, The ˠˢ˦˧˖˥˨˘˟ϣ˕ˢˠ˕˦Ѓ˥˦˧ʠ˛˔ˡ˗ʡϢʻ˔˩˜ˡ˚ˣ˜˖˞˘˗˨ˣ
Great Artiste and Top Secret. some scientists in Tokyo from the Japanese atomic
programme – they were also working on atomic bombs,
ˬˢ˨˦˘˘ϝ˪˘Є˘˪˗ˢ˪ˡ˧ˢˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜ʮ˪˘˖ˢ˨˟˗ˡϠ˧˟˔ˡ˗
˔˧ʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔˔˧˧˛˔˧˧˜ˠ˘ʡˊ˘˟˔ˡ˗˘˗ˢˡ˔˗˜˥˧Ѓ˘˟˗
and the Japanese commander of the base came out,
“WE TURNED TO LOOK BACK, ALL WE COULD SEE looking for someone to surrender to. We were given old
cars – 1927 Chevrolet models, or similar – to drive to the

OF HIROSHIMA WAS BLACK SMOKE AND DUST” city centre, but they all broke down three times before
getting into Nagasaki.

42
 ENOLA GAY

Seven of the Enola Gay’s 12-man

bombing crew stand before the
COU NTDOWN
aircraft; Dutch is third from the TO DESTRUCTION
left, next to pilot Paul Tibbets
16 JULY FIRST DETONATION
US scientists successfully
1945 ˗˘˧ˢˡ˔˧˘˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥
5.29AM device at the Trinity test site

28 JULY Japanese government

rejects surrender terms put
forward by the Allies in the
Potsdam Declaration

5 AUGUST CALM BEFORE STORM

2PM Having been told they have the
go-ahead to drop the atomic
bomb, Van Kirk and the rest of
the crew try to get some sleep

3PM The Little Boy bomb is

loaded onto the Enola Gay

6PM Struggling to sleep,

Van Kirk, Ferebee, Tibbets
and others play poker

10PM The crew gets up to

ˣ˥˘ˣ˔˥˘˙ˢ˥˧˛˘Є˜˚˛˧˧ˢ
Hiroshima and eat breakfast

6 AUGUST ʴ˙˧˘˥˔Ѓˡ˔˟˕˥˜˘Ѓˡ˚ˉ˔ˡʾ˜˥˞
and the crew make their way
12AM to the Enola Gay

1.37AM WEATHER REPORT

The three weather planes
leave North Field Air Base on
ˇ˜ˡ˜˔ˡ˧ˢ˖ˢˡЃ˥ˠ˖ˢˡ˗˜˧˜ˢˡ˦
are favourable

2.45AM The Enola Gay takes off,

followed by three other
B-29s taking part in
Special Mission #13
The North Field Air Base
on Tinian played host to 15 LITTLE BOY ARMED
ˠˢ˗˜Ѓ˘˗ʵʠʥʬ˦˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˜˥˖˥˘˪˦
5.52AM ˇ˛˘ˣ˟˔ˡ˘˦Єˬˢ˩˘˥ʼ˪ˢʽ˜ˠ˔
island, where the Enola Gay’s
“There wasn’t really anything that shocked among many that were saved by dropping backup, Top Secret, lands. The
us, though there is one thing [that has the bomb [because it had precluded a Little Boy bomb is armed
stayed with me]. The Japanese military full-scale invasion of Japan]. It was very
7.30AM With the all-clear from
was being broken up at the time and one important we saw that, and we both
the weather planes, the Enola
of the soldiers arrived on the bus looking recognised how lucky we were.” Gay, The Great Artiste and #91
for his home – but it had been destroyed. Along with the rest of the Enola Gay crew, head for Hiroshima
I remember looking at Tom Ferebee and who have since passed away, Dutch has no
saying: ‘You know, Tom, that could have regrets about dropping the atomic bomb, 8.13AM Pilot Paul Tibbets hands
been us if the war had gone the opposite seeing it as the lesser of two evils. Asked over control to the
bombardier Tom Ferebee
way.’ I didn’t feel too good about dropping whether he believes the result would have to make the bomb run
the bomb – but I didn’t feel too bad about been the same – that is to say, the Second
dropping it either. This was one man World War would have been forced to end PAYLOAD DROPPED
8.15AM
– if things “had gone the opposite way” and Little Boy is released and it
Japan had dropped an atomic bomb on detonates 43 seconds after,
The interview with Dutch about 1,900ft (600m) above
ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔Ѓ˥˦˧ʟ˧˛˘˥˘Ϡ˦˔˟ˢˡ˚ˣ˔˨˦˘ʟ˕˘˙ˢ˥˘
Van Kirk that appears Hiroshima. The Enola Gay
Dutch responds: “No, I don’t think so. I think experiences a shockwave
here was conducted in
we would have been more resilient.” moments later
2013, a year before he
But underneath the assured bravado of
passed away aged 93.
his reply, there’s no getting around how long 3PM MISSION COMPLETE
To read more about his
he hesitates before he answers – or the fact The Enola Gay touches down on
story, pick up a copy of
Images: Alamy

Tinian, its mission successfully

My True Course: Northumberland To that, like that atomic scientist who couldn’t completed. Paul Tibbets
Hiroshima by Suzanne Simon Dietz. offer any certainties on Tinian back in 1945, receives the Distinguished
he uses the word ‘think’. Service Cross

43
 TAS K FO RCE
At the end of WWII the Japanese Imperial Army Air Force was
conscripted into the Royal Air Force in Southeast Asia
WORDS STUART HADAWAY

ʴʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥
˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥˦˛˜˦˦˪ˢ˥˗
˧ˢ˧˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˟˜˕˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ
˙ˢ˥˖˘˦˜ˡˆ˔˜˚ˢˡʟ
ˆ˘ˣ˧˘ˠ˕˘˥ʤʬʧʨ

44
 TASK FORCE GREMLIN

n August 1945, the war in the Far East came to ˧˛˘ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛ˠ˔˗˘˧˛˘˜˥ˢ˪ˡˣ˟˔ˬ˦˙ˢ˥ˣˢ˪˘˥ʡˆˢˠ˘˪˘˥˘

I
a sudden and unexpected end. The atomic backed by the Americans, others by the Japanese and
bombs had been closely guarded secrets, ˦ˢˠ˘ʟ˟˜˞˘˧˛˘ʶˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˦˧ˉ˜˘˧ˀ˜ˡ˛ʟ˕ˬ˧˛˘ʶ˛˜ˡ˘˦˘ʡʼ˧
and the Allied forces and commanders on the ˪˔˦˔˖ˢˡ˙˨˦˘˗˔ˡ˗˛˜˚˛˟ˬЄ˨˜˗ˣˢ˟˜˧˜˖˔˟˦˜˧˨˔˧˜ˢˡ˪˛˜˖˛
ground were taken as much by surprise as the made little sense to outsiders, and the one into which
ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ʡʴ˖˥ˢ˦˦˧˛˘˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˗ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧ʴ˦˜˔ʟ˙ˢ˥˖˘˦ ˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʷˢ˨˚˟˔˦ʺ˥˔˖˘ˬ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ʥʣ˧˛ʼˡ˗˜˔ˡʼˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬ
˪˘˥˘˦˧˜˟˟˘ˡ˚˔˚˘˗˜ˡ˛˘˔˩ˬЃ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˜ˡʶ˛˜ˡ˔ʟ˧˛˘˃˛˜˟˜ˣˣ˜ˡ˘˦ ʷ˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡ˕˘˚˔ˡ˧ˢ˔˥˥˜˩˘ˢˡʤʦˆ˘ˣ˧˘ˠ˕˘˥ʤʬʧʨʡ
and on Okinawa while preparing for the liberation of Malaya ʺ˥˔˖˘ˬ˛˔˗˧˪ˢ˗˜˙˙˘˥˘ˡ˧ʟ˦ˢˠ˘˧˜ˠ˘˦˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˜ˡ˚ʟ˝ˢ˕˦ʭ
˔ˡ˗ˆ˜ˡ˚˔ˣˢ˥˘˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˜ˡ˩˔˦˜ˢˡˢ˙ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˜˧˦˘˟˙ʡʼˡ˩˔˦˜ˢˡ ˛˘˔˗ˢ˙˧˛˘ˆ˔˜˚ˢˡʶˢˡ˧˥ˢ˟ʶˢˠˠ˜˦˦˜ˢˡ˔ˡ˗˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥
forces had to be retasked, split up and thrown piecemeal ˢ˙ʻ˄ʴ˟˟˜˘˗ʿ˔ˡ˗ʹˢ˥˖˘˦ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˔ʡˇ˛˘˦˘˚˔˩˘
into ad hoc operations to secure Japanese garrisons ˛˜ˠ˔˕˥ˢ˔˗˥˔ˡ˚˘ˢ˙˗˨˧˜˘˦ʟ˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˜ˡ˚˦˘˖˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ˆ˔˜˚ˢˡ
spread across the entire region. ˔˥˘˔ʟ˥˘ʠ˘˦˧˔˕˟˜˦˛˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛˔˗ˠ˜ˡ˜˦˧˥˔˧˜ˢˡʟ˗˜˦˔˥ˠ˜ˡ˚
ʴ˧˧˛˘˜ˡ˦˜˦˧˘ˡ˖˘ˢ˙˧˛˘ˆ˨ˣ˥˘ˠ˘ʶˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥˜ˡ˧˛˘ ˧˛˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˙ˢ˥˖˘˦˦ˢ˨˧˛ˢ˙˧˛˘ʤʩ˧˛˃˔˥˔˟˟˘˟ʟЃˡ˗˜ˡ˚˔ˡ˗
theatre, General Douglas McArthur, no forces were to evacuating Allied prisoners of war, and liberating as much
accept local Japanese surrenders before the main, of the country as possible for the French to take back over.
carefully choreographed surrender in Tokyo Bay on 2 All with a single infantry division and one squadron of RAF
ˆ˘ˣ˧˘ˠ˕˘˥ʡˊ˛˜˟˘˧˛˘˪˘˘˞˦˕˘˧˪˘˘ˡ˧˛˘˔˧ˢˠ˜˖˕ˢˠ˕˦ ˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘˦ʟˁˢʥʪʦˆˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡ˕˔˦˘˗˔˧ˇ˔ˡˆˢˡˁ˛˨˧ʟ˝˨˦˧
˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˢ˙Ѓ˖˜˔˟˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥ˣ˥ˢ˩˘˗˨˦˘˙˨˟˙ˢ˥ˣ˟˔ˡˡ˜ˡ˚˔ˡ˗ ˢ˨˧˦˜˗˘ˆ˔˜˚ˢˡʛˡˢ˪ʻˢʶ˛˜ˀ˜ˡ˛ʶ˜˧ˬʜʡ
reorientating the available forces, it also allowed chaos to ˇ˛˜˦˦˜˧˨˔˧˜ˢˡ˪˔˦˕˥ˢ˔˗˟ˬ˥˘ˣ˟˜˖˔˧˘˗˔˖˥ˢ˦˦ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧
break out in several regions as the enemy withdrew to their ʴ˦˜˔ʡʼˡ˦ˢˠ˘˔˥˘˔˦ʟ˦˨˖˛˔˦˧˛˘ˁ˘˧˛˘˥˟˔ˡ˗˦ʸ˔˦˧ʼˡ˗˜˘˦
barracks and allowed local puppet forces and nationalist ʛˡˢ˪ʼˡ˗ˢˡ˘˦˜˔ʜ˧˛˘˦˜˧˨˔˧˜ˢˡ˪˔˦˪ˢ˥˦˘ʟ˪˛˜˟˘˜ˡˢ˧˛˘˥˦ʟ
ˠˢ˩˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˦˧ˢЃ˚˛˧˙ˢ˥˗ˢˠ˜ˡ˔ˡ˖˘ʡ˂ˡ˘ˢ˙˧˛˘˪ˢ˥˦˧ˣ˟˔˖˘˦ ˦˨˖˛˔˦ˆ˜ˡ˚˔ˣˢ˥˘ˢ˥ʻˢˡ˚ʾˢˡ˚ʟ˥˔˧˛˘˥˕˘˧˧˘˥ʟ˕˨˧˔˦˔
˔˙˙˘˖˧˘˗˕ˬ˧˛˜˦˪˔˦ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˔ʟˡˢ˪ˉ˜˘˧ˡ˔ˠʡ rule there was always too much that needed doing with
ˇ˛˘˘ˡ˗ˢ˙˧˛˘˪˔˥˦˔˪ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˔˦ˣ˟˜˧˜ˡ˧ˢ ˧ˢˢ˙˘˪˥˘˦ˢ˨˥˖˘˦ʡʼˡ˦˘˩˘˥˔˟˔˥˘˔˦ʟ˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˜ˡ˚ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˔
˧˪ˢ˭ˢˡ˘˦ʟ˧˛˘ˡˢ˥˧˛˨ˡ˗˘˥ʶ˛˜ˡ˘˦˘ˢ˖˖˨ˣ˔˧˜ˢˡ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘
south reverting to the French. However, the French were
˛˘˔˩˜˟ˬˢ˖˖˨ˣ˜˘˗˜ˡ˥˘ʠ˘˦˧˔˕˟˜˦˛˜ˡ˚˦˧˔˕˜˟˜˧ˬ˔ˡ˗˖ˢˡ˧˥ˢ˟
in their own country and their North African provinces.
“IT WAS A CONFUSED AND HIGHLY FLUID
ˆ˨˖˛ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛˙ˢ˥˖˘˦˔˦˪˘˥˘˔˟˥˘˔˗ˬ˜ˡ˧˛˘˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥ˬ˪˘˥˘
small and only recently released from Japanese captivity.
ʴ˕˥ˢ˔˗˥˔ˡ˚˘ˢ˙ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˘˦˘˚˥ˢ˨ˣ˦ʟˠ˘˔ˡ˪˛˜˟˘ʟ˛˔˗
POLITICAL SITUATION WHICH MADE
sprung up to take advantage of the power vacuum.
Regional and national resistance groups who opposed LITTLE SENSE TO OUTSIDERS”
ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˧˥ˢˢˣ˦˙ˢ˥ˠ˔ˡ
˛ˢˡˢ˨˥˚˨˔˥˗˙ˢ˥˧˛˘˔˥˥˜˩˜ˡ˚
ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˜ˡˆ˘ˣ˧˘ˠ˕˘˥ʤʬʧʨ

Images: Alamy, Getty, Stuart Hadaway

ʴʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˦ˢ˟˗˜˘˥˦˧˔ˡ˗˦˚˨˔˥˗˔˧˅ʴʹˆ˔˜˚ˢˡ

45
 TASK FORCE GREMLIN

˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˁ˘˧˛˘˥˟˔ˡ˗˦ʸ˔˦˧ʼˡ˗˜˘˦ʟʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˧˥ˢˢˣ˦˛˔˗˧ˢ˕˘ Above, left: ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ the Japanese assumed all of these characters were RAF
rearmed to help maintain control of the situations. Far less ˃˛˜˟˜ˣˣ˘ʿ˘˖˟˘˥˖ʟ heroes and star pilots. The aircraft themselves had RAF
˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥ˢ˙˧˛˘
˪˘˟˟ʠ˞ˡˢ˪ˡ˜˦˧˛˘˖ˢˡ˦˖˥˜ˣ˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˧˛˘ʼˠˣ˘˥˜˔˟ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ ˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˘˟˦ˣ˔˜ˡ˧˘˗ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ϟˠ˘˔˧˕˔˟˟Ϡˠ˔˥˞˜ˡ˚˦ʡ
ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛ʹ˔˥ʸ˔˦˧
ʴ˥ˠˬʴ˜˥ʹˢ˥˖˘ʛʼʽʴʴʹʜ˜ˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘˅ˢˬ˔˟ʴ˜˥ʹˢ˥˖˘ʛ˅ʴʹʜʡ ʸ˫ˣ˘˗˜˧˜ˢˡ˔˥ˬʹˢ˥˖˘ʟ ˆˢˠ˘˪˘˥˘˔˟˦ˢˣ˔˜ˡ˧˘˗˔˟˟ʠ˪˛˜˧˘ʟ˟˜˞˘˧˛˘ϟ˧˥˨˖˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧Ϡ
ʺ˥˘ˠ˟˜ˡˇ˔˦˞ʹˢ˥˖˘˪˔˦˧˛˘˖˥˘˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙ʴ˜˥ʶˢˠˠˢ˗ˢ˥˘ ˜ˡ˦ˣ˘˖˧˦ʺ˨˥˞˛˔˦ ʛ˔˟˦ˢˠ˔˥˞˘˗˪˜˧˛˚˥˘˘ˡ˖˥ˢ˦˦˘˦ʜ˪˛˜˖˛˛˔˗˖˔˥˥˜˘˗˦˘ˡ˜ˢ˥
ʛ˟˔˧˘˥ʴ˜˥ʶ˛˜˘˙ˀ˔˥˦˛˔˟ˆ˜˥ʜˊ˔˟˧˘˥ʶ˛˘˦˛˜˥˘ʟ˧˛˘˔˜˥ ˢ˙˧˛˘ʥʣ˧˛ʷ˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡ ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦˧ˢ˩˔˥˜ˢ˨˦ˣ˘˔˖˘˧˔˟˞˦˔˖˥ˢ˦˦˧˛˘˥˘˚˜ˢˡʡ
˖ˢˠˣˢˡ˘ˡ˧˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥˜ˡʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˔ʡʿ˜˞˘ ˜ˡˆ˔˜˚ˢˡ ʶ˛˘˦˛˜˥˘˗˜˗ˡˢ˧˕ˢ˧˛˘˥˚˘˧˧˜ˡ˚˔ˣˣ˥ˢ˩˔˟˙ˢ˥˛˜˦˜˗˘˔ʟ
ʺ˥˔˖˘ˬ˛˘˛˔˗ˠ˔ˡˬʟ˦ˢˠ˘˧˜ˠ˘˦˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˜ˡ˚ʟ˗˨˧˜˘˦ʟ Above, centre: instead implementing it on his own initiative, and he
ʴʾ˔˪˔˦˔˞˜ʾ˜ʠʧʫϟʿ˜˟˟ˬϠʡ
˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˜ˡ˚˦˨ˣˣˢ˥˧˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˔˥ˠˬʟ˥˨ˡˡ˜ˡ˚ˇ˔ˡˆˢˡˁ˛˨˧ would later be reproved for breaching the terms of the
ʴ˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ˁˢʤʫˢ˙˧˛˘
ʛ˔˦˅ʴʹˆ˔˜˚ˢˡʜ˔˦˔˧˥˔ˡ˦ˣˢ˥˧˛˨˕ʟ˔ˡ˗ˢ˩˘˥˦˘˘˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ ˇ˔˦˞ʹˢ˥˖˘ʟ˧˛˜˦ˢˡ˘ armistice agreements. He did have some reservations
˗˜˦˔˥ˠ˔ˠ˘ˡ˧ˢ˙˧˛˘ʼʽʴʴʹʡʻ˘˛˔˗˩˘˥ˬ˟˜ˠ˜˧˘˗˥˘˦ˢ˨˥˖˘˦ʟ ˪˔˦ˡ˔ˠ˘˗ˆˡ˘˘˭ˬ himself, given how Japanese aircraft had been hitting the
˘˦ˣ˘˖˜˔˟˟ˬ˙ˢ˥˧˥˔ˡ˦ˣˢ˥˧ʡˇ˔ˡˆˢˡˁ˛˨˧˪˔˦˔ˡ˜ˠˣˢ˥˧˔ˡ˧ Above, right: headlines in the last months of the war for their kamikaze
˦˧ˢˣ˜ˡ˧˛˘˥ˢ˨˧˘˦˧˛˔˧˦ˣ˔ˡˡ˘˗˧˛˘˪˛ˢ˟˘ˢ˙ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧ ˅ʴʹˆ˔˜˚ˢˡʟ˪˜˧˛ ˧˔˖˧˜˖˦ʡʻ˘˥˘˖˔˟˟˘˗ʭ
ʴ˦˜˔˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʟ˥˘˔˖˛˜ˡ˚˔˦˙˔˥˔˦ʴ˨˦˧˥˔˟˜˔ʡˇ˛˘ ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ “We were interested to discover, among other things,
˦˧˔˙˙ˠ˔˥˦˛˔˟˟˜ˡ˚
˔˩˔˜˟˔˕˟˘˧˥˔ˡ˦ˣˢ˥˧Є˘˘˧˪˔˦˖ˢˡ˧˥˔˖˧˜ˡ˚˔˦˧˛˘˟ˢˡ˚ʠ ˅ʴʹʷ˔˞ˢ˧˔˦
that the Japanese had eminently sensible ideas about
˥˔ˡ˚˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˟˜˞˘˧˛˘ʷˢ˨˚˟˔˦ʷ˔˞ˢ˧˔˔ˡ˗ʶˢˡ˦ˢ˟˜˗˔˧˘˗ the importance of adequate servicing of their aircraft.
Liberator were returned to the Americans with the end ʼˡЄ˨˘ˡ˖˘˗˕ˬ˧˛˘˦˧ˢ˥˜˘˦ˢ˙ˡ˨ˠ˘˥ˢ˨˦˦˨˜˖˜˗˘˔˧˧˔˖˞˦
ˢ˙ʿ˘ˡ˗ʠʿ˘˔˦˘ʡʹ˨˘˟˦˛ˢ˥˧˔˚˘˦˪˘˥˘˔˟˦ˢ˥˜˙˘ʮ˧˛˘ʼʽʴʴʹ carried out by the Japanese towards the end of the war,
˦˧ˢ˖˞ˣ˜˟˘˦˜ˡˆ˔˜˚ˢˡ˪˘˥˘˟ˢ˪ˢ˖˧˔ˡ˘ϝЃˡ˘˙ˢ˥˧˛˘˜˥ˢ˪ˡ ʼ˖˔ˠ˘˧ˢ˕˘˟˜˘˩˘˧˛˔˧˧˛˘ˬ˪ˢ˨˟˗Єˬ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˜ˡ˔ˡˬ˦˧˔˧˘ʟ
aircraft but unsuitable for the Allies. provided that they could get them into the air. However,
ʻˢ˪˘˩˘˥ʟ˪˛˔˧ʶ˛˘˦˛˜˥˘˗˜˗˛˔˩˘˪˘˥˘ˠˢ˥˘˧˛˔ˡ it soon became apparent that they were grounding
ʥʣ˖˔ˣ˧˨˥˘˗ʼʽʴʴʹ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ʟ˥˔ˡ˚˜ˡ˚˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘˧˪ˢʠ˦˘˔˧ individual aircraft for much the same reasons we would.
ˀ˜˧˦˨˕˜˦˛˜ʾ˜ʠʧʩϟʷ˜ˡ˔˛Ϡ˨ˣ˧ˢˁ˔˞˔˝˜ˠ˔ʿʥʷϟˇ˔˕˕ˬϠ ˇ˔˞˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˧ˢ˔˖˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˧˛˘˟ˢˡ˚˦˧˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˚˦˛ˢ˥˧˔˚˘ˢ˙˦ˣ˔˥˘
˖ˢˡ˧˥˔˖˧ʠ˕˨˜˟˧ʷʶʠʦʷ˔˞ˢ˧˔˦ʡˇ˛˘ˬ˛˔˗˧˛˘˜˥ˢ˪ˡ˔˜˥˖˥˘˪˦ʟ parts, brought about by the virtual impossibility of moving
ground crews, spares and, of course, fuel. Japanese troops anything between Japan and the occupied territories, the
˪˘˥˘˔˟˥˘˔˗ˬ˚˨˔˥˗˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˔˜˥Ѓ˘˟˗ʟ˦ˢ˜ˡ˂˖˧ˢ˕˘˥ʤʬʧʨ state of serviceability achieved by them was creditable
ʶ˛˘˦˛˜˥˘˗˘˖˜˗˘˗˧ˢ˜ˠˣ˥˘˦˦˧˛˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˔ˡ˗˖˥˘˪˦˧ˢˢʡ and bore comparison with our own results. Experience in
ʻ˘˗˨˕˕˘˗˧˛˘ˠʺ˥˘ˠ˟˜ˡˇ˔˦˞ʹˢ˥˖˘˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˘Ѓ˖˧˜ˢˡ˔˟ʟ operations showed that once their aircraft were offered
troublesome creatures that were supposed to cause ˔˧˔˦˞ʟ˧˛˘˥˘˪˘˥˘˙˘˪˧˘˖˛ˡ˜˖˔˟˙˔˜˟˨˥˘˦ʡϣ
technical problems in aircraft, popular within the RAF ʴ˦ˠ˔˟˟ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥ˢ˙˅ʴʹˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦ʟˢˡ˟ˬˢˡ˘ˢ˙˪˛ˢˠ
˘˩˘ˡ˕˘˙ˢ˥˘ˊ˔˟˧ʷ˜˦ˡ˘ˬˣ˨˕˟˜˦˛˘˗˔˕ˢˢ˞˕ˬ˅ˢ˔˟˗ʷ˔˛˟ spoke Japanese, formed the headquarters of the task
about them in 1943. The individual aircraft were numbered ˙ˢ˥˖˘˨ˡ˗˘˥ˆˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡʿ˘˔˗˘˥ʻʹˀ˖ˁ˔˕˕ʡˇ˛˘˜˥ˣ˥˜ˠ˔˥ˬ
and also named after characters from the book, after function was tasking, along with helping with logistics
Below: Japanese
ʷ˜˦ˡ˘ˬϠ˦ˆ˘˩˘ˡʷ˪˔˥˙˦ʟˢ˥˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˘˖˔˥˧ˢˢˡ˖˛˔˥˔˖˧˘˥˦˪˛ˢ where needed. The Japanese took care of their own
ˣ˘˥˦ˢˡˡ˘˟ˣ˔˥˔˗˘˧ˢ
˔ˣˣ˘˔˥˘˗˜ˡ˧˛˘˅ʴʹϠ˦Є˜˚˛˧˦˔˙˘˧ˬˠ˔˚˔˭˜ˡ˘ Tee Emm, ˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥˧˛˘˜˥ maintenance and servicing with their existing stores as
˦˨˖˛˔˦˃˜˟ˢ˧˂˙Ѓ˖˘˥˃˥˨ˡ˘ˢ˥ˊ˔˙˙ˊ˜ˡ˦˨ˠʡʴˣˣ˔˥˘ˡ˧˟ˬʟ ˣ˘˥˦ˢˡ˔˟˔˥ˠ˦˜ˡˆ˔˜˚ˢˡ much as possible, and even helped with the maintenance

46
 TASK FORCE GREMLIN

ˢ˙˧˛˘˅ʴʹ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ʡˇ˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˙ˢ˨ˡ˗˧˛˘ˠ˘˙Ѓ˖˜˘ˡ˧˔ˡ˗ Above, centre: A area of occupation, where the new authorities were
professional. The biggest problem was communications. ʺ˥˘ˠ˟˜ˡˇ˔˦˞ʹˢ˥˖˘ refusing to feed the French internees who were still being
˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ʟˁˢʤʩʟˡ˔ˠ˘˗
ˇ˛˘˥˔˗˜ˢ˦˘˧˦ˢˡ˧˛˘ʺ˥˘ˠ˟˜ˡ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˪˘˥˘˩˘˥ˬ˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧ held. One aircraft became unserviceable on the ground
˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˘˚˥ˢ˨ˣ˖˔ˣ˧˔˜ˡ
˧ˢˣ˔˧˖˛˜ˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘˅ʴʹϠ˦˙˥˘ˤ˨˘ˡ˖˜˘˦ʟˤ˨˜˧˘˔ˣ˔˥˧˙˥ˢˠ ˜ˡ˧˛˘˃˜˟ˢ˧˂˙Ѓ˖˘˥ ˜ˡ˧˛˘ˡˢ˥˧˛ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ʶ˛˜ˡ˘˦˘˥˘˙˨˦˘˗˧ˢ˔˟˟ˢ˪˦ˣ˔˥˘˦˧ˢ
the obvious language problems. Leading aircraftman ˃˥˨ˡ˘˖˔˥˧ˢˢˡ˦ ˕˘Єˢ˪ˡ˜ˡʡˇ˛˘ˡ˧˛˘ˬ˜ˠˣˢ˨ˡ˗˘˗˧˛˘ˢ˧˛˘˥˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˜ˡ˔ˡ
ʛʿʴʶʜˆ˧˔ˡʶˢ˟˟˜˦ˢˡʟ˙˥ˢˠ˪˛ˢ˦˘˔˟˕˨ˠ˦ˠ˔ˡˬˢ˙˧˛˘ Above, right: ˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘ argument over payment for refuelling them. Negotiations
photographs in this article come, was an experienced ˉʼʼʼ˦˔ˡ˗ˀˢ˥˔ˡ˘ʠ were hampered greatly by the poor communications,
˦˜˚ˡ˔˟˟˘˥˪ˢ˥˞˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˧˛˘Єˬ˜ˡ˚˖ˢˡ˧˥ˢ˟˖˔˥˔˩˔ˡ˔˧ˇ˔ˡˆˢˡ ˆ˔˨˟ˡ˜˘˥˖ˢˡ˧˥˔˖˧ʠ˕˨˜˟˧ and eventually after several days the broken aircraft was
˥ˢ˧˔˥ˬʠ˘ˡ˚˜ˡ˘ʹ˜˘˦˟˘˥
ˁ˛˨˧ʡʻ˘˥˘˖˔˟˟˘˗ʭ ˦˜ˠˣ˟ˬ˔˕˔ˡ˗ˢˡ˘˗˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˢ˧˛˘˥˦˥˘˧˨˥ˡ˘˗˧ˢˆ˔˜˚ˢˡʡ
ˆ˧ˢ˥˖˛˦˜ˡ˧˛˘ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛
Ϣˇ˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˪˘˪ˢ˨˟˗˞ˡˢ˪˜˦˪˛˘ˡ˔ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ ˦˘˖˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˅ʴʹˆ˔˜˚ˢˡ ʼˡʽ˔ˡ˨˔˥ˬʤʬʧʩʟ˔˗˘˧˔˖˛ˠ˘ˡ˧ˢ˙ˁˢʩʫʧˆˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡ
presented itself at the end of the runway, because we had ˪˛˜˖˛˛˔˗˕˘˘ˡ˔˧˅ʴʹˆ˔˜˚ˢˡʟ˨˦˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˜˥˗˘ʻ˔˩˜˟˟˔ˡ˗
ˡˢ˅ʢˇ˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˖˔˧˜ˢˡ˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ˠʡˇ˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘˝˨˦˧Єˬ˜ˡ˚˕ˬ Mosquitoes to conduct a full photographic survey of the
ˀ˞ʤ˘ˬ˘˕˔˟˟ʡˇ˛˘ˬϠ˗˔ˣˣ˘˔˥ˢˡ˧˛˘˘ˡ˗ˢ˙˧˛˘˥˨ˡ˪˔ˬʟ˚˘˧ ˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˥ˬʟЃˡ˜˦˛˘˗˧˛˘˜˥˧˔˦˞˔ˡ˗ˠˢ˩˘˗˧ˢʵ˔ˡ˚˞ˢ˞ʡˇ˛˘
˔˚˥˘˘ˡ˟˜˚˛˧ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˬϠ˗˕˘ˢ˙˙ʡ ʺ˥˘ˠ˟˜ˡ˦˔˦˦˜˦˧˘˗˜ˡˠˢ˩˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˦ˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡϠ˦˦˧ˢ˥˘˦˔ˡ˗
“The one thing that really annoyed us was that there personnel. That month, between them the task force
was an edict from above that there was to be no ˖ˢˠˣ˟˘˧˘˗ʧʣʫ˦ˢ˥˧˜˘˦ʟ˧ˢ˧˔˟˟˜ˡ˚ˢ˩˘˥ʫʣʣЄˬ˜ˡ˚˛ˢ˨˥˦˔ˡ˗
˙˥˔˧˘˥ˡ˜˦˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˔ˡˬ˖ˢˡ˖˘˜˩˔˕˟˘˪˔ˬʡ˂˙˖ˢ˨˥˦˘ʟ˜˧Ϡ˦˟˜˞˘ ˠˢ˩˜ˡ˚˔˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ʫʨʣ˧ˢˡˡ˘˦ˢ˙ˠ˔˧˘˥˜˔˟ʡ
˔˟˟˧˛˘˦˘˥˨˟˘˦ʟ˧˛˘ˬϠ˥˘˔˟˟ˢˣ˘ˡ˧ˢ˜ˡ˧˘˥ˣ˥˘˧˔˧˜ˢˡʟ˔ˡ˗˜˧ By the end of the month the high tempo of operations
˕˘˖ˢˠ˘˦˔ˡ˘˖˘˦˦˜˧ˬ˜˙ˬˢ˨˔˥˘˪ˢ˥˞˜ˡ˚ˢˡ˧˛˘˦˘˝ˢ˕˦ʟ and dwindling stocks of spares and parts was starting to
ˬˢ˨˛˔˩˘˧ˢ˧˔˟˞˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ˠϨˇ˛˘ˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘˪˛ˢ˪˘˥˘˔˖˧˨˔˟˟ˬ take its toll. This coincided with the drawing down of the
there [in Saigon] were what you might call the draftees, RAF mission in the country. A steady trickle of French troops
ˡˢ˧˧˛˘˚˨ˡ˚ʠ˛ˢ˧ˬˣ˘˦˪˘Ϡ˗˛˔˗ˢ˨˧˜ˡʵ˨˥ˠ˔ˢ˥˔ˡˬ˧˛˜ˡ˚ ˛˔˗˕˘˘ˡ˔˥˥˜˩˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˧˔˞˘ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘ʥʣ˧˛ʷ˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡϠ˦˧˔˦˞˦ʟ˔ˡ˗
˟˜˞˘˧˛˔˧ϝ˧˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘˔˟ˢ˔˗ˢ˙ˡ˨˧˧˘˥˦ʟ˧˛˘ˠʡϣ the French air force was growing in strength. From initially
ʼ˙˧˛˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˖˔˨˦˘˗˔˖˘˥˧˔˜ˡ˔ˠˢ˨ˡ˧ ˛˔˩˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˨˦˘ʶˢˡ˦ˢ˟˜˗˔˧˘˗˃ʵˌʶ˔˧˔˟˜ˡ˔Єˬ˜ˡ˚˕ˢ˔˧˦˙ˢ˥
of chaos at their home base, they created even more ˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ʠ˔˧˧˔˖˞ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘˝˨ˡ˚˟˘ʟ˦˨ˣˣ˟˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˘˗
˖ˢˡ˙˨˦˜ˢˡ˙˨˥˧˛˘˥˔Ѓ˘˟˗ʡˇˢ˦˧˔˥˧˪˜˧˛ʟ˧˛˘ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˪˘˥˘ by their own small force of captured Japanese aircraft
˨˦˘˗˙ˢ˥˥˘˟˔˧˜˩˘˟ˬ˟ˢ˖˔˟Є˜˚˛˧˦˔˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˔˔ˡ˗ ʛ˔˟˕˘˜˧˪˜˧˛ʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛˔˜˥˖˥˘˪ʜʟ˧˛˘ˬ˛˔˗ˡˢ˪˦˧˔˥˧˘˗˧ˢ
˜ˡ˧ˢˆ˜˔ˠʛˇ˛˔˜˟˔ˡ˗ʜʟˠˢ˩˜ˡ˚ˣ˘˥˦ˢˡˡ˘˟ʟ˦˧ˢ˥˘˦˔ˡ˗˙ˢˢ˗ʡ ˥˘˖˘˜˩˘˅ʴʹʠ˦˨˥ˣ˟˨˦ˆ˨ˣ˘˥ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘ˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘ˀ˞ˉʼʼʼ˦ʡ
However, the need arose to send an army brigadier to ˇ˛˘˅ʴʹ˪˔˦˔˕˟˘˧ˢ˗˜˦˕˔ˡ˗˜˧˦ˢ˪ˡˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘˦ˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡʟ
ˆ˘˟˘˧˔˥ʟˆ˜ˡ˚˔ˣˢ˥˘ʟ˦ˢˠ˘ʩʣʣˠ˜˟˘˦ʛʬʩʨ˞ˠʜ˔˪˔ˬʡʴˡ ˁˢʥʪʦʟ˔˧˧˛˘˘ˡ˗ˢ˙ʽ˔ˡ˨˔˥ˬ˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˧˛˘ˠ˜˗˗˟˘ˢ˙
urgent matter needed discussion, and it was quicker ʹ˘˕˥˨˔˥ˬ˅ʴʹˆ˔˜˚ˢˡ˪˔˦ˢ˙Ѓ˖˜˔˟˟ˬ˖˟ˢ˦˘˗ʡʴ˟˧˛ˢ˨˚˛˔
˧ˢ˦˘ˡ˗˔ˡˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˕ˬ˔˜˥˧˛˔ˡ˧˥ˬ˧ˢ˘˫˖˛˔ˡ˚˘˟˘ˡ˚˧˛ˬ small RAF staging post remained as part of the regional
signals over the overstretched radio networks. An L2D was communications network, increasing unserviceability
˦˘ˡ˧ʟ˔ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ʠ˕˨˜˟˧ʷʶʠʦʷ˔˞ˢ˧˔ʡʴ˙˧˘˥˖˔˨˦˜ˡ˚˦ˢˠ˘ among the Gremlins and the lack of RAF administrative
˗˜˦˥˨ˣ˧˜ˢˡ˪˜˧˛˟ˢ˖˔˟Єˬ˜ˡ˚˖ˢˡ˧˥ˢ˟ʟ˜˧˪˔˦ˢˡ˟ˬˢˡ˟˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˚ support led to the task force being stood down. Over four
˧˛˔˧˧˛˘˦˧˥˔ˡ˚˘ˠ˔˥˞˜ˡ˚˦˥˔˜˦˘˗˔˟˔˥ˠ˕˘˟˟˦˔˧ˆ˘˟˘˧˔˥ʡ ˠˢˡ˧˛˦˧˛˘ˬ˛˔˗Єˢ˪ˡˢ˩˘˥ʥʟʣʣʣ˦ˢ˥˧˜˘˦˜ˡ˦˨ˣˣˢ˥˧ˢ˙˧˛˘
ˊ˛˘ˡʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘ˣ˘˥˦ˢˡˡ˘˟˕˘˚˔ˡ˧ˢ˘˫˜˧˧˛˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ ˅ʴʹ˔˖˥ˢ˦˦ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˔˦˧ʴ˦˜˔ʡ
ʛˠˢˡ˧˛˦˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˘ˢ˙Ѓ˖˜˔˟˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥ʜˣ˔ˡ˜˖˘ˡ˦˨˘˗ʡʺ˨˔˥˗˦ ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡϠ˦ˠ˜˦˦˜ˢˡ˧ˢʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˔˛˔˗˕˘˘ˡˠ˘˦˦ˬ
descended on the unexpected guests, who were nearly and left a lot of loose ends. The country was descending
hauled off to the nearest internment camp before the into increasing turmoil as they withdrew, but unlike the
brigadier could intervene and explain.
Images: Alamy, Getty, Stuart Hadaway

ˁ˘˧˛˘˥˟˔ˡ˗˦ʸ˔˦˧ʼˡ˗˜˘˦ʟ˧˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˪˘˥˘˔˕˟˘˧ˢ˟˔˥˚˘˟ˬ
˂ˡ˘˟˔˥˚˘ʠ˦˖˔˟˘ˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˔˪˧˛˘˧˔˦˞˙ˢ˥˖˘˧˔˞˘ avoid getting involved. Their mission, limited as it was,
˦˘˩˘˥˔˟˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ˡˢ˥˧˛ˢ˙˧˛˘ʤʩ˧˛˃˔˥˔˟˟˘˟˜ˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘ʶ˛˜ˡ˘˦˘ was successfully completed and they would avoid getting
involved in the war that would soon envelope the country
˔ˡ˗˟˔˦˧˙ˢ˥˧˛˘ˡ˘˫˧˧˛˥˘˘˗˘˖˔˗˘˦ʡˊ˜˧˛˧˛˔˧˕˔˖˞˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ʟ
“BRITAIN’S MISSION TO FRENCH INDO-CHINA HAD ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡϠ˦˦ˠ˔˟˟˥ˢ˟˘˜ˡʹ˥˘ˡ˖˛ʼˡ˗ˢʠʶ˛˜ˡ˔˪˔˦˦ˢˢˡ
˙ˢ˥˚ˢ˧˧˘ˡʟ˔˦˪˔˦ʺ˥˘ˠ˟˜ˡˇ˔˦˞ʹˢ˥˖˘ʡˇ˛˘ʼʽʴʴʹʠ˅ʴʹ˝ˢ˜ˡ˧

BEEN MESSY AND LEFT A LOT OF LOOSE ENDS” force had given Allied communications a vital boost at
˔˩˘˥ˬ˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧˧˜ˠ˘˕˘˙ˢ˥˘˙˔˗˜ˡ˚˙˥ˢˠ˛˜˦˧ˢ˥ˬʡ

47
 HEROES OF THE MEDAL OF HONOR

Dix published his account

ˢ˙˧˛˘Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˔˧ʶ˛˔˨
Phu, The Rescue of River
ʶ˜˧ˬʟ˜ˡʥʣʣʣ

“IF YOU HAD TWO MORE LIKE HIM,

YOU COULD MARCH INTO HELL AND
PUT THE FIRE OUT… DREW DIX IS
ONE OF THE FEW PEOPLE I’VE SEEN
WHO HAD NO CONCEPT OF FEAR”
JIM MONROE, CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY

48
 H E R O E S O F T H E M E DA L O F H O N O R

As the Tet Offensive raged, this US Special Forces staff

sergeant led an intrepid group to rescue personnel
trapped in the town of Chau Phu, South Vietnam

WORDS MICHAEL E HASKEW

he communist onslaught struck with a Dix distinguished himself repeatedly during a 56-

T thunderclap throughout South Vietnam. With

the observance of Tet, the Vietnamese lunar
new year, Viet Cong insurgents shunned
˔˧˘ˠˣˢ˥˔˥ˬ˖˘˔˦˘Ѓ˥˘˔ˡ˗˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˘˗
coordinated attacks that sowed chaos in the capital
hour ordeal at Chau Phu, leading a handful of heroes,
outnumbered 30 to one, in a deadly game of cat and
mouse. His extraordinary example of leadership and
courage earned the Medal of Honor as Dix became the
Ѓ˥˦˧˘ˡ˟˜˦˧˘˗˦ˢ˟˗˜˘˥ˢ˙˧˛˘ˈˆʴ˥ˠˬˆˣ˘˖˜˔˟ʹˢ˥˖˘˦˦ˢ
Saigon and across the countryside from the coastline recognised during the Vietnam War.
to the Central Highlands and beyond. More than 300 ʷ˜˫˛˔˗˘ˡ˟˜˦˧˘˗˜ˡ˧˛˘ˈˆʴ˥ˠˬ˜ˡʤʬʩʥʟ˔˧˔˚˘ʤʫʡʻ˜˦
cities and towns, many of them provincial capitals, ˔ˠ˕˜˧˜ˢˡ˧ˢ˦˘˥˩˘˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ˆˣ˘˖˜˔˟ʹˢ˥˖˘˦˪˔˦˜ˡ˜˧˜˔˟˟ˬ
were assailed by an estimated 85,000 Viet Cong (VC) denied due to his youth, and he served three years with
and North Vietnamese Army (NVA) regulars during the the 82nd Airborne Division before being accepted into
ˇ˘˧˂˙˙˘ˡ˦˜˩˘ˢ˙ʤʬʩʫʟ˔˗˘Ѓˡ˜ˡ˚˘˩˘ˡ˧ˢ˙˧˛˘˟ˢˡ˚˔ˡ˗ the elite of the army. He served in the Dominican Republic
devastating Vietnam War. during Operation Power Pack, and in October 1967 was
Near the border with Cambodia, the city of Chau Phu detailed to Vietnam as American involvement escalated.
was virtually overrun by communist guerrillas. They took
Below: US soldiers at the provincial capital of Hue confer prior to
control of many homes and businesses and terrorised
˘ˡ˚˔˚˜ˡ˚ˉ˜˘˧ʶˢˡ˚˚˨˘˥˥˜˟˟˔˦˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ˇ˘˧˂˙˙˘ˡ˦˜˩˘˜ˡʤʬʩʫ
˧˛˘˟ˢ˖˔˟ˣˢˣ˨˟˔˧˜ˢˡʡʺ˨ˡЃ˥˘˘˖˛ˢ˘˗˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛˧˛˘˦˧˥˘˘˧˦
and explosions rocked the area as those townspeople
who were not already in communist custody feared for
their lives, awaiting an uncertain fate hiding in the nearby
jungle or trapped in their homes.
In the predawn hours of 31 January 1968, two battalions
of VC guerrillas had moved into position to attack Chau
Phu, a population centre of 25,000 in Chau Doc province
in the Mekong Delta region. Although the Tet Offensive
caught the American and South Vietnamese military
largely by surprise, at Chau Phu the situation developed
Images: Alamy, Getty

somewhat differently. Despite the initially overwhelming

VC force that captured the town, Staff Sergeant Drew Dix
had put together a contingency plan that saved the lives
of many while thwarting enemy ambitions to extend their
temporary reign of terror.

49
 HEROES OF THE MEDAL OF HONOR

En route to his assignment, Dix was Dix had been in country just four months ˔ˡ˗ʤʣ˃˅ˈˣ˘˥˦ˢˡˡ˘˟˜ˡ˧ˢˉʶ˧˘˥˥˜˧ˢ˥ˬ˔˟ˢˡ˚
ordered to leave his 12-man 5th Special but had already established a reputation the course of the Bassac River. The patrol
ʹˢ˥˖˘˦ʺ˥ˢ˨ˣʴʠ˧˘˔ˠˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˟˨ˡ˜˧ as a competent leader of men. American ˛˔˗˕˘˘ˡ˜ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˘˟˗˙ˢ˥˧˘ˡ˛ˢ˨˥˦˔ˡ˗˛˔˗
for covert assignment to the Central ˙ˢ˥˘˜˚ˡ˦˘˥˩˜˖˘ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥ʽ˔ˠ˘˦ˇ˨˟˟˗˘˦˖˥˜˕˘˗ ˔˟˥˘˔˗ˬ˘ˡ˚˔˚˘˗˜ˡЃ˥˘Ѓ˚˛˧˦˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˘ˡ˘ˠˬ
Intelligence Agency (CIA). His orders Dix as heroic during the weeks leading when reports that the city was under heavy
were to train and lead South Vietnamese up to the stern test of the Tet Offensive. ˔˧˧˔˖˞˕˘˚˔ˡЃ˟˧˘˥˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˧ˢʷ˜˫Ϡ˦˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗ʡ
ˣ˥ˢ˩˜ˡ˖˜˔˟˥˘˖ˢˡˡ˔˜˦˦˔ˡ˖˘˨ˡ˜˧ʛ˃˅ˈʜ˧˥ˢˢˣ˦ According to Tull, Dix displayed “impressive Responding quickly to the threat,
˜ˡ˚˔˧˛˘˥˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘ʟ˜ˡЃ˟˧˥˔˧˜ˡ˚ˉʶ and courageous leadership [in] repeated ˛˘ˢ˥˗˘˥˘˗˛˜˦˃˅ˈˣ˘˥˦ˢˡˡ˘˟˔ˡ˗˧˛˘
infrastructure and disrupting communist missions involving great hardship and accompanying SEALs into their small PBRs
operations wherever possible. In the days personal risk… [others coming] to accept his ϝʦʥ˙˧ʛʤʣˠʜЃ˕˥˘˚˟˔˦˦˕ˢ˔˧˦ʡʴ˦˦˘˦˦˜ˡ˚
ˣ˥˘˖˘˗˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˦˨˥ˣ˥˜˦˘ˇ˘˧˂˙˙˘ˡ˦˜˩˘ʟ˧˛˘˃˅ˈ personal courage and professional skill as the situation during the run back to Chau
soldiers had determined that something big something normal…” in those early days. ˃˛˨ʟʷ˜˫˗˜˦˥˘˚˔˥˗˘˗˔˖˨˥˧˔˜ˡˢ˙˘ˡ˘ˠˬЃ˥˘
was afoot, but these reports contradicted When the VC storm broke, Dix was that greeted his team as the men leaped
the widespread understanding that the Tet conducting a standard patrol operation near from their boats, then gathered 137 South
holiday would bring a three-day suspension Chau Phu, leading an eight-man team from ˉ˜˘˧ˡ˔ˠ˘˦˘˃˅ˈˣ˘˥˦ˢˡˡ˘˟˔˟ˢˡ˚˪˜˧˛˧˛˘
of all hostilities. ˧˛˘˛˜˚˛˟ˬ˧˥˔˜ˡ˘˗ˈˆˁ˔˩ˬˆʸʴʿˇ˘˔ˠˇ˪ˢ ˆʸʴʿ˦ʡˇˢ˚˘˧˛˘˥ʟ˧˛˘ˬ˩˘ˡ˧˨˥˘˗˜ˡ˧ˢ˛˔˥ˠϠ˦
way without hesitation.
“Once we got into the city, we could see
“ARMY REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM SOLDIERS INSPIRED BY it was a major offensive,” Dix recalled in a
post-war interview. “No help was coming,
and things were really bad. They were worse
THE HEROISM AND SUCCESS OF SSG DIX RALLIED AND than I thought. The city was totally under
control of the VC.”

COMMENCED FIRING UPON THE VIET CONG” In the heart of Chau Phu, an American
nurse was rumoured to be marooned in her
house. Although they were unsure whether
MEDAL OF HONOR CITATION ʥʧʠˬ˘˔˥ʠˢ˟˗ˀ˔˚˚˜˘˂Ϡʵ˥˜˘ˡ˪˔˦˔˟˜˩˘ˢ˥
dead, the small party headed toward the
location. When they spotted her bullet-
A member of the riddled car, they feared the worst.
ˈˆˁ˔˩ˬˆʸʴʿ˦˜ˡ Ϣˊ˘ˣ˨˟˟˘˗˨ˣ˧ˢˀ˔˚˚˜˘Ϡ˦˛ˢ˨˦˘ʟ˔ˡ˗˜˧
˧˛˘Ѓ˘˟˗˗˨˥˜ˡ˚ ˗˜˗ˡϠ˧˟ˢˢ˞˚ˢˢ˗˕˘˖˔˨˦˘˧˛˘˥˘˖ˢ˨˟˗˛˔˩˘
˧˛˘ˉ˜˘˧ˡ˔ˠˊ˔˥
Below:ˈˆ˧˥ˢˢˣ˦ˣ˜˖˞˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛˧˛˘˥˨˜ˡ˦ˢ˙˔ˆ˔˜˚ˢˡ
˦˧˥˘˘˧˜ˡ˧˛˘˔˙˧˘˥ˠ˔˧˛ˢ˙˧˛˘ˇ˘˧˂˙˙˘ˡ˦˜˩˘

50
 DREW DIX

Above: ʷ˨˥˜ˡ˚˔ʥʣʤʫ˔ˣˣ˘˔˥˔ˡ˖˘˔˧˧˛˘ˊ˛˜˧˘ʻˢ˨˦˘ʟ Above: ʷ˜˫˥˘˖˘˜˩˘˦˔˦˔˟˨˧˘˗˨˥˜ˡ˚ʥʣʣʪ˖˘˥˘ˠˢˡ˜˘˦˜ˡˇ˔ˠˣ˔ʟ

Dix makes remarks as President Donald Trump watches ʹ˟ˢ˥˜˗˔ʟ˔˟ˢˡ˚˪˜˧˛ˢ˧˛˘˥ˀ˘˗˔˟ˢ˙ʻˢˡˢ˥˥˘˖˜ˣ˜˘ˡ˧˦

been a thousand bullet holes,” said Dix. reports indicated that the headquarters ˉ˜˘˧ˡ˔ˠϠ˦˗˘ˣ˨˧ˬˣ˥ˢ˩˜ˡ˖˘˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥˪˘˥˘
Nevertheless, he avoided detection when of the South Vietnamese Army security brought to safety.
a VC guerrilla sprinted past. Other enemy service was occupied by the VC, Dix and his Employing classic urban warfare
Ѓ˚˛˧˘˥˦˛˔˗˧˛˘˥˘˔˥ˢ˙˧˛˘˛ˢ˨˦˘˖ˢ˩˘˥˘˗˔˦ command surged forward, engaging the techniques, his men moved rapidly from one
well. He shouted for the nurse and strained ˘ˡ˘ˠˬ˜ˡ˔˩˜˖˜ˢ˨˦˘˫˖˛˔ˡ˚˘ˢ˙˥˜Є˘˔ˡ˗ location to another, and wounded soldiers
to hear a reply as a communist mortar ˠ˔˖˛˜ˡ˘˚˨ˡЃ˥˘ˡ˘˔˥˧˛˘˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˦ʡˇ˛˘ were left to hold the cleared buildings.
round is reported to have killed one of the veteran leader then noticed a curious lack ˊ˛˘ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚Ѓˡ˔˟˟ˬ˦˨˕˦˜˗˘˗˔ˡ˗˧˛˘
accompanying SEALs. of enemy activity around the headquarters communists were driven out of Chau Phu, Dix
˂Ϡʵ˥˜˘ˡʟ˪˛ˢ˛˔˗ˣ˥˘˩˜ˢ˨˦˟ˬ˖ˢˠˣ˟˘˧˘˗ building and directed his men to cease and his men had accounted for at least 200
a service term with the Peace Corps, Ѓ˥˘ʡʻ˘˖˥˘ˣ˧˦˧˘˔˟˧˛˜˟ˬ˙ˢ˥˪˔˥˗ʟ˥˘ˣ˘˔˧˘˗˟ˬ enemy insurgents killed or wounded.
remembered: “It was really, really getting exposed to whining enemy bullets, to take a ʷ˜˫˥˘˖˘˜˩˘˗˔˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗ˣ˥ˢˠˢ˧˜ˢˡ˧ˢ
˟ˢ˨˗ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˚˨ˡЃ˥˘˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˦˛ˢˢ˧˜ˡ˚˔ˡ˗ closer look at the objective. The reports had the rank of 1st lieutenant and later served as
they had rocketed a hole in my kitchen wall been false, and South Vietnamese troops a company commander in the 101st Airborne
and one in the back wall, and I could hear Viet remained in control of the headquarters. Dix ʷ˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡʡʵ˘˙ˢ˥˘˟˘˔˩˜ˡ˚ˉ˜˘˧ˡ˔ˠʟ˛˘Ϡ˗˛˘˔˥˗
Cong outside my bedroom door shooting. All called off the planned assault and without that the Medal of Honor was forthcoming,
ˢ˙˔˦˨˗˗˘ˡʼ˛˘˔˥˗ʭϟˀ˔˚˚˜˘ʔˀ˔˚˚˜˘ʔϠϣ doubt saved his men from executing a risky but he had been in numerous desperate
ʸ˟˨˗˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˦˧˦ʟʷ˜˫˔ˡ˗˂Ϡʵ˥˜˘ˡ but fruitless attack. Ѓ˥˘Ѓ˚˛˧˦˔ˡ˗˪˔˦˨ˡ˦˨˥˘˪˛˜˖˛˔˖˧˜ˢˡ˧˛˘
reached temporary safety, but it was When darkness fell, Dix and his men medal was commemorating. He received
apparent that others were still in danger maintained vigil throughout the night, at the Medal of Honor from President Lyndon
throughout the embattled city. Dix gathered ˧˜ˠ˘˦˥ˢ˨˦˘˗˧ˢЃ˚˛˧ˢ˙˙˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˦˧ˣ˔˧˥ˢ˟˦ B Johnson during a ceremony at the White
his courage once again and led a team in and probing manoeuvres. One of the House on 19 January 1969. In addition to the
the extrication of eight civilians trapped in ˥˘˦˖˨˘˗ʹ˜˟˜ˣ˜ˡˢ˦˥˘ˠ˘ˠ˕˘˥˘˗ʭϢˊ˘˦ˣ˘ˡ˧ ϟˣ˔˟˘˕˟˨˘˥˜˕˕ˢˡϠʟ˛˘˥˘˖˘˜˩˘˗˧˛˘ʶˢˠ˕˔˧
˔˕˟ˢ˖˞ˢ˙ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˕˨˜˟˗˜ˡ˚˦˧˛˔˧˪˔˦˕˘˜ˡ˚ ˢ˨˥ˡ˜˚˛˧ˣ˥˔ˬ˜ˡ˚ʟ˚˜˩˜ˡ˚˧˛˔ˡ˞˦˧ˢʺˢ˗Ѓ˥˦˧ Infantryman Badge, Bronze Star, Purple Heart
˥˔˞˘˗˕ˬˉʶ˦ˠ˔˟˟ʠ˔˥ˠ˦˔ˡ˗ˠˢ˥˧˔˥Ѓ˥˘ʡ – second to Mr Drew Dix, the smiling brave and Air Medal.
Various accounts of his courage reveal that man of America.” Among his later posts in the army, Dix
Dix organised another team a few minutes ʷ˨˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˦˘˖ˢˡ˗˗˔ˬˢ˙Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚ʟʷ˜˫ ˦˘˥˩˘˗˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ʩ˧˛ˆˣ˘˖˜˔˟ʹˢ˥˖˘˦ʺ˥ˢ˨ˣ
later, rushing to rescue more clusters of continued to operate under the proverbial ʛʴ˜˥˕ˢ˥ˡ˘ʜʮ˧˛˘ʽʹʾˆˣ˘˖˜˔˟ˊ˔˥˙˔˥˘ʶ˘ˡ˧˘˥ʮ
civilians caught in the maelstrom in the noses of the enemy, organising teams that XVIII Airborne Corps; Joint Special Operations
centre of Chau Phu. moved from house to house, building to ˆ˨ˣˣˢ˥˧ʸ˟˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˔˧ˀ˔˖ʷ˜˟˟ʴ˜˥ʹˢ˥˖˘ʵ˔˦˘ʟ
Temporarily pinned down by enemy building, bringing others to safety. Some ʹ˟ˢ˥˜˗˔ʮ˔ˡ˗˪˜˧˛˧˛˘ʧ˧˛ʵ˔˧˧˔˟˜ˢˡʟʬ˧˛
ˠ˔˖˛˜ˡ˘˚˨ˡЃ˥˘ʟʷ˜˫˔˗˩˔ˡ˖˘˗˔˟ˢˡ˘˜ˡˢˡ˘ accounts assert that the SEALs withdrew ʼˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬʟ˔˧ʹˢ˥˧ˊ˔˜ˡ˪˥˜˚˛˧ʟʴ˟˔˦˞˔ʡʴ˙˧˘˥ʥʣ
startling display of heroism, killing six enemy ˔ˡ˗˛˘˪˔˦˟˘˙˧˪˜˧˛ˢˡ˟ˬʥʣ˘˙˙˘˖˧˜˩˘˃˅ˈ years of service, he retired from active duty in
˚˨˘˥˥˜˟˟˔˦˔ˡ˗˙˥˘˘˜ˡ˚˧˪ˢʹ˜˟˜ˣ˜ˡˢ˪ˢ˥˞˘˥˦ ˧˥ˢˢˣ˦ʟ˪˛ˢˠ˛˘˔˥ˠ˘˗˪˜˧˛˙˥˘˦˛˥˜Є˘˦˔ˡ˗ 1982 with the rank of major.
hiding inside a damaged building. Another machine guns along with a single recoilless In 2000, Dix published his memoir of the
˦˧˥˨˖˧˨˥˘˪˔˦˨ˡ˗˘˥˜ˡ˧˘ˡ˦˘ˠˢ˥˧˔˥Ѓ˥˘ʟ˕˨˧ ˥˜Є˘ʡʷ˜˫˜˦˖˥˘˗˜˧˘˗˪˜˧˛˞˜˟˟˜ˡ˚ʥʧ˘ˡ˘ˠˬ battle for Chau Phu, The Rescue of River
ʷ˜˫˪˔˦ˤ˨˜˖˞˧ˢ˥˘˦˖˨˘ˠˢ˥˘˧˘˥˥˜Ѓ˘˗˖˜˩˜˟˜˔ˡ˦ʟ guerrillas, capturing 20 prisoners and their City. He remains active, having worked as
saving the lives of at least ten other people, weapons, and rescuing at least 14 civilians. a security consultant, engaging in public
Images: Alamy, Getty

˔ˠˢˡ˚˧˛˘ˠ˘˜˚˛˧ʴˠ˘˥˜˖˔ˡˈˆʴʼʷ˪ˢ˥˞˘˥˦ʡ In the process of reclaiming Chau Phu speaking and serving as Alaska State
Eyewitnesses reported that such scenarios from the VC, Dix and his tiny contingent of Deputy for Homeland Security. He is co-
played out through the city during the ˛˘˥ˢ˘˦˖˟˘˔˥˘˗˧˛˘˖˜˧ˬϠ˦ˠ˔˜ˡ˛ˢ˧˘˟ʟ˧˛˘˔˧˥˘ founder and board chairman of the Center
day. Dix repeatedly put his own life on and numerous other buildings of enemy of American Values, located in Pueblo,
the line to bring others to safety. When guerrillas; the wife and two children of South Colorado, where he resides today.

51
 G R E AT B AT T L E S

A P P O M AT T OX C O U N T Y, V I R G I N I A 9 APRIL 1865

Greatly outnumbered and nearly surrounded,

Confederate General Robert E Lee nonetheless decided
˧ˢ˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˔ˡ˔˧˧˔˖˞˜ˡ˪˛˔˧˪ˢ˨˟˗˕˘˛˜˦Ѓˡ˔˟˕˔˧˧˟˘
WORDS RICK BRITTON

The last line of battle of

the Army of Northern
Virginia at Appomattox
Court House, Virginia

O P P O S I N G FO R C E S

UNION
LEADER
CONFEDERATE
LEADER
“THOUSANDS OF HUNGRY AND
Lieutenant General
Ulysses S Grant
General
Robert E Lee WAR-WEARY CONFEDERATES STEELED
TROOPS TROOPS
63,000 28,000 THEMSELVES FOR ONE MORE ATTACK”
52
 APPOMATTOX

t was daybreak of Palm Sunday, 9 April 1865. At works defending Petersburg and Richmond. Heading
Appomattox Court House, 95 miles (153km) west west, he planned to eventually turn south to combine

I of Richmond – the former Confederate capital,

ˡˢ˪˜ˡˈˡ˜ˢˡ˛˔ˡ˗˦ϝ˧˛ˢ˨˦˔ˡ˗˦ˢ˙˛˨ˡ˚˥ˬ˔ˡ˗
war-weary Confederates steeled themselves
for one more attack. When they set off, the regimental
forces in North Carolina with the Confederate Army
of Tennessee under General Joseph E Johnston. From
the commencement of the campaign, however, the
attenuated Southern march columns were under near-
fragments were so small that their red and blue battle ˖ˢˡ˦˧˔ˡ˧˧˛˥˘˔˧ʡϢˇ˛˘˥ˢ˔˗˦˔ˡ˗Ѓ˘˟˗˦˔ˡ˗˪ˢˢ˗˦ʟϣ˪˥ˢ˧˘
Є˔˚˦˖˥ˢ˪˗˘˗˧ˢ˚˘˧˛˘˥˜ˡ˧˛˘˥˨˦˛˧ˢˠ˘˘˧˧˛˘˘ˡ˘ˠˬʡ Confederate Major General John B Gordon, “swarmed
The distinctive Rebel yell pierced the air for the last time. with eager pursuers, and Lee now and then was forced to
The name Appomattox Court House conjures up halt his whole army… in order to meet these simultaneous
˙˔ˠ˜˟˜˔˥˦˖˘ˡ˘˦ʭ˧˛˘˜ˠˠ˔˖˨˟˔˧˘˟ˬ˗˥˘˦˦˘˗ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘ ˔˧˧˔˖˞˦ʡϣˆ˘ˡ˦˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˘ˡ˗˪˔˦ˡ˘˔˥ʟˣ˨˥˦˨˜ˡ˚ˈˡ˜ˢˡ
ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟˅ˢ˕˘˥˧ʸʿ˘˘˚˥˘˘˧˜ˡ˚ˈˡ˜ˢˡʿ˜˘˨˧˘ˡ˔ˡ˧ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ cavalry units began gobbling up wagon trains,
ˈ˟ˬ˦˦˘˦ˆʺ˥˔ˡ˧˜ˡ˛˜˦ˠ˨˗ʠ˦ˣ˔˧˧˘˥˘˗Ѓ˘˟˗˨ˡ˜˙ˢ˥ˠʮ˧˛˘ Confederate deserters and famished foragers who had
˧˪ˢ˖˛˔˧˧˜ˡ˚˕˥˜˘Єˬ˕˘˙ˢ˥˘˗˜˦˖˨˦˦˜ˡ˚˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥ʮ˔ˡ˗ʟˢ˙ ˝ˢ˨˥ˡ˘ˬ˘˗˧ˢˢ˙˔˥˔Ѓ˘˟˗ʡ
course, the surrender ceremony on 12 April. Over the years, The sixth of April became known as 'Black Thursday'.
however, the fame of the Appomattox capitulation and the ʼˡ˧˛˘˔˙˧˘˥ˡˢˢˡʟ˔˚˚˥˘˦˦˜˩˘ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬ˜˦ˢ˟˔˧˘˗˧˪ˢ
˔˦˦˔˦˦˜ˡ˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˃˥˘˦˜˗˘ˡ˧ʴ˕˥˔˛˔ˠʿ˜ˡ˖ˢ˟ˡЃ˩˘˗˔ˬ˦˟˔˧˘˥ Confederate infantry corps along Little Sailor’s Creek, a
have overshadowed the fact that Lee launched an assault tributary of the Appomattox. The results of the subsequent
on 9 April, just a few hours before he surrendered. battles were cataclysmic for the Southern army.
Northern casualties totalled 1,100, whereas at least 8,000
ˇ˛˘˪˘˘˞ʠ˟ˢˡ˚Є˜˚˛˧ ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˦ʟ˔˕ˢ˨˧ˢˡ˘ʠЃ˙˧˛ˢ˙ʿ˘˘Ϡ˦˥˘ˠ˔˜ˡ˜ˡ˚˙ˢ˥˖˘ʟ˪˘˥˘
ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬ˕˥ˢ˞˘˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛˧˛˘ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˟˜ˡ˘˦ lost. Thousands of beleaguered Confederate infantrymen
at Petersburg, 20 miles (32km) south of Richmond, and eight Confederate generals surrendered. Lee, watching
early on 2 April 1865. That night, Lee pulled his Army of ˦ˢ˟˗˜˘˥˦Є˘˘˜ˡ˚˧˛˜˦˗˜˦˔˦˧˘˥ʟ˘˫˖˟˔˜ˠ˘˗ʭϢˀˬʺˢ˗ʔʻ˔˦˧˛˘
Northern Virginia – totalling perhaps 60,000 – out of the ˔˥ˠˬ˕˘˘ˡ˗˜˦˦ˢ˟˩˘˗ʲϣ

Image: Alamy

53
 GREAT BATTLES

On the morning of 7 April all the remaining Confederate

infantrymen, perhaps 25,000, were consolidated under
Gordon and Lieutenant General James Longstreet, both of
˪˛ˢˠ˪˘˥˘˦˘˔˦ˢˡ˘˗˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥˦ʡ
That evening, Grant began his correspondence with Lee
regarding the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia.
Eventually, nine messages were exchanged between
the two. Believing on 7 April that this dire moment had
yet to arrive, however, and thinking he could resupply his
famished men at Appomattox Station (two miles (3km)
beyond Appomattox Court House), Lee decided to push
west overnight along the Richmond-Lynchburg Stage
Road. On that ill-fated nighttime march, untold numbers of
Confederates simply slipped off into the dark. Meanwhile,
˜ˡ˖˟ˢ˦˘ˣ˨˥˦˨˜˧˪˘˥˘˧˪ˢˈˡ˜ˢˡ˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬ˖ˢ˥ˣ˦ʟ˪˛˜˟˘˧ˢ
the south – along a shorter route to Appomattox Station
– an even larger Federal force, with cavalry out front, was
rushing to get ahead of Lee and block his further escape. supplies. Now, Custer was attacking Lee’s surplus Above: Confederate
On 8 April, the Army of Northern Virginia trudged onward artillery train. In darkness illuminated by sun-bright casualties at the
battle totalled 195
toward the hilltop village of Appomattox Court House. In canister blasts, Custer’s men captured over two dozen
killed, 305 wounded
the lead was Gordon’s Second Corps. At the rear of the cannon, about 1,000 artillerymen and almost 200
army, Longstreet’s hard-pressed First Corps foot soldiers, loaded wagons. Ignoring these forewarnings, Lee told his
bolstered by cavalry under Major General Fitzhugh 'Fitz' ˟˜˘˨˧˘ˡ˔ˡ˧˦˔˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˧˛˘˟ˢ˪ʠ˕˨˥ˡ˜ˡ˚Ѓ˥˘˧˛˔˧˛˘˕˘˟˜˘˩˘˗
Lee, Robert E Lee’s nephew, desperately fought off the Grant’s forces to the west were merely cavalrymen. They
aggressive enemy. In between rolled the army’s slow- could be brushed aside.
moving wagon trains, the weakened animals straining at When they discussed their course of action, a
the traces. Lee and his staff rode among them. consensus was quickly reached. There was no dissent.
It was determined, according to Gordon, that the Army
ˇ˛˘˟˔˦˧˪˔˥˖ˢ˨ˡ˖˜˟ of Northern Virginia “should attempt at daylight the next
ʴ˧ˡ˜˚˛˧˙˔˟˟ʟ˔˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˔Ѓ˥˘˟˜˧˔˚˔˜ˡ˦˧˧˛˘˖˛˜˟˟ʟʿ˘˘˔ˡ˗˛˜˦ ˠˢ˥ˡ˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˖˨˧˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛ʺ˥˔ˡ˧Ϡ˦˟˜ˡ˘˦ϣʡ
remaining corps commanders – Longstreet, Gordon and
Fitz Lee – held a council of war. The Moon was up, the sky ˇ˛˘˕˔˧˧˟˘˕˘˚˜ˡ˦
ˣ˔˥˧˜˔˟˟ˬЃ˟˟˘˗˪˜˧˛˟ˢ˪ʠ˛˔ˡ˚˜ˡ˚˖˟ˢ˨˗˦ʡ˂ˡ˧˛˘˦˘Є˜˖˞˘˥˘˗ It was a bold and reckless decision. Given the Army of
˧˛˘˟˜˚˛˧˦ˢ˙˔ˠ˨˟˧˜˧˨˗˘ˢ˙˦˨˥˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˜ˡ˚˘ˡ˘ˠˬ˖˔ˠˣЃ˥˘˦ʡ Northern Virginia’s desperate situation – its dwindling
Most ominous were those to the west, the direction of numbers and lack of supplies for both men and beasts
ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘Є˜˚˛˧ʡˆ˨˗˗˘ˡ˟ˬʟ˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘˦ˢ˨˧˛˪˘˦˧˖˔ˠ˘˧˛˘ ϝ˜˧Ϡ˦˦˨˥ˣ˥˜˦˜ˡ˚˧˛˔˧˔˟˟˜˧˦˟˘˔˗˜ˡ˚ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦˪˘˥˘˪˜˟˟˜ˡ˚˧ˢ
˕ˢˢˠ˜ˡ˚ˢ˙˔ˢˡ˘ʠ˦˜˗˘˗Ѓ˚˛˧ˡ˘˔˥ʴˣˣˢˠ˔˧˧ˢ˫ˆ˧˔˧˜ˢˡʡ roll the dice one more time.
ʸ˔˥˟˜˘˥ʟˈˡ˜ˢˡ˧˥ˢˢˣ˘˥˦˨ˡ˗˘˥ˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʺ˘ˢ˥˚˘ The Confederate battle plan for 9 April called for the
Armstrong Custer had captured three trainloads of entirety of Gordon’s Second Corps and all the army’s

“ON THAT ILL-FATED NIGHTTIME MARCH, UNTOLD NUMBERS OF

CONFEDERATES SIMPLY SLIPPED OFF INTO THE DARK”

54
 APPOMATTOX

Evans, Brigadier General James A Walker, Major General

Bryan Grimes and Brigadier General William H Wallace.
ˇ˛˘ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥ˢ˙ˠ˘ˡ˔˟˜˚ˡ˘˗˛˔˦˕˘˘ˡ˩˔˥˜ˢ˨˦˟ˬ˦˧˔˧˘˗ʭ
Gordon claimed there were about 2,000, Fitz Lee said only
1,600. One historian noted, however, that since the number
of men paroled from these units three days later was
7,000, the attack force may have been considerably larger.
Greatly augmenting this infantry line were 30 pieces of
artillery from various battalions.
Fitz Lee’s cavalrymen, many of them asleep in the
saddle, deployed on the right of the foot soldiers in
columns of squadrons (dense regimental attack
formations). The three divisions were under Major General
WHF 'Rooney' Lee (General Lee’s second eldest son),
Brigadier General Thomas L Rosser and Brigadier General
Thomas T Munford. Fitz Lee later estimated that his Cavalry
Corps that morning contained 2,400 riders.
Above: Oil painting of horsemen under Fitz Lee to force the enemy off their Confronting this force was a 1,500-man brigade of
Grant and his generals position astride the Richmond-Lynchburg Stage Road just Federal cavalry under a former schoolteacher from
by O.P.H Balling, 1865
west of Appomattox Court House. Once the thoroughfare Maine, Brigadier General Charles H Smith. His force
was open, the army could proceed west to Danville, Lee’s ˖ˢˠˣ˥˜˦˘˗˧˛˘ʤ˦˧ˀ˔˜ˡ˘ʟʥˡ˗ˁ˘˪ˌˢ˥˞ˀˢ˨ˡ˧˘˗˅˜Є˘˦ʟ
hoped-for destination. the 6th and 13th Ohio Cavalry Regiments, and two
At the war council, the commanding general had ˚˨ˡ˦ˢ˙˧˛˘ʥˡ˗ˈˆʴ˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬ˨ˡ˗˘˥ʿ˜˘˨˧˘ˡ˔ˡ˧ʽ˔ˠ˘˦
warned that if Federal infantry was discovered behind H Lord. Ordered the previous evening to take up a
˧˛˘˕˟ˢ˖˞˜ˡ˚˘ˡ˘ˠˬ˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬʟ˛˘˦˛ˢ˨˟˗˕˘ˡˢ˧˜Ѓ˘˗ position atop the Stage Road about one mile (1.6km)
˜ˠˠ˘˗˜˔˧˘˟ˬ˦ˢ˧˛˔˧˔Є˔˚ˢ˙˧˥˨˖˘ϝϢ˧˛˘ˢˡ˟ˬ˔˟˧˘˥ˡ˔˧˜˩˘ϣ west of Appomattox Court House, Smith had arranged
– could be sent out between the lines. At this, Fitz Lee his troopers across the brow of a hill, where they
stated that if surrender were necessary, he would like to dismounted and immediately began erecting a rough
withdraw his horsemen. He feared that, as his men owned Ѓ˘˟˗˪ˢ˥˞ʡˇ˛˔˧ˠˢ˥ˡ˜ˡ˚ʟˆˠ˜˧˛˗˘ˣ˟ˢˬ˘˗ˠˢ˨ˡ˧˘˗
their horses, they might lose them under mean-spirited ˦˞˜˥ˠ˜˦˛˘˥˦˔ˡ˗˛˜˦˧˪ˢЃ˘˟˗ˣ˜˘˖˘˦˙˔˥˧ˢ˧˛˘˙˥ˢˡ˧ʡ
surrender terms. In a pre-attack council, as Gordon and Fitz Lee argued
During the night, Gordon’s foot soldiers were deployed ˢ˩˘˥˪˛ˢ˦˛ˢ˨˟˗˔˗˩˔ˡ˖˘Ѓ˥˦˧ʟˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʺ˥˜ˠ˘˦
just past the small village into a battleline facing piped up that somebody needed to attack, “and that
˦ˢ˨˧˛˪˘˦˧ʡ˂ˡ˘ˢ˙ʿ˘˘Ϡ˦˦˧˔˙˙ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦˪˔˦˔˪˔˞˘ˡ˘˗˔˙˧˘˥ ˜ˠˠ˘˗˜˔˧˘˟ˬϣʡˊ˛˘ˡʺ˥˜ˠ˘˦˧˛˘ˡ˘˫ˣ˥˘˦˦˘˗˖ˢˡЃ˗˘ˡ˖˘˜ˡ
his ability to drive the enemy, Gordon put him in charge of

Images: Alamy, Getty

midnight by a noisy column tramping toward Appomattox
Court House. The men were singing. the entire infantry assault.
Below: Appomattox
Station in Virginia
Once brought into position, the infantrymen bivouacked The morning was chilly, the entire staging area shrouded
witnessed the war's in line of battle. From left to right (facing the enemy), this ˜ˡ˔˧˛˜˖˞ˠ˜˦˧ʡʴ˦˛˨˗˗˟˘˗ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˦˟˜˧˞˜ˡ˗˟˜ˡ˚Ѓ˥˘˦
bloody denouement line included the divisions of Brigadier General Clement A ˙ˢ˥˧˛˘˜˥ˠˢ˥ˡ˜ˡ˚˖ˢ˙˙˘˘ʟʿˢ˥˗ˢˣ˘ˡ˘˗Ѓ˥˘˪˜˧˛˛˜˦˧˪ˢʦ˜ˡ

55
 GREAT BATTLES

ʛʪʩˠˠʜ˂˥˗ˡ˔ˡ˖˘˅˜Є˘˦ʡˇ˛˘ˡʟ˔˧˗˔˪ˡϝ˔˧˧˛˘˦˛˔˥ˣ
APPOMATTOX
bang of a signal gun – the Confederates went forward,
their shrill yell piercing the fog. The attack was planned as 1 STATION
a huge left wheel, the hinge being Evans’ division on the far ʫʴˣ˥˜˟ʭˈˡ˜ˢˡˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟
left. Over 80 infantry regiments participated, most of them ʺ˘ˢ˥˚˘ʴʶ˨˦˧˘˥Ϡ˦˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬˠ˘ˡ
smaller than companies. “Our men advanced as regularly ˦˘˜˭˘˧˛˥˘˘˧˥˔˜ˡ˟ˢ˔˗˦ˢ˙˦˨ˣˣ˟˜˘˦ʡ
˔˦˧˛ˢ˨˚˛ˢˡˣ˔˥˔˗˘ʟϣˡˢ˧˘˗ˢˡ˘ˁˢ˥˧˛ʶ˔˥ˢ˟˜ˡ˜˔ˡʡ˂ˡ˘ˢ˙ ʴ˙˧˘˥ˡ˜˚˛˧˙˔˟˟ʟ˧˛˘ˬ˔˟˦ˢ˖˔ˣ˧˨˥˘
ˢ˩˘˥ʥʧ˖˔ˡˡˢˡʟʤʟʣʣʣ˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬˠ˘ˡʟ
Smith’s men, however, wrote that “as we look[ed] down on
˔ˡ˗˔˟ˠˢ˦˧ʥʣʣ˪˔˚ˢˡ˦ʡ
them… they appear[ed] an unorganised mass… an armed
ˠˢ˕ˢ˙ˠ˔˗ˠ˘ˡʟ˗˘˧˘˥ˠ˜ˡ˘˗ʟ˗˘˦ˣ˘˥˔˧˘ϣʡ
7
Fitz Lee’s cavalry advanced simultaneously on the right.
Galloping ahead, two North Carolina regiments – the 4th
and 7th – drew sabres, forced back the Federal skirmishers
and seized Lord’s cannon along with their limbers and
8
˖˔˜˦˦ˢˡ˦ʡϢˇ˛˘˜˗˘˔˦˘˘ˠ˘˗ˣˢ˦˜˧˜˩˘˟ˬ˥˜˗˜˖˨˟ˢ˨˦ʟϣ˪˥ˢ˧˘ 3
Southern artillery General EP Alexander, “that men who
were about to be surrendered were actually still capturing
˚˨ˡ˦˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘˜˥ˢˣˣˢˡ˘ˡ˧˦ʡϣˊ˛˘ˡ˧˛˜˦˦˘˖˧˜ˢˡ˪˔˦ 6
˕˥ˢ˨˚˛˧˜ˡ˧ˢʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˟˜ˡ˘˦˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˜˥Ϣ˙˔˧˛ˢ˥˦˘˦ϣʟ
continued Alexander, “I was actually ashamed to have our
ˎ˘ˠ˔˖˜˔˧˘˗ː˔ˡ˜ˠ˔˟˦˦˘˘˜˧ʡϣ
As Smith’s skirmishers fell back, his dismounted troopers
opened up from behind their barricade on the hill. Many
˪˘˥˘˔˥ˠ˘˗˪˜˧˛˧˛˘˪˔˥Ϡ˦ˠˢ˦˧ʠ˜ˠˣ˥ˢ˩˘˗˪˘˔ˣˢˡ˦ʭ
seven-shot Spencer repeating carbines and 16-shot Henry
˥˜Є˘˦ʡˆˠ˜˧˛Ϡ˦ˣˢ˦˜˧˜ˢˡ˪˔˦ˣ˥˘˖˔˥˜ˢ˨˦˔ˡ˗˛˘ˡ˘˘˗˘˗
to buy time for Federal infantry to get up, so his men
1
unleashed these repeaters mercilessly, hoping to deceive
the Confederates as to their numbers.
The Confederate cavalry overlapped Smith’s brigade,
˛ˢ˪˘˩˘˥ʟ˔ˡ˗˦ˢˢˡˢ˨˧Є˔ˡ˞˘˗˛˜ˠˢˡ˧˛˘˟˘˙˧ʡʼˡ˥˘˦ˣˢˡ˦˘ʟ
Smith retreated his troopers to the southwest, uncovering
L AST WAR
2 7
˧˛˘ˆ˧˔˚˘˅ˢ˔˗ʡˇˢ˛ˢ˟˗˜˧ʟ˔ˡ˨ˡ˗˘˥˦˜˭˘˗ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬ
division under Brigadier General Ranald Mackenzie from
New York came up, deployed across that roadway and
COU NCI L
ʫʴˣ˥˜˟ʭˇ˛˔˧ˡ˜˚˛˧ʿ˘˘˔ˡ˗˛˜˦
˗˜˦ˠˢ˨ˡ˧˘˗ʡʴ˦˘ˣ˔˥˔˧˘ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˕˥˜˚˔˗˘˦˔˧˜˧˦˛ˢ˥˦˘˦ ˖ˢ˥ˣ˦˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥˦˗˜˦˖˨˦˦
further to the left. When a gap opened between these ˧˛˘˜˥˦˜˧˨˔˧˜ˢˡʡˇ˛˘ˬ˔˥˘ˡ˘˔˥˟ˬ
Below: ˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʺ˘ˡ˘˥Е˟ʺ˘ˢ˥˚˘ʶ˨˦˧˘˥ʛ˟˘˙˧ʜ
˦˨˥˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˘˗˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˜˥˔˥ˠˬ˜˦
˔ˡ˗ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʽˢ˛ˡʵ˥ˢ˪ˡʺˢ˥˗ˢˡʛ˥˜˚˛˧ʜ ˗˪˜ˡ˗˟˜ˡ˚ʡˊ˛˘ˡʿ˘˘˦˔ˬ˦˧˛˔˧
˧˛˘˘ˡ˘ˠ˜˘˦˧ˢ˧˛˘˪˘˦˧˔˥˘
˘˔˦˜˟ˬ˗˘˙˘˔˧˘˗˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬˠ˘ˡʟ
˧˛˘ˬˠ˔˞˘˔˕ˢ˟˗˗˘˖˜˦˜ˢˡʡ

BLOCKI NG
3 FE DE RAL CAVALRY
Images: Alamy, Getty

ʫʴˣ˥˜˟ʭˇ˛˔˧˘˩˘ˡ˜ˡ˚ʤʟʨʣʣʹ˘˗˘˥˔˟
˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬˠ˘ˡ˧˔˞˘˨ˣ˔˕˟ˢ˖˞˜ˡ˚ˣˢ˦˜˧˜ˢˡ
ˢˡ˧˛˘ˆ˧˔˚˘˅ˢ˔˗ʡˇ˛˘ˬ˗˜˦ˠˢ˨ˡ˧˔ˡ˗
˘˥˘˖˧˔˥ˢ˨˚˛Ѓ˘˟˗˪ˢ˥˞ʡʴ˥ˠ˘˗˪˜˧˛˧˛˘
˪˔˥Ϡ˦˕˘˦˧˥˘ˣ˘˔˧˜ˡ˚˖˔˥˕˜ˡ˘˦ʟ˧˛˘ˬ˔˥˘
ˣ˥˘ˣ˔˥˘˗˧ˢˣ˨˧˨ˣ˔˦˧˜˙˙Ѓ˚˛˧ʡ

TH E ATTACKE RS
4 DE PLOY
ˁ˜˚˛˧ˢ˙ʴˣ˥˜˟ʫʠʬʭʼˡ˧˛˘˗˔˥˞ˡ˘˦˦ʟʥʟʧʣʣ
ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬˠ˘ˡ˔ˡ˗˕˘˧˪˘˘ˡ
ʥʟʣʣʣ˔ˡ˗ʪʟʣʣʣ˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬˠ˘ˡ˗˘ˣ˟ˢˬ˙ˢ˥
˧˛˘˗˔˪ˡ˔˧˧˔˖˞ʡˀ˔ˡˬˢ˙˧˛˘˛ˢ˥˦˘ˠ˘ˡ
˔˥˘˔˦˟˘˘ˣ˜ˡ˧˛˘˦˔˗˗˟˘ʡˇ˛˘˙ˢˢ˧
˦ˢ˟˗˜˘˥˦˜ˠˠ˘˗˜˔˧˘˟ˬ˟˜˘˗ˢ˪ˡ˧ˢ˥˘˦˧ʡ

56
 APPOMATTOX

4
5

5 4

TH E FE DE RALS
8 ATTACK
8 ˊ˜˧˛ˢ˩˘˥˪˛˘˟ˠ˜ˡ˚ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥˦ʟ˧˛˘
ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬʟ˪˛˜˖˛˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˘˦ˈˡ˜˧˘˗
ˆ˧˔˧˘˦ʶˢ˟ˢ˥˘˗ˇ˥ˢˢˣ˦ʟˣ˨˦˛˘˦˧˛˘
ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˟˜ˡ˘˕˔˖˞ʟ˖˔ˣ˧˨˥˜ˡ˚
˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬʡˊ˛˘ˡʿ˘˘˥˘˖˘˜˩˘˦˧˛˘
ˠ˘˦˦˔˚˘˧˛˔˧˧˛˘˔˧˧˔˖˞˛˔˦˙˔˜˟˘˗ʟ
˛˘Ѓˡ˔˟˟ˬ˔˖˖˘ˣ˧˦˧˛˘˜ˡ˘˩˜˧˔˕˟˘ʡ

U N I ON I N FANTRY
7 ARRIVES
˅˨˦˛˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˧˛˘˙˥ˢˡ˧ʟ˛˔˥˗ʠˠ˔˥˖˛˜ˡ˚
ʹ˘˗˘˥˔˟˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬˠ˘ˡˠ˔˞˘˧˛˘˜˥˪˔ˬ
˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛˧˛˘˥˘˧˥˘˔˧˜ˡ˚˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬʡˇ˛˘˦˘

“AS WE LOOKED DOWN ON THEM THEY APPEARED ˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˘˘˟˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˦ˢ˙˂˥˗Ϡ˦ʴ˥ˠˬˢ˙˧˛˘

ʽ˔ˠ˘˦˗˘ˣ˟ˢˬ˘˗ˢˡ˧˛˘˟˘˙˧˔ˡ˗ʺ˥˜˙ЃˡϠ˦ˉ
ʶˢ˥ˣ˦ʟʴ˥ˠˬˢ˙˧˛˘˃ˢ˧ˢˠ˔˖ʟˢˡ˧˛˘˥˜˚˛˧ʡ

AN UNORGANISED MASS, AN ARMED MOB OF

MAD MEN, DETERMINED, DESPERATE”
FORWARD, FE DE RAL CAVALRY
5 6
Map illustration: Rocio Espín Piñar

MARCH! DE FEATE D
ʴ˧˧˛˘Ѓ˥˜ˡ˚ˢ˙˔˦˜˚ˡ˔˟˚˨ˡʟ˧˛˘ ˇ˛˘ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬ˖˛˔˥˚˘˦˔˛˘˔˗ʟ
ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬ˔˗˩˔ˡ˖˘˦˔˧˧˛˘ ˖˔ˣ˧˨˥˘˦˧˪ˢˣ˜˘˖˘˦ˢ˙˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬ˔ˡ˗
˗ˢ˨˕˟˘ʠˤ˨˜˖˞ʡˇ˛˘˔˧˧˔˖˞˜˦ˣ˟˔ˡˡ˘˗ ˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˘˦ˢˡ˔˚˔˜ˡ˦˧˧˛˘˘ˡ˘ˠˬЃ˘˟˗˪ˢ˥˞ʡ
˔˦˔ˠ˔˦˦˜˩˘˟˘˙˧˪˛˘˘˟ʡʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʿ˘˘ ˂˩˘˥˟˔ˣˣ˜ˡ˚˧˛˘ʹ˘˗˘˥˔˟˟˘˙˧Є˔ˡ˞ʟ˧˛˘ˬ
˛ˢˣ˘˦˜˧˪˜˟˟˦˛ˢ˩˘˕˔˖˞˧˛˘ʹ˘˗˘˥˔˟ ˙ˢ˥˖˘˕˔˖˞˧˛˘˘ˡ˘ˠˬϠ˦Ѓ˥˦˧˟˜ˡ˘˔ˡ˗˗˘˙˘˔˧
˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬ˔ˡ˗ˢˣ˘ˡ˧˛˘ˆ˧˔˚˘˅ˢ˔˗ʡ ˧˛˘˔˥˥˜˩˜ˡ˚˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬ˥˘˜ˡ˙ˢ˥˖˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˦ʡ

57
 GREAT BATTLES

units, the 14th Virginia Cavalry boldly charged through.

At this, the still-mounted 4th Pennsylvania Cavalry
counterattacked in column, routing the Virginians and
“LONGSTREET’S MEN WOULD BRING UP
˦˘˜˭˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˜˥˕˔˧˧˟˘Є˔˚ʡ
But the Confederates kept up the pressure. As the
Southern infantry advanced at the double-quick, backed
THE REAR, EVER READY TO REPEL AN
˕ˬ˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬЃ˥˘ʟ˧˛˘˨ˡ˜˧˦˦˪˨ˡ˚˧ˢ˧˛˘˟˘˙˧˔ˡ˗˘˩˘ˡ˧˨˔˟˟ˬ
faced south. This was to protect the vital Stage Road for ASSAULT FROM BEHIND”
˧˛˘˔˥ˠˬϠ˦˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˘˗Є˜˚˛˧ʡˇ˛˘˕˔˧˧˟˘˟˜ˡ˘˪˔˦˟ˢˡ˚ϝ˧˛˘˥˘
were large intervals between brigades – and now the commands. As Ord’s lead brigade under Colonel Thomas
rightmost brigade under Brigadier General William R Cox, a O Osborne pushed through, its 62nd Ohio Infantry was
lawyer from North Carolina, faced to the right and assisted ˩˜˖˜ˢ˨˦˟ˬ˔˧˧˔˖˞˘˗˜ˡ˧˛˘Є˔ˡ˞ʟ˦˨˙˙˘˥˜ˡ˚ˢ˩˘˥ʨʣ˖˔˦˨˔˟˧˜˘˦ʡ
˜ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˚˛˧˔˚˔˜ˡ˦˧˧˛˘ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˛ˢ˥˦˘ˠ˘ˡʡˇ˛˘ˬ˪˘˥˘ˤ˨˜˖˞˟ˬ The 11th Maine rushed to its aid but was likewise struck in
routed. Grimes wrote that the Federal cavalry was driven ˧˛˘Є˔ˡ˞ʟ˜˧˦˕˔˧˧˟˘˟˜ˡ˘ˣ˨ˠˠ˘˟˟˘˗˕ˬ˖˔ˡ˜˦˧˘˥˕˟˔˦˧˦ʡ
Ϣ˜ˡ˖ˢˡ˙˨˦˜ˢˡ˙ˢ˥˧˛˥˘˘ʠˤ˨˔˥˧˘˥˦ˢ˙˔ˠ˜˟˘ϣʡ˃˥˜˦ˢˡ˘˥˦˔ˡ˗ Gordon was watching the battle from behind his lines
˔ˡˢ˧˛˘˥ˣ˜˘˖˘ˢ˙˔˥˧˜˟˟˘˥ˬ˪˘˥˘˖˔ˣ˧˨˥˘˗ʡ˅˜˗˘˥˟˘˦˦ˈˡ˜ˢˡ as the inevitable preponderance of Federal numbers
˛ˢ˥˦˘˦ʟˡˢ˧˘˗ˢˡ˘ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘ʟϢ˚˔˟˟ˢˣ˘˗ˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘Ѓ˘˟˗ ˪˔˦˙˘˟˧˔˟˟˔˖˥ˢ˦˦˧˛˘˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗ʡ˂˥˗˦ˢˢˡ˗˘ˣ˟ˢˬ˘˗
˪˛˘˥˘˟˔ˬ˧˛˘˜˥˪ˢ˨ˡ˗˘˗˔ˡ˗˗ˬ˜ˡ˚ϣʡ both of his infantry divisions (about 10,000 men), along
Bolstered by a battery of guns, Cox’s men remained ˪˜˧˛˧˪ˢ˕˥˜˚˔˗˘˦ˢ˙ˈˡ˜˧˘˗ˆ˧˔˧˘˦ʶˢ˟ˢ˥˘˗ˇ˥ˢˢˣ˦ʡʸ˔˚˘˥
˜ˡˣˢ˦˜˧˜ˢˡʟ˙˔˖˜ˡ˚˪˘˦˧ʟ˖ˢ˩˘˥˜ˡ˚˧˛˔˧Є˔ˡ˞ʡˀ˘˔ˡ˪˛˜˟˘ʟ ˧ˢ˕˘˜ˡˢˡ˧˛˘˞˜˟˟ʟˈˡ˜ˢˡˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʶ˛˔˥˟˘˦ʺ˥˜˙ЃˡϠ˦
Grimes deployed skirmishers and ordered his south- V Corps now rushed toward Appomattox Court House
facing brigades to lie down and rest. At this point, the job from the southwest, supported by two fresh divisions of
˛˔˗˕˘˘ˡ˔˖˖ˢˠˣ˟˜˦˛˘˗ʭ˧˛˘˘ˡ˘ˠˬʠ˛˘˟˗˛˜˟˟˛˔˗˕˘˘ˡ Federal cavalry.
cleared and the enemy cavalry shoved out of the way. ˁˢ˧˜Ѓ˘˗˧˛˔˧˔ˡ˘˪ʹ˘˗˘˥˔˟˙ˢ˥˖˘˧˛˥˘˔˧˘ˡ˘˗˛˜˦
ʺˢ˥˗ˢˡ˟˔˧˘˥˪˥ˢ˧˘ʭϢʼ˧˔˞˘˘˦ˣ˘˖˜˔˟ˣ˥˜˗˘˜ˡ˥˘˖ˢ˥˗˜ˡ˚ ˥˜˚˛˧˔ˡ˗˥˘˔˥ʟʺˢ˥˗ˢˡЃ˥˦˧˦˨˥˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˘˗˛˜ˠ˦˘˟˙˪˜˧˛˛˜˦
the fact that this last charge of the war was made by the sharpshooters, then directed Confederate artillery to
footsore and starving men of my command with a spirit ˖ˢˡ˖˘ˡ˧˥˔˧˘˜˧˦Ѓ˥˘˜ˡ˧˛˔˧˗˜˥˘˖˧˜ˢˡʡˇˢ˖ˢ˨ˡ˧˘˥˧˛˘ʹ˘˗˘˥˔˟
˪ˢ˥˧˛ˬ˧˛˘˕˘˦˧˗˔ˬ˦ˢ˙ʿ˘˘Ϡ˦˔˥ˠˬʡϣʺ˥˜ˠ˘˦˪˥ˢ˧˘˧˛˔˧ʟ˜ˡ ˖˔˩˔˟˥ˬˠ˘ˡ˔˖˜ˡ˚˛˜˦ˢ˧˛˘˥Є˔ˡ˞ʟ˛˘˗ˢ˨˕˟˘ʠˤ˨˜˖˞˘˗˔
˧˛˜˦ˠˢˠ˘ˡ˧ˢ˙˔ˣˣ˔˥˘ˡ˧˦˨˖˖˘˦˦ʟ˛˘˦˘ˡ˧˔ˡˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˧ˢ brigade of infantry. This was the situation when Gordon
Gordon announcing “that the Lynchburg road was open Ϣ˥˘˖˘˜˩˘˗˔˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧˜ˡˤ˨˜˥ˬ˙˥ˢˠʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʿ˘˘ϣʟ˕ˢ˥ˡ˘˕ˬ
˙ˢ˥˧˛˘˘˦˖˔ˣ˘ˢ˙˧˛˘˪˔˚ˢˡ˦ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˔˧ʼ˔˪˔˜˧˘˗ˢ˥˗˘˥˦ϣʡ ˦˧˔˙˙ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥ʶˢ˟ˢˡ˘˟ʶ˛˔˥˟˘˦ˆˉ˘ˡ˔˕˟˘ʡˇ˛˘˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˚
The plan called for the trains, reduced to ammunition general wanted to hear about Gordon’s progress and
wagons and two battalions of artillery, to press forward what encouragement he could give. “Tell General Lee that
covered by Fitz Lee’s cavalry and Gordon’s infantry. ˠˬ˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˛˔˦˕˘˘ˡ˙ˢ˨˚˛˧˧ˢ˔˙˥˔˭˭˟˘ʟϣ˦˔˜˗ʺˢ˥˗ˢˡʟ
Longstreet’s men would bring up the rear, ever ready to taking a deep breath, “and unless Longstreet can unite in
repel an assault from behind. the movement, or prevent these forces from coming upon
But the entire Confederate battle plan – the ˠˬ˥˘˔˥ʟʼ˖˔ˡˡˢ˧˟ˢˡ˚˚ˢ˙ˢ˥˪˔˥˗ʡϣ
breakthrough and the escape to the west – was illusory. ˁˢ˪ʟ˔˖ˢˢ˥˗˜ˡ˔˧˘˗ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬ˔˦˦˔˨˟˧˙ˢ˥˖˘˗˕˔˖˞
ˁˢ˪ʟ˧˪ˢ˗˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡ˦ˢ˙ˈˡ˜ˢˡˀ˔˝ˢ˥ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʸ˗˪˔˥˗˂ʶ Brigadier General Cox’s Brigade and captured one of the
˂˥˗Ϡ˦ʴ˥ˠˬˢ˙˧˛˘ʽ˔ˠ˘˦˕˘˚˔ˡ˔˥˥˜˩˜ˡ˚ˢˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˘˟˗ʡ˂ˡ supporting guns, a 20-pounder. This retreat precipitated the Below, left: Union
the move since 3am, these hard-marching Federals had withdrawal of Gordon’s entire attack force under Grimes. soldiers gathered
outside the Court
˛˨˦˧˟˘˗˔˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ʿ˘˘Ϡ˦˦ˢ˨˧˛˘˥ˡЄ˔ˡ˞˔ˡ˗˗˘ˣ˟ˢˬ˘˗˔˖˥ˢ˦˦ (And this backpedaling, punctuated by one brief and
House after the battle
the Richmond-Lynchburg Stage Road one mile (1.6km) startling Confederate countercharge, eventually brought
Below, right: Union
to the rear of Smith’s position. Their way forward was the Second Corps back to the morning’s starting point). artillery at Broadway
obstructed, however, by stragglers, stampeding pack- Lee listened quietly as Venable related Gordon’s reply. Landing on the
mules and the led horses from Smith and Mackenzie’s What his general wanted was impossible to supply. Appomattox River

58
 APPOMATTOX

Above: Lee met Grant Dug-in to protect the Confederate rear and under threat ˛ˢ˪˘˩˘˥ʟ˜˧˥˔˧˘˦ˤ˨˜˧˘˛˜˚˛ʡʼ˧˪˔˦˧˛˜˦Ѓˡ˔˟˕˟ˢˢ˗˟˘˧˧˜ˡ˚
at Appomattox Court of assault, Longstreet had already dispatched several that convinced Lee that the Confederate cause was truly
House to discuss brigades to assist in the attempted breakout. More could ˟ˢ˦˧ʡˈˣ˨ˡ˧˜˟˧˛˜˦˔˧˧˔˖˞˛˘ˠ˔˜ˡ˧˔˜ˡ˘˗˔˛ˢˣ˘ʟ˛ˢ˪˘˩˘˥
surrender terms
not be spared. “There is nothing left me but to go and slim, of escaping to the west, combining with the forces
˦˘˘ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʺ˥˔ˡ˧ʟϣʿ˘˘˦˜˚˛˘˗ʟϢ˔ˡ˗ʼ˛˔˗˥˔˧˛˘˥˗˜˘˔ ˨ˡ˗˘˥ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʽˢ˛ˡ˦˧ˢˡ˔ˡ˗˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˜ˡ˚˧˛˘Ѓ˚˛˧ʡˇ˛˔˧
˧˛ˢ˨˦˔ˡ˗˗˘˔˧˛˦ʡϣˆˢˢˡʟЄ˔˚˦ˢ˙˧˥˨˖˘˘ˠ˘˥˚˘˗˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘ vision was permanently shattered the morning of 9 April.
ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˟˜ˡ˘˦ʟ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˖˔ˡˡˢˡ˔ˡ˗˥˜Є˘ʠЃ˥˘˦˟ˢ˪˟ˬ˕˨˧ Because the Appomattox capitulation featured the
surely faded away. Confederacy’s most famous army led by its ablest
˚˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ʟ˧˛˘ˢ˧˛˘˥ˆˢ˨˧˛˘˥ˡ˙ˢ˥˖˘˦˜ˡ˧˛˘Ѓ˘˟˗˦ˢˢˡ
ʻˢ˪˜˧˔˟˟˙˘˟˟ˢ˨˧ followed suit. Near Durham, North Carolina, on 26 April,
ˈˡ˜ˢˡ˖˔˦˨˔˟˧˜˘˦˔˧ʴˣˣˢˠ˔˧˧ˢ˫ʶˢ˨˥˧ʻˢ˨˦˘ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥˘˗ General Joseph E Johnston surrendered the Army of
approximately 160 killed and wounded. One of the last the Tennessee (and all other Confederate troops in the
killed (if not the last) was 1st Lieutenant Hiram Clark. As his Carolinas, Georgia and Florida).
185th New York advanced, a Confederate battery posted ˂˗˗˟ˬ˘ˡˢ˨˚˛ʟ˧˛˘˪˔˥Ϡ˦˟˔˦˧Ѓ˚˛˧ϝ˔˦ˠ˔˟˟˔˙˙˔˜˥˔˧
near the courthouse spat out a parting shot that, within a Palmito Ranch, Texas, on 12-13 May – was a Confederate
split second, passed through Clark’s torso. The 26-year-old victory. It mattered not. The capitulations continued.
˙˔˥ˠ˘˥˪˔˦˥˘ˠ˘ˠ˕˘˥˘˗˔˦Ϣ˔ˡ˘˫˖˘˟˟˘ˡ˧ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥ʟ˔ˣ˘˥˙˘˖˧ On 26 May, Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner
˚˘ˡ˧˟˘ˠ˔ˡʟ˛˜˚˛˟ˬ˥˘˦ˣ˘˖˧˘˗˕ˬ˔˟˟˪˛ˢ˞ˡ˘˪˛˜ˠϣʡ surrendered the Army of the Trans-Mississippi in New
ʶˢˡ˙˘˗˘˥˔˧˘˖˔˦˨˔˟˧˜˘˦˛˔˩˘˕˘˘ˡ˘˦˧˜ˠ˔˧˘˗˔˧ʨʣʣʭ Orleans. The Confederate forces in Texas, New Mexico
195 killed and 305 wounded. One of the last Southerners and Arizona were disbanded on 30 May. General Edmund
killed was 26-year-old Sergeant Ivy Ritchie, 14th North Kirby Smith surrendered the Confederacy’s entire Trans-
Carolina Infantry. Sadly, it’s believed he was mistakenly Mississippi Department on 2 June in Galveston, Texas.
interred as a Federal soldier in Poplar Grove National Three weeks later, on 23 June, Confederate Brigadier
Cemetery near Petersburg. General Stand Watie – second principal chief of the
Total Southern losses, of course, were much greater Cherokee Nation – surrendered his Cherokee, Seminole
than 500. That very afternoon, in the Wilmer McLean and Osage cavalrymen at Doaksville, Choctaw Nation (in
House in Appomattox Court House, Lee surrendered the present-day Oklahoma).
Army of Northern Virginia, a once-powerful force now After four long and torturous years and the loss of at
numbering about 28,000 of all arms. Grant’s surrender least 750,000 Northern and Southern lives, the nation’s
˧˘˥ˠ˦˪˘˥˘ˠ˔˚ˡ˔ˡ˜ˠˢ˨˦ʟ˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧˦˧˘ˣ ʶ˜˩˜˟ˊ˔˥˪˔˦Ѓˡ˔˟˟ˬˢ˩˘˥ʡ
˧ˢ˪˔˥˗˥˘˖ˢˡ˖˜˟˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˪˔˥˥˜ˡ˚˦˘˖˧˜ˢˡ˦ʡ˂˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦˪˘˥˘
allowed to retain their horses and sidearms. The men in
the ranks, after relinquishing their weapons and swearing
not to take up arms again, were issued parole passes FURTHER READING
allowing them to return home unmolested. Confederate Elizabeth Varon, Appomattox; Victory, Defeat, and
Images: Alamy, Getty

cavalrymen and artillerymen who owned their mounts Freedom at the End of the Civil War
were permitted to take them home. Jay Winik, April 1865: The Month That Saved America
Judged by numbers and casualties alone, Appomattox
Douglas Southall Freeman, Lee’s Lieutenants:
Court House ranks far below such large battles as Volume III
Antietam, Chickamauga and Gettysburg. In morale effect,

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 OPERATOR’S HANDBOOK

HAWKE R
T YPH OO N
ˇ˛˘˙˔˜˟˘˗˛˜˚˛ʠ˔˟˧˜˧˨˗˘Ѓ˚˛˧˘˥˧˛˔˧ˣ˥ˢ˩˘˗˖˥˨˖˜˔˟˧ˢ˧˛˘
˟˜˕˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙ʸ˨˥ˢˣ˘˔˦˔˗˘˔˗˟ˬ˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ʠ˔˧˧˔˖˞˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧
WORDS STUART HADAWAY
he Hawker Typhoon was conceived lines in 1941 it proved a disappointment. Although it

T in 1937 as a medium-to-high altitude

interceptor, intended to ultimately replace
the Hawker Hurricane, which was just
about to enter service with the RAF. The
Typhoon was ordered in 1939 but delayed by the
could take on the formidable new German Focke-Wulf
ʹ˪ʤʬʣ˔˧˟ˢ˪˟˘˩˘˟˦ʟ˜˧˪˔˦˜ˡ˖˔ˣ˔˕˟˘ˢ˙˙˨˟Ѓ˟˟˜ˡ˚˜˧˦
˜ˡ˧˘ˡ˗˘˗˥ˢ˟˘ʡʼˡ˦˧˘˔˗ʟ˜ˡ˔Є˔˦˛ˢ˙˚˘ˡ˜˨˦ʟ˕ˢˠ˕˦˔ˡ˗
˧˛˘ˡ˥ˢ˖˞˘˧˦˪˘˥˘Ѓ˧˧˘˗˧ˢ˧˛˘˥˨˚˚˘˗ʟˣˢ˪˘˥˙˨˟˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ʟ
and the RAF’s most effective single-seat ground-attack
ˢ˨˧˕˥˘˔˞ˢ˙˧˛˘ˆ˘˖ˢˡ˗ˊˢ˥˟˗ˊ˔˥ʟ˪˛˘ˡЃ˚˛˧˘˥ aircraft of the war was born.
production was forced to concentrate on Hurricanes The bulky, snub-nosed Typhoon has become
˔ˡ˗ˆ˨ˣ˘˥ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘ˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘˦ʡˊ˛˘ˡ˜˧˗˜˗˥˘˔˖˛˧˛˘˙˥ˢˡ˧ synonymous with the Second Tactical Air Force’s (2TAF)

POOR VISIBILITY
Early models suffered from
restricted visibility, with thick
frameworks and a solid dorsal
limiting the pilot’s view.

STURDY WINGS RECOGNITION

The Typhoon had
unusually thick wings. This
MARKINGS
Typhoons often appeared with
VULNERABLE RADIATOR created drag and limited
speed, but allowed it to
white and black stripes under the
The massive air-intake was a weakness. On wings. Although similar to later
˧˛˘˥ˢ˨˚˛ˁˢ˥ˠ˔ˡ˗ˬ˔˜˥Ѓ˘˟˗˦˘ˡ˚˜ˡ˘˦˪ˢ˨˟˗ carry great weights in fuel Allied ‘invasion stripes’, these
last an average of three take-offs before and ordnance, and made were added much earlier to help
˖˟ˢ˚˚˜ˡ˚˨ˡ˟˘˦˦˦ˣ˘˖˜˔˟Ѓ˟˧˘˥˦˪˘˥˘Ѓ˧˧˘˗ʡ it a steady gun platform. differentiate them from Fw 190s.

60
 HAWKER TYPHOON

HAWKER TYPHOON
COMMISSIONED 1939
ORIGIN BRITISH
LENGTH 31FT 11IN (9.74M)
RANGE 690 MILES (1,110KM);
1,090 MILES (1,750KM)
WITH DROP TANKS
TOP SPEED 422MPH (679KM/H)
ENGINE 1 X NAPIER SABRE
2,180HP (1,630KW)
LIQUID-COOLED
PISTON ENGINE
CREW 1
campaign to shatter the German ground anti-armour role, German sources prove how
PRIMARY 4 X 0.8IN (20MM)
forces in northwest Europe in 1944-45, in feared the type was. Units were known to
WEAPON CANNON
particular over Normandy and in the Falaise retreat or abandon their heavy equipment
Gap. Using bombs, rocket projectiles and when Typhoons appeared. Much more SECONDARY 8 X ROCKET
their four 0.8in (20mm) cannon, Typhoons cut importantly, if less glamorously, Typhoons WEAPON PROJECTILES OR UP
a swathe through German tanks, transport, made easy prey of the soft-skinned vehicles TO 2,000LB (900KG)
defensive installations and other ground and tankers that supplied the armour with BOMBS
targets. While debate still rages over how fuel and ammunition, without which tanks
effective the Typhoons really were in an were so much scrap metal.

TAIL WEAKNESS
After several early structural
failures, the rear join on the tail
˪˔˦˥˘˜ˡ˙ˢ˥˖˘˗˪˜˧˛ϟЃ˦˛ˣ˟˔˧˘˦Ϡʟ
although it remained prone to
failure under extreme buffeting.

No 56 Squadron A 198 Squadron Typhoon on an

ˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˦ˢˡˣ˔˧˥ˢ˟ advanced landing ground in Normandy,
˪˛˜˟˘˔ˠ˜ˡ˘Ѓ˘˟˗˜˦˖˟˘˔˥˘˗˕˘˛˜ˡ˗
Images © Alamy

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 OPERATOR’S HANDBOOK

Armament ʴ˥ˠˢ˨˥˘˥˦˟ˢ˔˗˥ˢ˖˞˘˧˦ˢˡ˧ˢ
The Typhoon was originally designed a Typhoon in Normandy, 1944
and developed with 12 0.303in
(7.7mm) machine guns, each with
500 rounds, and due to cannon
˖ˢˠˣˢˡ˘ˡ˧˦˛ˢ˥˧˔˚˘˦˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ʤʤʣ
(Mk Ia) airframes were equipped this
way. However, as soon as parts were
available, production switched to
the Mk Ib with four cannon and 140
˥ˢ˨ˡ˗˦ˣ˘˥˚˨ˡʡˇ˛˘˦˘˖ˢ˨˟˗˜ˡЄ˜˖˧
serious damage on air and ground
targets, but it was rockets and bombs
that became synonymous with the
Typhoon. Although its 3in (76mm), 60lb
(27kg) rocket projectiles were not very
accurate, they were devastatingly
effective against tanks, transport and
defensive positions.

Below: ˇ˛˘ˠ˔˜ˡ˔˥ˠ˔ˠ˘ˡ˧˙ˢ˥ˠˢ˦˧
ˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˦˪˔˦˧˛˘ˣˢ˪˘˥˙˨˟ʣʡʫ˜ˡ
ʛʥʣˠˠʜ˖˔ˡˡˢˡʟ˧˪ˢ˜ˡ˘˔˖˛˪˜ˡ˚

“ALTHOUGH THE ROCKET

PROJECTILES WERE NOT
VERY ACCURATE, THEY WERE
DEVASTATINGLY EFFECTIVE”
ʴˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˜˦˟ˢ˔˗˘˗˪˜˧˛
ˣ˥˔˖˧˜˖˘˕ˢˠ˕˦ʟˀ˔ˬʤʬʧʦ

62
 HAWKER TYPHOON

ˇ˛˜˦˦˧˥˜ˣˣ˘˗ʠ˗ˢ˪ˡ
ˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˦˛ˢ˪˦˧˛˘˦˜˭˘˔ˡ˗
˖ˢˠˣ˟˘˫˜˧ˬˢ˙˧˛˘˘ˡ˚˜ˡ˘ʟ
˥˔˗˜˔˧ˢ˥˔ˡ˗˘˫˛˔˨˦˧

Engine
The original order to Hawker was for two different engine types to Design
be used: the Rolls-Royce Vulture and the Napier Sabre. The Vulture- The Typhoon was a radical departure from Hawker’s previous
Ѓ˧˧˘˗˧ˬˣ˘˦˕˘˖˔ˠ˘˧˛˘ʻ˔˪˞˘˥ˇˢ˥ˡ˔˗ˢʟ˕˨˧˧˛˘˘ˡ˚˜ˡ˘ˣ˥ˢ˩˘˗ ˗˘˦˜˚ˡ˦ʟˠ˔˥˞˜ˡ˚˧˛˘˜˥Ѓ˥˦˧ˣ˥ˢ˗˨˖˧˜ˢˡ˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧˪˜˧˛˔˙˨˟˟ˬ
˨ˡ˥˘˟˜˔˕˟˘ʟ˦ˢ˧˛˘ˆ˔˕˥˘ʠЃ˧˧˘˗ˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˕˘˖˔ˠ˘˧˛˘˦˧˔ˡ˗˔˥˗ metal skin over a metal frame. The wings were very thick to
production model. A 24-cylinder liquid-cooled engine, the Sabre accommodate the planned 12 machine guns and this caused
was immensely powerful, and later the type had to switch from high drag but also imparted great strength, which was to prove
a three- to a four-bladed propeller. The large radiator under the crucial in the aircraft’s later ground-attack role. The tail proved
ˡˢ˦˘˔˟˦ˢˣ˥˘˦˘ˡ˧˘˗˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧˜˘˦ʟ˘˦ˣ˘˖˜˔˟˟ˬ˪˛˘ˡˢˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˡ˚ˢˡ to be a major design problem as it had a tendency to snap off
˥ˢ˨˚˛Ѓ˘˟˗˦˧˥˜ˣ˦˜ˡˁˢ˥ˠ˔ˡ˗ˬʟ˪˛˘˥˘˧˛˘ˬ˜ˡ˚˘˦˧˘˗˟˔˥˚˘˔ˠˢ˨ˡ˧˦ under heavy stresses. This problem was solved with a simple
of highly damaging dust. ˕˨˧˜ˡ˘˟˘˚˔ˡ˧˦˧ˢˣʠ˚˔ˣˢ˙˔˗˗˜ˡ˚ʥʣϟЃ˦˛ˣ˟˔˧˘˦Ϡ˧ˢ˦˧˥˘ˡ˚˧˛˘ˡ
the rearmost fuselage joint.
Below: ˇ˛˘ˆ˔˕˥˘˪˔˦ˡˢ˧ˢ˥˜ˢ˨˦˟ˬ˛˔˥˗˧ˢ˦˧˔˥˧˜ˡ˖ˢ˟˗˪˘˔˧˛˘˥ʡʻˢ˧˔˜˥
˖ˢ˨˟˗˕˘ˣ˜ˣ˘˗˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛Ѓ˥˦˧˧ˢ˪˔˥ˠ˜˧˨ˣ

˃˜˟ˢ˧˂˙Ѓ˖˘˥ʶʵ˘ˡˡ˔˙˧˘˥˕˘˜ˡ˚˛˜˧ˢ˩˘˥
ˁˢ˥ˠ˔ˡ˗ˬϝ˧˛˘˥˨˚˚˘˗ˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˪˔˦
Images © Alamy

˔˕˟˘˧ˢ˪˜˧˛˦˧˔ˡ˗˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧˗˔ˠ˔˚˘

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 OPERATOR’S HANDBOOK

Cockpit
The early production Typhoons
had bulky cockpit canopies, in
the ‘car door’ style complete
with wind-down windows.
Entrance and exit was awkward,
especially in emergencies, and
visibility (particularly behind)
was poor. There was also the
˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧ˣ˥ˢ˕˟˘ˠˢ˙˖˔˥˕ˢˡʠ
monoxide leakage from the
engine – this was never fully
resolved and pilots had to
wear their oxygen masks at
all times. The visibility issues
˪˘˥˘Ѓ˫˘˗˕ˬ˜ˡ˜˧˜˔˟˟ˬ˜ˡ˦˧˔˟˟˜ˡ˚
transparent panels on the
dorsal behind the canopy, but
in 1943 a better solution was
found by removing the dorsal
and installing a conventional
‘bubble’ canopy.

Right:ˇ˛˘˘˔˥˟ˬˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˦
˛˔˗˔˖˟˨ˠ˦ˬϟ˖˔˥˗ˢˢ˥Ϡ˦˧ˬ˟˘
˖ˢ˖˞ˣ˜˧˔ˡ˗˖˔ˡˢˣˬ
Below:ʹ˟ˬ˜ˡ˚˂˙Ѓ˖˘˥ʹ˥˔ˡ˞
ˀ˨˥ˣ˛ˬ˗˘ˠˢˡ˦˧˥˔˧˘˦˦ˢˠ˘
ˢ˙˧˛˘˩˜˦˜˕˜˟˜˧ˬˣ˥ˢ˕˟˘ˠ˦˜ˡ
˘˔˥˟ˬ˜˧˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦

64
 HAWKER TYPHOON

“THEIR MOST DESTRUCTIVE WORK WAS OVER

GERMANY ITSELF IN THE LAST DAYS OF THE WAR”

ˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡʼ˕˦˧˔˞˘ˢ˙˙˧ˢ˔˧˧˔˖˞ʺ˘˥ˠ˔ˡ
˥˔˗˔˥˦˧˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˜ˡˁˢ˥ˠ˔ˡ˗ˬʟ˔˩˜˧˔˟ˣ˔˥˧
ˢ˙˂ˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˂˩˘˥˟ˢ˥˗ˣ˥˘ˣ˔˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦

Service history
ˊ˛˘ˡ˜˧Ѓ˥˦˧˘ˡ˧˘˥˘˗˦˘˥˩˜˖˘˜ˡ˦ˠ˔˟˟ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥˦˜ˡʤʬʧʤʟ˧˛˘ ʴʩʣʬˆˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˘˦
˥ˢ˖˞˘˧˦˔˧˔˧˥˔˜ˡ˜ˡʺ˘˥ˠ˔ˡˬ
Typhoon was quickly shown to have poor performance
in its intended role as a medium- to high-altitude
interceptor. Small improvements were made as the
type matured, and in 1942 it was one of the few Allied
Ѓ˚˛˧˘˥˦˔˕˟˘˧ˢ˧˔˞˘ˢˡ˧˛˘˘˫˖˘˟˟˘ˡ˧ˡ˘˪ʺ˘˥ˠ˔ˡʹ˪ʤʬʣ
at lower levels. However, above medium height it was
outclassed. In September 1942, 181 Squadron began to
operate the Typhoon as a ground-attack aircraft over
ˡˢ˥˧˛˘˥ˡʹ˥˔ˡ˖˘ʟ˖˔˥˥ˬ˜ˡ˚˕ˢˠ˕˦˜ˡ˔˖ˢˡЃ˚˨˥˔˧˜ˢˡ
nicknamed the ‘Bombphoon’. A year later, rocket
ˣ˥ˢ˝˘˖˧˜˟˘˦˪˘˥˘˔˟˦ˢЃ˧˧˘˗˔ˡ˗˔˖˟˔˦˦˜˖ˣ˔˥˧ˡ˘˥˦˛˜ˣ
was born. By the end of 1943 Second Tactical Air Force
(2TAF) was formed to provide close air support to the
proposed liberation forces about to land in France. 2TAF
contained 18 squadrons of ground-attack Typhoons,
and units specialised as either bomber or rocket-
Ѓ˥˜ˡ˚˨ˡ˜˧˦ʡ˂˩˘˥ˡˢ˥˧˛˪˘˦˧ʸ˨˥ˢˣ˘ʟˇˬˣ˛ˢˢˡ˦˛˔˗˔
devastating impact on vehicles, trains, strong-points,
headquarters and radar stations. While they are best-
known for their evisceration of the German forces
Images © Alamy

in Normandy, their most destructive work was over

Germany itself in the last days of the war.

65
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 HOME FRONT
68 BUILDING A
FUTURE ARMY
Sir Barney White-Spunner
discusses his latest book, a study
ˢ˙Ѓ˩˘˔˥ˠ˜˘˦˧˛˔˧˦˛˔ˣ˘˗ʸ˨˥ˢˣ˘

72 76 82
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 HOMEFRON T

BUILDING A
FUTURE ARMY
Sir Barney White-Spunner discusses his latest book Nations in Arms,
˜ˡ˪˛˜˖˛˛˘˔ˡ˔˟ˬ˦˘˦˛ˢ˪Ѓ˩˘˔˥ˠ˜˘˦˔˖˥ˢ˦˦˖˘ˡ˧˨˥˜˘˦˛˔˩˘
˙ˢ˨ˡ˗˦˨˖˖˘˦˦ˢˡ˔ˡ˗ˢ˙˙˧˛˘˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗ʟ˔ˡ˗˛˘˟ˣ˘˗˦˛˔ˣ˘ʸ˨˥ˢˣ˘
INTERVIEW TIM WILLIAMSON
ir Barney White-Spunner KCB CBE served for lessons are fairly obvious like drones, but it just got me

S over 30 years in the British Army, including

as Commander of the Field Army, before
retiring in 2011. Since then he has become
an acclaimed historian, with publications
ranging on topics from the Household Cavalry (his former
thinking that this is probably one of those moments when
you need to think about the concept of armies and the
defence of societies rather differently. The old adage of
you just simply spend more on what you’ve got, on slightly
narrower parameters, may not be relevant anymore.
regiment), and Indian Partition. The other thing that also struck me is just how much
His latest book, Nations in Arms, explores the purpose armed forces across the world are being dragged into
˔ˡ˗ˠ˔˞˘˨ˣˢ˙˦˨˖˖˘˦˦˙˨˟˔˥ˠ˜˘˦˧˛˥ˢ˨˚˛Ѓ˩˘˛˜˦˧ˢ˥˜˖˔˟ doing other things like disaster relief. I use the example
case studies. From the forces of Emperor Constantine to ˢ˙˧˛˘ʴ˨˦˧˥˔˟˜˔ˡʴ˥ˠˬ˔ˡ˗Єˢˢ˗˜ˡ˚ʟ˕˨˧ˬˢ˨˔˟˦ˢ˛˔˩˘
the US Army of 1941, White-Spunner recounts how and COVID. Who does all the pandemic distribution of
why these armies were successful, threading the core medicines? The army. Who gets the blame in Spain for
principles that across decades have prevailed. He spoke ˧˛˘ˆ˘˩˜˟˟˘Єˢˢ˗˥˘˟˜˘˙ʲˇ˛˘˔˥ˠˬʡˆˢ˖˜˘˧ˬ˜˦ˡˢ˪˚ˢ˜ˡ˚
with History of War about his approach to the book, and to have to confront a whole new range of threats –
how his conclusions could shape armies of the future. environmental, pandemic, migration – and how that
manifests is hugely complicated.
What event prompted you to write this book? So [I thought] now is the time maybe to actually think
I think it was the reaction to Ukraine. I really started thinking about defence and armies, and then to look back to when
about it from then. Ukraine has made armies think about other people in history have been confronted with a period
things tactically in a very different way. Some of the like this and how they had reacted.

US Army troops training at Aberdeen

Proving Ground, Maryland, 1941

68
 BUILDING A FUTURE ARMY

A Ukrainian soldier launches a

S I R BAR N E Y
drone in Donbas, February 2023

WH ITE -S PU N N E R
The acclaimed author and historian served
in the British Army for over 30 years and has
published numerous books on military history.

“YOU STILL NEED FIT YOUNG PEOPLE TO

DO SOME OF THE COMBAT TASKS…
BUT YOU DON’T NEED THEM TO FLY DRONES”
You’ve chosen nations and armies that ultimately helped ˔˦ˣ˘˖˜Ѓ˖ˣ˨˥ˣˢ˦˘ʟ˪˛˜˖˛˜˦˧ˢ˗˘˙˘˔˧˧˛˘˅ˢˬ˔˟˜˦˧˦˔ˡ˗ Below: Gerhard von
shape Europe. Are there some notable omissions? basically save Parliament’s skin. But it’s an army that then Scharnhorst pioneered
the modern general
The Napoleonic Army is sort of Banquo’s ghost, isn’t it? I begins to interpret its success as being there for its own
staff system
say in the book it is tactically one of the most successful good… that it’s there for its own purposes. Of course, no
and innovative armies ever. But where does it leave army is ever there for its own purposes and this is the
France? It leaves France in a very weak state. classic mistake. If an army thinks it’s there for its
If you look at France after 1815, look at the French own ends, that leads it into this awful period of
population growth in the ensuing century: it’s half what it trying to run a civilian government. An army that
was in the previous century. It only grows 25 percent. So is actually going to stray away from realising
where does Napoleon’s army leave France’s military? In what it’s there to do is something that has to
a very weak state. If you look at the politics of France, you be avoided at all costs.
could argue it is only just beginning to recover in the 20th It alarms me that 25 percent of Generation
century from Napoleon. After Waterloo how is the shape of X think that we should have a military
ʸ˨˥ˢˣ˘˗˘Ѓˡ˘˗ʲʼ˧Ϡ˦ˡˢ˧˗˘Ѓˡ˘˗˕ˬˁ˔ˣˢ˟˘ˢˡʭ˜˧Ϡ˦˗˘Ѓˡ˘˗ dictatorship. Hasn’t the New Model Army
by the reaction to him. [shown that] military dictatorships are not
That’s why the key criteria for an army that is going to a way to run a country? They never will be.
be successful, which you should look to model, is one that It’s not what an army is there for.
actually works to the interests of the nation that produces In terms of being the foundation of
it… that it’s there to defend. Armies that become the hubris the modern British Army: yes, absolutely.
ˢ˙ˢˡ˘˗˜˖˧˔˧ˢ˥˔˖˧˨˔˟˟ˬ˗ˢˡϠ˧Ѓ˧˧˛˘˕˜˟˟ʡ What I think is so clever about the
˅˘˦˧ˢ˥˔˧˜ˢˡˣˢ˟˜˧˜˖˜˔ˡ˦˔ˡ˗ˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘˟˜˞˘
One of your chapters focuses on the New Model Army [General George] Monck is that they
during the British Civil Wars, and you also mention that rescue the New Model Army just in
this period created the foundation of the modern British time. It’s very possible that we
Images: Alamy, Getty

Army. Could you explain why you chose this? wouldn’t have a British army at all
I have long studied the New Model Army largely because ˔˙˧˘˥˧˛˘˅˘˦˧ˢ˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˃˘˥˜ˢ˗Ϩ˕˨˧
my own regiment the Household Cavalry stems from actually the army does manage
that period… Here you have an army that is created for to turn itself around, so that you

69
 HOMEFRON T
˦˘˘˧˛˘˦˔ˠ˘ʶ˜˩˜˟ˊ˔˥˔˥ˠˬ˧˛˘ˡЃ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˙ˢ˥ʶ˛˔˥˟˘˦ʼʼʟ
Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˙ˢ˥ˡˢ˧˔˚˔˜ˡ˦˧˧˛˘˅ˢˬ˔˟˜˦˧˦ʡ
You then have this complete transformation. By the
Battle of Sedgemoor, which is only 25 years after the
˅˘˦˧ˢ˥˔˧˜ˢˡʟˬˢ˨Ϡ˩˘˚ˢ˧˔ˡ˔˥ˠˬʟ˧˛˘˜ˡ˦˧˜˧˨˧˜ˢˡ˦˔ˡ˗˧˛˘
˥˘˚˜ˠ˘ˡ˧˦ʟЃ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˙ˢ˥˔ʶ˔˧˛ˢ˟˜˖˞˜ˡ˚˔˚˔˜ˡ˦˧˔˃˥ˢ˧˘˦˧˔ˡ˧
usurper. If you think about it, it’s completely extraordinary.
It’s the genesis of an army that actually does what the
government wants it to do.
There’s also a huge amount of what I call more
‘biz’ – for boring military spotters like me, the hugely
interesting detail of how regiments are organised,
how you look after [them], how you equip [them], how
regiments work mechanically, and how brigades and
that work mechanically. That is immensely important.
You look at what’s going on in Europe: the Thirty Years’
War comes and other countries are trying to redesign Above: Constantine at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. His army
reforms were critical to the late Roman empire
their armies at the time – particularly in Prussia. I
covered this a bit with the Great Elector [Frederick spend enough on defence so you are technologically up
William] (he’s one of those much-neglected European to speed with what’s going on.
rulers). The way that people think about armies of the But there are other ways that you can prepare a society
˧˜ˠ˘˜˦˜ˡЄ˨˘ˡ˖˘˗˕ˬ˪˛˔˧ˎ˛˘˗ˢ˘˦ːʡ to defend itself. And one of the things particularly I think [is]
we need to make much more use of everybody in society
Donald Rumsfeld was infamously quoted as saying you as part of this principle. We’re all part of society. There’s
go to war with the army you have, not the one you’d this idea that it’s the government’s job to do everything,
hope to have – how does this compare with the armies but who is the government? The government’s actually us
discussed in your book? if you think about it.
They should have got that army into a position whereby
it’s able to defend them. This goes back to the idea of NATO recently committed to a 5 percent spending of
thinking about defence and armies slightly differently. GDP on defence. Could this requirement meet your core
Because yes, of course, the army you’ve got is the principle of building infrastructure, to equip and sustain
army you’ve created, and the army you obviously an army successfully?
felt comfortable with up to that war. Nazi Germany is Let’s take the current British Army. Even if you double the
˔ˡˢ˕˩˜ˢ˨˦˘˫˔ˠˣ˟˘ʡʴˡ˔˥ˠˬ˕˨˜˟˧˨ˣ˙ˢ˥˔˦ˣ˘˖˜Ѓ˖ expense, you can’t recruit enough soldiers at the moment,
purpose inevitably will be better in many ways than the ˦ˢ˜˧Ϡ˦˚ˢ˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˕˘˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧˧ˢˠ˔˞˘˧˛˘˔˥ˠˬ˕˜˚˚˘˥ʡ
˔˥ˠ˜˘˦˜˧Ϡ˦˚ˢ˜ˡ˚˧ˢЃ˚˛˧ʟ˪˛ˢ˪˜˟˟˛˔˩˘˕˘˘ˡˡ˘˚˟˘˖˧˘˗ Every major defence manufacturer in Europe has got
because governments will have prioritised other areas. its order books full for the next three years. You can’t
That is a fact of life. buy artillery ammunition. If you start acquiring new
My point in saying this is that it is the duty of government technologies, against what criteria are you procuring? I’m
to keep prepared and to keep abreast of what is going on ˡˢ˧˦˔ˬ˜ˡ˚ˬˢ˨˦˛ˢ˨˟˗ˡϠ˧˗ˢ˜˧ϝˬˢ˨˗˘Ѓˡ˜˧˘˟ˬ˦˛ˢ˨˟˗ϝ
so that doesn’t happen, so you don’t end up [with what] ˕˨˧˜˧Ϡ˦ˤ˨˜˧˘˔˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧ˤ˨˘˦˧˜ˢˡ˧ˢ˔ˡ˦˪˘˥˕˘˖˔˨˦˘˧˛ˢ˦˘
happened in France in 1940. Easier said than done! criteria are constantly changing. Take the last three years
In the last chapter I talk about the defence industry in Ukraine: if we had conducted a massive spend against
˔ˡ˗ʴʼʟ˕˨˧˜˧˜˦˔˩˘˥ˬ˗˜˙Ѓ˖˨˟˧˕˔˟˔ˡ˖˘˕˘˧˪˘˘ˡ˛ˢ˪ the parameters of 2022, we’d have bought the wrong stuff.
much you spend, when you don’t perceive a particular ʺˢ˜ˡ˚˕˔˖˞˧ˢ˧˛˘˦˘ˢ˧˛˘˥˧˛˥˘˔˧˦˧˛˔˧˔˥˘ˡϠ˧˦ˣ˘˖˜Ѓ˖˔˟˟ˬ
threat. Why would you not spend that money on schools conventional military threats (climate or migration):
and hospitals? Why would you spend it on defence? would you think it’s fair to spend some of that money on
That’s the question I’m trying to answer… You’ve got to defending our borders? On maybe taking more proactive

German Leopard 2 tanks

at a new production
facility, February 2024

70
 BUILDING A FUTURE ARMY

NATI O N S I N
AR M S FRO M “YOU’VE GOT TO SPEND ENOUGH ON
OS PR E Y
PU B LI S H I N G DEFENCE SO YOU ARE TECHNOLOGICALLY American volunteers
I S AVAI L AB LE at a recruitment centre
N OW ABREAST OF WHAT’S GOING ON” the day after Japan
attacked Pearl Harbor

measures against migration? A lot of people in ˘˫ˣ˘˖˧˔ˡ˖ˬʟЃ˧ˡ˘˦˦˔ˡ˗˔˟˟ʡ˂˙˖ˢ˨˥˦˘ˡˢ˪˪ˢˠ˘ˡˣ˟˔ˬ˔

[Britain] would say they feel threatened not by much increased role.
˅˨˦˦˜˔ˎ˕˨˧ː˕ˬˠ˜˚˥˔˧˜ˢˡʟ˪˛˜˖˛˚ˢ˘˦˕˔˖˞˧ˢˠˬ Your regular active deployable combat-ready force can
point: you need to take an holistic approach, and contain people around different ages, sexes and skill sets…
that to me that is what defence is. This means that an army of the future would be older.
ˌˢ˨˦˧˜˟˟ˡ˘˘˗Ѓ˧ˬˢ˨ˡ˚ˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘˧ˢ˔˖˧˨˔˟˟ˬ˗ˢ˦ˢˠ˘ˢ˙˧˛˘
If you were starting from 2025, what might combat tasks, of course, possibly some of the armour core
an army in ten years look like based on the ˧˔˦˞˦ϝ˕˨˧ˬˢ˨˗ˢˡϠ˧ˡ˘˘˗˧˛˘ˠˡ˘˖˘˦˦˔˥˜˟ˬ˧ˢЄˬ˗˥ˢˡ˘˦
conclusions of your book? ˢ˥˧ˢ˕˘ˠ˘˗˜˖˦ʟ˟˜ˡ˚˨˜˦˧˦ʟ˜ˡ˧˘˟˟˜˚˘ˡ˖˘ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦ʟˢ˥˧ˢ˗ˢ˧˛˘
ʼ˧˛˜ˡ˞˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˧˛˜ˡ˚˪˘ˡ˘˘˗˧ˢ˚˘˧˔˪˔ˬ˙˥ˢˠ space element…
now is this idea that armies are 18-year-old Space is hugely neglected by all armies because
men. There was a time when they were the only they don’t understand it, apart from the Americans
people who were really worth it; you got the and possibly the Chinese… I think [a future army] would
service out of them because of people’s life incorporate a range of skill sets and you would match
them to the capabilities that people could bring. It would
be an army technically guided by something like the
The Australian Army led rescue efforts after
ˠˢ˗˘˟ˢ˙˅ˢˢ˦˘˩˘˟˧Ϡ˦˔ˡ˗ˀ˔˥˦˛˔˟˟Ϡ˦˂˙Ѓ˖˘˙ˢ˥ˆ˖˜˘ˡ˧˜Ѓ˖
˦˘˩˘˥˘Єˢˢ˗˜ˡ˚˜ˡ˄˨˘˘ˡ˦˟˔ˡ˗ʟʽ˔ˡ˨˔˥ˬʥʣʤʤ
˅˘˦˘˔˥˖˛˔ˡ˗ʷ˘˩˘˟ˢˣˠ˘ˡ˧ʭ˧˛˘˂ˆ˅ʷʡ
A future army would need an organisation that is
looking at technological change, which is working with
universities [and] industry to equip it. It’s going to have a
backup of a reserve, and behind that a mechanism that
actually brings society into a supporting role, so it doesn’t
get drawn into doing all sorts of other things such as
˖ˢˠ˕˔˧˜ˡ˚Єˢˢ˗˜ˡ˚˔ˡ˗ˣ˔ˡ˗˘ˠ˜˖˥˘˟˜˘˙ʡ
It’s also an army that will be properly looked after. [For
example], look at the two armies covered at the beginning
Images: Alamy, Getty

and end of the book – Emperor Constantine’s ‘Army

Welfare Act’ of 326 and then you get the GI Bill of June 1944.
The book begins and ends with two of the most forward-
thinking bits of legislation designed to give an army the full
backing of society.

71
 HOMEFRON T

MUSEUMS & EVENTS

New and established museums get National Lottery funding,
˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˈʾϠ˦Ѓ˥˦˧ˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˛˜˦˧ˢ˥ˬ˙˘˦˧˜˩˔˟˔ˡˡˢ˨ˡ˖˘˗

U NTO LD After the Battle of Waterloo, Irish

soldiers received praise from both
Napoleon and the Duke of Wellington

New museum to explore Irish

heritage in the British Army
lans have been unveiled for

P a £13.6 million project to open

a state-of-the-art museum
with two sites: Belfast and
Enniskillen. These galleries will
commemorate 350 years of Irish soldiers
serving in the British Army, including their
participation in the Battle of Waterloo.
Napoleon Bonaparte famously described
the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment of Foot as
“the most obstinate mules I ever saw”; 108
years later, on 23 November 1918, the 2nd Untold is beginning to gather the funding extremes of hardship to make an
ʿ˘˜ˡ˦˧˘˥˦˕˘˖˔ˠ˘˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛ʴ˥ˠˬ needed to open the museum. It has received indelible mark on our history. In sharing
Regiment to march across the Waterloo almost £250,000 in development funding these stories, Untold seeks to contribute
˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗˦˜ˡ˖˘ˁ˔ˣˢ˟˘ˢˡϠ˦˗˘˙˘˔˧ʡ from the Heritage Fund and has plans to to ongoing peace and reconciliation
The Untold collection will include apply for a full National Lottery grant worth across the island.”
artefacts from The Inniskillings Museum, over £1.7 million. The project has also received Untold plans to open the Belfast site
ˇ˛˘˅ˢˬ˔˟ˈ˟˦˧˘˥˅˜Є˘˦ˀ˨˦˘˨ˠʟˇ˛˘ £10,000 from the Architecture Heritage Fund in the summer of 2027 in a restored
Royal Irish Fusiliers Museum, The Royal to preserve the Belfast site, as well as £17,500 warehouse on Bedford Street, the heart
Irish Regiment Museum, The Collections ˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘ˉ˘˧˘˥˔ˡ˦Ϡʹˢ˨ˡ˗˔˧˜ˢˡʡ ˢ˙˧˛˘˖˜˧ˬϠ˦ʿ˜ˡ˘ˡ˄˨˔˥˧˘˥ʡ˃˛˔˦˘˧˪ˢ˪˜˟˟
and Archives of The Royal Irish Regiment Hugh Crossey, Chair of Untold: The Museum redevelop existing galleries at Enniskillen
(including The Ulster Defence Regiment Ltd, says: “Education will be at the heart of Castle, but Untold is yet to reveal a
and The Royal Irish Rangers), and The all the exhibitions, offering our visitors the planned opening date. A new online
Collections and Archives of The North Irish chance to explore the lives of the Irish men platform is also in development, which
Horse. The artefacts will represent all of and women who rose above divisions of will enable people all over the world to
ʼ˥˘˟˔ˡ˗Ϡ˦˗˜˩˘˥˦˘˖ˢˠˠ˨ˡ˜˧˜˘˦ʡ class, politics and religion and overcame experience the collection.

Below: The Belfast linen warehouse that will be restored for the museum Below: An artist’s impression of the Belfast site
Images © UNTOLD

For more information visit: nimc.co.uk

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 MUSEUMS & EVENTS

H E R E FO R D
M I L I TA RY
H I S TO RY
F E S T I VA L
Images: Alamy, IWM

ˇ˛˘ˈʾϠ˦Ѓ˥˦˧˗˘˗˜˖˔˧˘˗ˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ Sir Anthony Beevor

will discuss the
˛˜˦˧ˢ˥ˬ˙˘˦˧˜˩˔˟˟˔˨ˡ˖˛˘˦˜ˡ evolution of warfare
˧˛˘˛˜˦˧ˢ˥˜˖˚˔˥˥˜˦ˢˡ˖˜˧ˬ
A new festival is set to bring together acclaimed authors,

N E W LOT T E RY historians and military experts for three days of talks, panel
discussions, historical walking trails and performances

F U N D I N G FO R
in Hereford. The festival is also putting on school events for
younger attendees.
The Hereford Military History Festival has announced a broad

D U X FO R D range of speakers, including Sir Anthony Beevor – he will share

the stage with Major General Arthur Denaro to discuss the
˘˩ˢ˟˨˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˪˔˥˙˔˥˘˙˥ˢˠ˖ˢˡ˩˘ˡ˧˜ˢˡ˔˟Ѓ˚˛˧˜ˡ˚˧ˢ˧˛˘˗˥ˢˡ˘˔˚˘ʡ
ʼˊˀʷ˨˫˙ˢ˥˗˧ˢ˥˘˖˘˜˩˘ˢ˩˘˥˵ʥʣʣʟʣʣʣ˙ˢ˥ˡ˘˪ˊˊʼʼ ˀ˔ˡˬ˧˔˟˞˦˦˛˔˥˘ʵ˘˘˩ˢ˥˔ˡ˗ʷ˘ˡ˔˥ˢϠ˦˔˜ˠ˧ˢ˖ˢˡˡ˘˖˧ˣ˔˦˧˔ˡ˗
˘˫˛˜˕˜˧˜ˢˡ˦ʟ˪˜˧˛ˣ˟˔ˡ˦˧ˢ˥˔˜˦˘˔ˡˢ˧˛˘˥˵ʧˠ˜˟˟˜ˢˡ present, including a discussion with Jenn Stout and Anna Reid
on war in Ukraine from the early 20th century to today. Former
The National Lottery Heritage Fund has pledged development
ʶˢˡ˦˘˥˩˔˧˜˩˘ˀ˃ˁ˜˖˛ˢ˟˔˦ˆˢ˔ˠ˘˦˪˜˟˟˥˘ˣ˥˘˦˘ˡ˧˧˛˘ˣˢ˟˜˧˜˖˔˟
funding, enabling IWM Duxford to tell an in-depth story of the Second
Ѓ˘˟˗ʟ˦ˣ˘˔˞˜ˡ˚˔˕ˢ˨˧˛˜˦˚˥˔ˡ˗˙˔˧˛˘˥ʟˊ˜ˡ˦˧ˢˡʶ˛˨˥˖˛˜˟˟ʡ
ˊˢ˥˟˗ˊ˔˥ʟ˪˜˧˛ˠ˔ˡˬ˜˧˘ˠ˦˙˥ˢˠʼˊˀϠ˦˖ˢ˟˟˘˖˧˜ˢˡ˚ˢ˜ˡ˚ˢˡˣ˨˕˟˜˖
ʶ˛˥˜˦˧˜˔ˡʷ˔ˡ˚˘˥Ѓ˘˟˗ʟ˧˛˘˙˘˦˧˜˩˔˟Ϡ˦˙ˢ˨ˡ˗˘˥˔ˡ˗ʶʸ˂ʟ˦˔ˬ˦ʭϢˇ˛˘
˗˜˦ˣ˟˔ˬ˙ˢ˥˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˧˜ˠ˘ʡˇ˛˘˘˫˛˜˕˜˧˜ˢˡ˦˪˜˟˟ˢˣ˘ˡ˜ˡʥʣʥʪʟˣ˘ˡ˗˜ˡ˚
range and diversity of the talks will be very thought-provoking
approval of additional lottery funding. It will become the centrepiece
and stimulating. I would like to think that we will make a positive
of Transforming IWM Duxford – a decade-long project to secure the
contribution to the current debate and that the festival will frame
˦˜˧˘Ϡ˦˦˧˔˧˨˦˔˦˔ˡ˜ˡ˧˘˥ˡ˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˟˟ˬ˥˘ˡˢ˪ˡ˘˗ˠ˨˦˘˨ˠʡ
˧˛˘˥˘ʠ˘˩˔˟˨˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡϠ˦˥ˢ˟˘˜ˡ˧˛˘˘ˠ˘˥˚˜ˡ˚˟˔ˡ˗˦˖˔ˣ˘˜ˡ
The funding also includes the means to restore two historic hangars
an intelligent and multi-dimensional context.”
currently used for the Air and Sea and Battle of Britain displays. Almost
The festival will take place in historic venues across Hereford,
150 objects will be packed inside, including aircraft and 40 objects
including the cathedral and town hall, from 26 to 28 September.
previously displayed in the Land Warfare Hall, such as the Churchill
Tickets for each talk can be purchased separately.
Mk V11, Comet Cruiser and Centaur Command Mk 1 tanks.
Caro Howell MBE, IWM Director-General, says: “Thanks to National
Lottery players, we can now develop our plans for what will be a pivotal
part of a transformed IWM Duxford. As we approach the centenary For more information visit:
ˢ˙˧˛˘ˆ˘˖ˢˡ˗ˊˢ˥˟˗ˊ˔˥ʟ˜˧Ϡ˦ˠˢ˥˘˜ˠˣˢ˥˧˔ˡ˧˧˛˔ˡ˘˩˘˥˧˛˔˧ʼˊˀ www.herefordmilitaryhistoryfestival.com
Duxford can engage new audiences and inspire new generations in
understanding the causes, course and consequences of the most Attendees can enjoy talks
˗˘˩˔˦˧˔˧˜ˡ˚˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˜ˡˠˢ˗˘˥ˡ˛˜˦˧ˢ˥ˬʡϣ and panel discussions at
historic venues such as
This phase of Hereford Cathedral
Transforming IWM
Duxford follows
˦˜˚ˡ˜Ѓ˖˔ˡ˧˖˛˔ˡ˚˘˦
already made to
the museum. In
2020, IWM Duxford
ˢˣ˘ˡ˘˗ˇ˛˘˂ˣ˦
Block, transforming
previously unseen
historic rooms
Images: , Hereford Military History Festival,

into an immersive
˥˘˖˥˘˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙˔ˡ˅ʴʹϠ˦ The Duxford Operations Room, which
Second World War was recreated at IWM Duxford in 2020
˂ˣ˘˥˔˧˜ˢˡ˦˅ˢˢˠʡ
ʸ˔˥˟˜˘˥˧˛˜˦ˬ˘˔˥ʟʼˊˀϠ˦˘˫ˣ˘˥˧˖ˢˡ˦˘˥˩˔˧˜ˢˡ˧˘˔ˠ˨ˡ˗˘˥˧ˢˢ˞˔˖ˢˠˣ˟˘˫
project to prepare AirSpace for its long-term future as a dedicated
˘˫˛˜˕˜˧˜ˢˡˢˡ˧˛˘ʶˢ˟˗ˊ˔˥˔ˡ˗ʶˢˡ˧˘ˠˣˢ˥˔˥ˬʶˢˡЄ˜˖˧ʡ

For more information visit: iwm.org.uk

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WWII THIS MONTH ...

SEPTEMBER 1 945
O R L
W

80

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ANNIVERSARY
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4 I
9 1

To commemorate 80 years since the Second World War,

History of War will be taking a look at some of the key events
˧˔˞˜ˡ˚ˣ˟˔˖˘˗˨˥˜ˡ˚˘˔˖˛ˠˢˡ˧˛ˢ˙˧˛˘˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧

JA PA N E S E I N S T R U M E N T
OF SURRENDER SIGNED
The signing of a formal agreement aboard the USS
Missouri, the last battleship commissioned by the
US, brought an end to the Second World War. During
a 23-minute ceremony, which was broadcast
worldwide, Japanese Foreign Minister Mamoru
Shigemitsu signed the surrender on behalf of the
˘ˠˣ˘˥ˢ˥˔ˡ˗˛˜˦˚ˢ˩˘˥ˡˠ˘ˡ˧ʡʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ˌˢ˦˛˜˝˜˥Ώ
Umezu, Chief of the Army General Staff, signed it on
behalf of the Imperial General Headquarters. General
ʷˢ˨˚˟˔˦ˀ˔˖ʴ˥˧˛˨˥˔˖˖˘ˣ˧˘˗˧˛˘˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥ʟЄ˔ˡ˞˘˗
by General Jonathan Wainwright and Lieutenant
General Arthur Percival, both of whom had been
Japanese prisoners of war. Several representatives of
other Allied powers, including the United Kingdom’s
Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser, then signed the document.

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 WWII THIS MONTH

B E R L I N V I C T O RY PA R A D E
The Soviet Union, United States, United Kingdom
and France held a victory parade in Berlin to
celebrate the war’s end. The USSR used the event to
ˣ˨˕˟˜˖˟ˬ˗˜˦ˣ˟˔ˬ˜˧˦ʼˆʠʦ˛˘˔˩ˬ˧˔ˡ˞˙ˢ˥˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˧˜ˠ˘ʟ
˔˟ˢˡ˚˦˜˗˘ʨʥ˧˔ˡ˞˦˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘ʥˡ˗ʺ˨˔˥˗˦ˇ˔ˡ˞ʴ˥ˠˬʡ
ʼ˧Ϡ˦˥˘ˠ˘ˠ˕˘˥˘˗˜ˡ˅˨˦˦˜˔˔˦˧˛˘Ϣ˙ˢ˥˚ˢ˧˧˘ˡˣ˔˥˔˗˘ϣʟ
overshadowed by the larger British parade in July
1945. Most of the participating troops were pulled
˙˥ˢˠˡ˘˔˥˕ˬ˚˔˥˥˜˦ˢˡ˦ʡˀ˔˥˦˛˔˟ʺ˘ˢ˥˚ˬˍ˛˨˞ˢ˩
attended but his counterparts in the US and Britain,
Dwight D Eisenhower and Bernard Montgomery,
declined the invitation.

Left:ˆˢ˩˜˘˧ʼˆʠʦ˛˘˔˩ˬ˧˔ˡ˞˦˪˘˥˘
˗˜˦ˣ˟˔ˬ˘˗ˣ˨˕˟˜˖˟ˬ˙ˢ˥˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˧˜ˠ˘

American aircraft, CA P I T U L AT I O N I N BELSEN

including F4Us and
ʹʧʹ˦ʟЄˬˢ˩˘˥˧˛˘ˈˆˆ THE PHILIPPINES TRIALS BEGIN
ˀ˜˦˦ˢ˨˥˜˜ˡ˖˘˟˘˕˥˔˧˜ˢˡ Allied offensives forced General ˂˙Ѓ˖˜˔˟˟ˬˡ˔ˠ˘˗˧˛˘Ϣˇ˥˜˔˟ˢ˙
ˇˢˠˢˬ˨˞˜ˌ˔ˠ˔˦˛˜˧˔˜ˡ˧˛˘ Josef Kramer and 44 Others”,
Philippines to retreat to the ˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ˢ˙˧˛˘ʵ˘˟˦˘ˡˇ˥˜˔˟˦
mountains of Ifugao and Cordillera. commenced on 17 September
He formally surrendered on 3 1945. Kramer had been the
September to Major General Edmond commandant of Bergen-
H Leavey, Deputy Commander Belsen and Auschwitz. He
of United States Forces, Western ˪˔˦˝ˢ˜ˡ˘˗ˢˡ˧˥˜˔˟˕ˬ˞˔ˣˢ˦
˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ʡˉ˜˖˘ʴ˗ˠ˜˥˔˟ʷ˘ˡ˛˜˖˜˂˞ˢ˖˛˜ʟ (prisoner functionaries), SS
representing the Imperial Japanese members and SS-Gefolge
Navy, also signed the surrender. women. The trial lasted 54
The US put Yamashita on trial the days. Kramer gave testimony
following month for his part in the as a witness for the defence,
Manila Massacre and atrocities during which he protested his
against prisoners of war, leading to ˜ˡˡˢ˖˘ˡ˖˘ʟ˖˟˔˜ˠ˜ˡ˚ʭϢʼ˗˜˗
his execution in February 1946. ˡˢ˧˞ˡˢ˪˪˛˔˧˧˛˘ˣ˨˥ˣˢ˦˘
of the gas chamber was.”
Right: ʺ˘ˡ˘˥˔˟ˌ˔ˠ˔˦˛˜˧˔ˢˡ Kramer was executed on 13
˛˜˦˪˔ˬ˧ˢˠ˘˘˧˜ˡ˚ˈˆʴ˥ˠˬ December alongside ten other
˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˘˥˦˧ˢ˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥˧˛˘ defendants, including Fritz
ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˙ˢ˥˖˘˦˜ˡ˧˛˘˃˛˜˟˜ˣˣ˜ˡ˘˦ Klein, Belsen’s camp doctor,
and Franz Hössler, the deputy
camp commandant.
B R I T I S H T R O O P S TA K E
C O N T R O L O F S I N GA P O R E
Soldiers of the 5th Indian Division landed in Singapore on 5 September
˔ˡ˗˧ˢˢ˞ˢ˩˘˥˪˜˧˛ˢ˨˧ˢˣˣˢ˦˜˧˜ˢˡʡˇ˛˘˜˥˔˥˥˜˩˔˟˙ˢ˟˟ˢ˪˘˗˦˘˩˘˥˔˟˗˔ˬ˦ˢ˙
˜ˡ˦˧˔˕˜˟˜˧ˬʟ˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˜ˡ˚˟ˢˢ˧˜ˡ˚˔ˡ˗˥˘˩˘ˡ˚˘˞˜˟˟˜ˡ˚˦ʟ˔˦˧˛˘˦˨˥˥˘ˡ˗˘˥˘˗
Japanese occupiers lost control of the territory. The Japanese signed a
surrender instrument at Singapore’s Municipal Building, received by Lord
Louis Mountbatten. The British used Japanese troops as security forces to
help govern the island until March 1946.

Above: ʻ˘˟˘ˡʾ˟˘˜ˡˣˢ˜ˡ˧˦˧ˢ˛˘˥
Images: Alamy, Getty

˧˔˧˧ˢˢ˘˗ˡ˨ˠ˕˘˥ʩʩʫʬʥʡˆ˛˘
˦ˣ˘ˡ˧ʤʬˠˢˡ˧˛˦˔˧ʴ˨˦˖˛˪˜˧˭˔ˡ˗
˦˜˫˔˧ʵ˘˥˚˘ˡʠʵ˘˟˦˘ˡʟ˔ˡ˗˧˘˦˧˜Ѓ˘˗
ˆ˜ˡ˚˔ˣˢ˥˘˔ˡ˖˛˜˟˗˥˘ˡ˖˛˘˘˥˧˛˘
˔˚˔˜ˡ˦˧ʾ˥˔ˠ˘˥˔˧˧˛˘˧˥˜˔˟
ʨ˧˛ʼˡ˗˜˔ˡʷ˜˩˜˦˜ˢˡϠ˦˔˥˥˜˩˔˟

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 HOMEFRON T

Our pick of the latest military history books

NO MORE
NAPOLEONS
A M AG I S T E R I A L S U R V E Y O F N AVA L P O W E R A N D P O L I CY
Author: Andrew Lambert Publisher: Yale University Press Price: £25 (Hardback) Released: Out now
ndrew Lambert has produced happen) to the technological advances that

A
a fascinating account of British ˠ˔˗˘˧˛˘ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛ˡ˔˩ˬ˦ˢ˘˙˙˘˖˧˜˩˘˜ˡ˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧˦
maritime strategy in the long ˙˨˥˧˛˘˥˔Ѓ˘˟˗ʡˇ˛˘˕ˢˠ˕˔˥˗ˠ˘ˡ˧ˢ˙ʴ˖˥˘˜ˡ
nineteenth century (1789 – 1914). 1840 (where its steam-powered warships
His broader argument rests on and exploding shells destroyed the fortress
˧˪ˢ˞˘ˬ˖ˢˡ˖˘ˣ˧˦ʡˇ˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˜˦ϟˢ˥˗˘˥˜ˡ˚Ϡϝ ˜ˡ˔ˠ˔˧˧˘˥ˢ˙˛ˢ˨˥˦ʜ˕˥ˢ˨˚˛˧˧˛˘˖ˢˡЄ˜˖˧
the maintenance of a balance of power ˪˜˧˛ˀ˘˛˘ˠ˘˧ʴ˟˜Ϡ˦ʸ˚ˬˣ˧˜˔ˡʴ˥ˠˬ˧ˢ˔˥˔ˣ˜˗
in Europe through effective diplomacy, conclusion. And in the more protracted
preventing one major power dominating the Crimean War of 1853-6, the accuracy of its
˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˘ˡ˧ʡˇ˛˘˦˘˖ˢˡ˗ʟϟˢ˙˙˦˛ˢ˥˘˕˔˟˔ˡ˖˜ˡ˚Ϡʟ ˚˨ˡˡ˘˥ˬ˔ˡ˗˧˛˘˘˙Ѓ˖˜˘ˡ˖ˬˢ˙˜˧˦˘ˡ˚˜ˡ˘˘˥˦
is a focus on a strong navy to provide a in destroying Russian harbour facilities at
deterrent to any threat. Lambert argues Sevastopol (their main Black Sea naval base)
persuasively that when this approach was ˜˦˪˘˟˟˗˘ˣ˜˖˧˘˗ʡˊ˜˧˛ˢ˨˧˔Є˘˘˧ʟ˅˨˦˦˜˔˖ˢ˨˟˗
followed it deterred any attack from a major be broken by economic pressure.
power for almost a century after the Battle Interestingly, Lambert also discusses the
of Waterloo, and more provocatively, that role of art in promoting maritime glory. When
a neglect of these principles contributed to the French inaugurated a large collection of
the onset of the First World War. naval paintings at the Palace of Versailles in
The author places particular emphasis 1837, the author notes that some European
on the strategic importance of the Scheldt powers were alarmed, but the British, secure
estuary in Belgium and its ports of Antwerp at sea, were more amused than annoyed.
and Vlissingen, reminding us that this ʼˡ˖ˢˡ˧˥˔˦˧ʟ˪˛˘ˡ˜ˡʤʫʨʩ˔Єˢ˧˜˟˟˔ˢ˙˦˛˜ˣ˦ϝ
deep-water anchorage provided a safe created to attack Kronstadt and St Petersburg
˛˔˩˘ˡ˙ˢ˥˔ˡˬ˜ˡ˩˔˦˜ˢˡЄ˘˘˧ʡʹˢ˥˧˛˜˦˥˘˔˦ˢˡ – was reviewed by Queen Victoria at Spithead
Elizabeth I had garrisoned Vlissingen (which it suitably impressed an international
could accommodate more ships and army audience, and she later acquired a painting
transports than all the French Channel of the event for the Royal Collection.
ports combined) against the threat of the
Spanish Armada in 1588. When France
annexed the Belgian provinces in 1795 the
“A FASCINATING ACCOUNT Lambert has thoroughly trawled
government papers, and yet it is not always
clear whether 19th century British politicians
danger was renewed, and Lambert outlines
how successive British governments worked
OF BRITISH MARITIME were following some strategic blueprint
on balancing power or simply reacting to
tirelessly in the years after Waterloo to
neutralise this threat.
Lambert is at ease relating the bigger global
STRATEGY IN THE LONG ˘˩˘ˡ˧˦ˢ˙˧˛˘˗˔ˬʡʴˡ˗˧˛˘˔˨˧˛ˢ˥Ϡ˦˖ˢ˩˘˥˔˚˘
of the period 1871 - 1904 is too rushed to
be fully convincing. But overall this is an
picture – moving tirelessly from the intricacies
of diplomacy (and the wars that did not NINETEENTH CENTURY” innovative, highly readable and thought-
provoking account. MJ

76
 REVIEWS

ʴˆ˨ˣ˘˥ˠ˔˥˜ˡ˘ˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘ˢˡ˔ˡ
ʼ˧˔˟˜˔ˡ˔˜˥Ѓ˘˟˗ʟʷ˘˖˘ˠ˕˘˥ʤʬʧʦ

O N S I LV E R WI N G S
THIS MOVING BIOGRAPHY OF AN ‘UNKNOWN’ WWII RAF FIGHTER ACE
CHARTS DESMOND IBBOTSON’S CAREER, THE STORY ENDING WITH A TWIST
WHEN HIS REMAINS ARE DISCOVERED IN ITALY IN 2005
Author: James B Wright Publisher: The History Press Price: £22 (Hardback) On Sale: Out now
The sub-title of this superb work, ʴˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘ established a name for himself with claims ˕˔˖˞ˢˡˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘˦ʡʻ˘˥˘ʟ˛˜˦˧˔˟˟ˬ˥ˢ˦˘˧ˢ˦˘˩˘ˡ
ʴ˖˘˅˘˗˜˦˖ˢ˩˘˥˘˗, succinctly encompasses against a Junkers 87, Junkers 88 and three Bf ˕ˬ˧˛˘ˬ˘˔˥Ϡ˦˘ˡ˗ʟ˕˨˧˜˧˦˔˪˛˜ˠ˕˘˜ˡ˚˦˛ˢ˧
˜˧˦˧˛˘ˠ˘ʭ˧˛˘˥˘˗˜˦˖ˢ˩˘˥ˬˢ˙˔ˬˢ˨ˡ˚ˣ˜˟ˢ˧Ϡ˦ 109s. Nevertheless, a posting to 601 Squadron down and taken prisoner in December 1943
tragically short career and, sadly, the ʛˢˡ˖˘ˣˢˣ˨˟˔˥˟ˬ˞ˡˢ˪ˡ˔˦˧˛˘ϟˀ˜˟˟˜ˢˡ˔˜˥˘˦ ˕ˬ˅ˢˠˠ˘˟Ϡ˦˦˧˔˙˙ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥˦˔ˡ˗˟˔˧˘˥ˠ˘˘˧˜ˡ˚
discovery of his remains in Italy at the crash ˆˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡϠʜ˜ˡ˂˖˧ˢ˕˘˥ʤʬʧʥʟ˦˧˜˟˟˜ˡ˧˛˘ Rommel himself. However, he managed to
˦˜˧˘ˢ˙˔ˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘ʡ Western Desert, saw Ibbotson once again escape that same night and with the help of
ˊ˜˧˛˧˛˘ʵ˔˧˧˟˘ˢ˙ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡ˜ˡ˙˨˟˟Єˢ˪ʟ friendly Arabs returned to his unit.
Desmond Ibbotson was keen to complete his Awarded the Distinguished Flying
training and join the fray. Yet on 23 July 1940 ʶ˥ˢ˦˦˧˛˘ˡ˘˫˧ˬ˘˔˥ʟʼ˕˕ˢ˧˦ˢˡϠ˦˦˘˥˩˜˖˘
he had only just enlisted in the RAF Volunteer continued apace, and after a brief rest from
Reserve. Flying training, let alone operational operations he returned to 601 Squadron,
Єˬ˜ˡ˚ʟ˪˔˦ˠˢˡ˧˛˦˔˪˔ˬʡʴ˙˧˘˥˧˛˘ˢ˕˟˜˚˔˧ˢ˥ˬ where he achieved more victories. Then,
route through basic and elementary training, ˜ˡ˘˫ˣ˟˜˖˔˕˟ˬʟ˛˜˦ˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘˗˜˩˘˗˜ˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗
˦˘˥˩˜˖˘Єˬ˜ˡ˚˦˖˛ˢˢ˟˔ˡ˗ʟ˘˩˘ˡ˧˨˔˟˟ˬʟ˧˜ˠ˘ at Castelnuovo, Italy, during an air test in
at an operational training unit in June 1941 November 1944. Ibbotson, aged just 23, was
˧ˢ˧˥˔˜ˡˢˡˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘˦ʟ˛˘˪˔˦˥˘˔˗ˬ˙ˢ˥˛˜˦Ѓ˥˦˧ killed instantly.
squadron posting. What could be found of Ibbotson was
When that posting came, it was to 129 buried at the Commonwealth War Graves
ϟˀˬ˦ˢ˥˘Ϡˆˤ˨˔˗˥ˢˡ˔˧˅ʴʹʿ˘˖ˢˡЃ˘˟˗ʡʼ˧˪˔˦ Commission cemetery near Assisi, but it was
a long way from the epicentre of activity in 2005 that a group of enthusiasts found
in the south of England, but Ibbotson need more remains buried in the wreckage of
not have fretted. No 129 Squadron proved ˛˜˦ˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘ʡˇ˛ˢ˦˘˥˘ˠ˔˜ˡ˦˪˘˥˘˥˘˕˨˥˜˘˗
˔ϟ˛ˢ˟˗˜ˡ˚Ϡ˨ˡ˜˧˙ˢ˥˛˜ˠʟ˪˜˧˛˧˥˔ˡ˦˙˘˥˧ˢʨʧ ˪˜˧˛ˠ˜˟˜˧˔˥ˬ˛ˢˡˢ˨˥˦˜ˡʼ˕˕ˢ˧˦ˢˡϠ˦ˢ˥˜˚˜ˡ˔˟
Squadron at Hornchurch coming a month ˚˥˔˩˘ʟ˔ˡ˗˜˧˪˔˦˧˛˜˦ϟ˥˘˗˜˦˖ˢ˩˘˥ˬϠ˧˛˔˧˟˘˗
later. Almost immediately thrown into action, to James Wright compiling this wonderful
he was credited with a Bf 109 damaged on account of the short but eventful service life
27 September. But this was just a taster for ˢ˙˔˙ˢ˥˚ˢ˧˧˘ˡˆˣ˜˧Ѓ˥˘˔˖˘ʡ
Ibbotson, his career stepping up a notch with ˂ˡˆ˜˟˩˘˥ˊ˜ˡ˚˦ is a superbly well-written
his next posting – this time to the Middle East. and comprehensively illustrated book which
Image © Alamy

Arriving at 112 Squadron in the Western will appeal to those with an interest in RAF
Desert during June 1942, Ibbotson was ˛˜˦˧ˢ˥ˬ˔ˡ˗˕˔˧˧˟˘Ѓ˘˟˗˔˥˖˛˔˘ˢ˟ˢ˚ˬʡˉ˘˥ˬ
ˡˢ˪Єˬ˜ˡ˚˃ʠʧʣʾ˜˧˧ˬ˛˔˪˞˦˔ˡ˗ˤ˨˜˖˞˟ˬ highly recommended. AS

77
 HOMEFRON T

D I S COV E R H OW G R E AT B R I TA I N ’ S C U T T I N G - E D G E C O L D WA R
B O M B E R F L E E T WAS P R I M E D TO D E L I V E R N U C L E A R A R M AG E D D O N
Author: Jonathan Glancey Publisher: Atlantic Books Price: £22 (Hardback) Released: Out now
ˇ˛˘˔˜˥˖˥˔˙˧ˢ˙ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡϠ˦ˉʠʹˢ˥˖˘˔˥˘˜˖ˢˡ˦ metal fatigue issues and was withdrawn
of aviation and marvels of engineering. from service. The other two adapted readily,
The Vickers Valiant, Avro Vulcan and however. Even after the withdrawal of the
Handley Page Victor were some of the most nuclear role from V-Force in 1964, the Vulcan
advanced and capable bombers of their and Victor continued to provide incredible
˗˔ˬʟˢ˥˔ˡˬ˗˔ˬʡˇ˛˘ˉ˔˟˜˔ˡ˧˪˔˦˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ service as bombers and air-to-air refuellers.
British aircraft to drop both an atomic bomb ˇ˛˘ˉ˨˟˖˔ˡ˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˘˗˧ˢЄˬ˖ˢˠ˕˔˧
˔ˡ˗˔ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˕ˢˠ˕ʟ˔ˡ˗˪˔˦˔˟˦ˢ˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧ operations as late as the Falklands War in
to retire. After a change of doctrine in 1962 1982, supported by Victor tankers.
from extreme high-altitude to very low- Although the V-bombers are the stars of
˔˟˧˜˧˨˗˘˜ˡЃ˟˧˥˔˧˜ˢˡˢ˙ˆˢ˩˜˘˧˗˘˙˘ˡ˖˘˦˕ˢ˨˚˛˧ ˧˛˘˦˛ˢ˪ʟʽˢˡ˔˧˛˔ˡʺ˟˔ˡ˖˘ˬϠ˦˕ˢˢ˞˥˔ˡ˚˘˦
on by advances in surface-to-air missiles, widely across a host of related areas. The
the Valient began to suffer from severe development of atomic and nuclear bombs,
˧˛˘ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˕ˢˠ˕˘˥˦ˢ˙ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡϠ˦˔˟˟˜˘˦ʟ˔ˡ˗
the proposed TSR-2 replacement are all

“THE VULCAN CONTINUED given chapters, as is the often overlooked

Thor Intercontinental Ballistic Missile that
served beside the nuclear-armed aircraft.

TO FLY COMBAT The post-nuclear service of the aircraft is

covered, including the campaign to keep the

OPERATIONS AS LATE AS ˟˔˦˧ˉ˨˟˖˔ˡʟˋʻʨʨʫʟЄˬ˜ˡ˚ʡʺ˟˔ˡ˖˘ˬϠ˦ˣ˥ˢ˦˘˜˦ʟ

as ever, smooth a silk, and he effortlessly pulls
together the technical, personal and political

THE FALKLANDS WAR” into an excellent read. SH

ˉ˨˟˖˔ˡ˕ˢˠ˕˘˥˦˪˘˥˘˔˞˘ˬ
˘˟˘ˠ˘ˡ˧ˢ˙ʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡϠ˦ʶˢ˟˗ˊ˔˥
ˡ˨˖˟˘˔˥˗˘˧˘˥˥˘ˡ˧
Images © Alamy

78
 REVIEWS

TH E BRITISH FIRST
WO R L D WA R
H I ROS H I MA P R O PAGA N DA
MEN
A COMPREHENSIVE AND PROVOCATIVE ACCOUNT
A N OV E R V I E W O F B R I T I S H
P R O PAGA N DA I N W W I , F R O M
TRADITIONAL METHODS LIKE
P O S T E R S A N D L I T E R AT U R E T O
OF THE RACE FOR NUCLEAR WEAPONRY AND THE
C U LT U R A L D I P L O M ACY A N D
HORROR THAT FOLLOWED
T H E U S E O F AT R O C I T Y S T O R I E S
Author: Iain MacGregor
Publisher: Constable Author: David Monger
Price: £25 (Hardback) Publisher: Bloomsbury
On sale: Out now Price: £26.99 (Paperback)
Released: Out now
Historian David Monger
ˊ˔˦˧˛˘˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚ˢ˙
ʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔˝˨˦˧˜Ѓ˘˗ʲ has produced a
well-researched and
entertaining account
of how propaganda
efforts in the Great War
were conceived and
their impact on the
British public and the
wider world. This was
˔˗˘Ѓˡ˜ˡ˚ˠˢˠ˘ˡ˧˜ˡ
the use of European
wartime propaganda,
a time when public
opinion could no
longer be ignored by
governments, with
civilian volunteers actively involved in combat.
Several of the examples the author highlights could
not fail to rouse an angered populace. For instance,
the poster of nine eager pigs crowded around a bound
Iain MacGregor, author of acclaimed histories of Cold War Berlin and the Battle of female body in white, blood running from her corpse.
Stalingrad, returns with a thought-provoking account of the race for the atomic The pigs wear spiked helmets, one sports a monocle
bomb through the eyes of American and Japanese participants. He guides us and another has the German Iron Cross hanging from
from the corridors of Berkeley and the White House to the New Mexico desert its tail. ˇ˛˥ˢ˪ˡ˧ˢ˧˛˘ˆ˪˜ˡ˘ʡˇ˛˘ˀ˔˥˧ˬ˥˘˗ˁ˨˥˦˘, by the
˔ˡ˗˧˛˘ˇ˥˜ˡ˜˧ˬˇ˘˦˧˦˜˧˘ʡ˂ˡ˧˛˘ˢ˧˛˘˥˦˜˗˘ˢ˙˧˛˘˪ˢ˥˟˗ʟʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˜ˡ˙˔ˡ˧˥ˬˠ˘ˡ Dutch painter Louis Raemaekers, was issued in 1916
˗˘˦ˣ˘˥˔˧˘˟ˬ˛ˢ˟˗ˢˡ˜ˡ˧˛˘˕˥˨˧˔˟˃˔˖˜Ѓ˖ˊ˔˥ʟЃ˥˘˦˧ˢ˥ˠ˦˘ˡ˚˨˟˙ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡ˘˦˘˖˜˧˜˘˦ ˪˛˘ˡ˅˔˘ˠ˔˘˞˘˥˦Є˘˗˧ˢʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡʡ
˔ˡ˗ʟ˪˜˧˛˦˛ˢ˖˞˜ˡ˚Ѓˡ˔˟˜˧ˬʟ˧˛ˢ˨˦˔ˡ˗˦˜ˡʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔˔ˡ˗ˁ˔˚˔˦˔˞˜˔˥˘˩˔ˣˢ˨˥˜˦˘˗ Individual forms of propaganda are central to
in nuclear blasts brighter than the Sun. ˀˢˡ˚˘˥Ϡ˦ˡ˔˥˥˔˧˜˩˘˔ˡ˗˘˔˖˛˦˘˥˩˘˦˔˦˔˦˧˔˥˧˜ˡ˚
History of War˥˘˔˗˘˥˦˪˜˟˟˔˟˥˘˔˗ˬ˕˘˙˔ˠ˜˟˜˔˥˪˜˧˛ˠ˨˖˛˜ˡˀ˔˖ʺ˥˘˚ˢ˥Ϡ˦ point to examine broader social and cultural aspects
˕ˢˢ˞ʟˬ˘˧˛˘Ѓˡ˗˦˦ˣ˔˖˘˧ˢ˕˥˘˔˞ˡ˘˪˚˥ˢ˨ˡ˗ʡˇ˛˘ʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔ˀ˘ˡϠ˦˚˥˘˔˧˘˦˧ of wartime Britain. For example, by linking imperial
˔˖˛˜˘˩˘ˠ˘ˡ˧˟˜˘˦˜ˡˀ˔˖ʺ˥˘˚ˢ˥Ϡ˦˧˘˟˟˜ˡ˚ˢ˙˧˛˘˟˔˥˚˘˟ˬ˨ˡ˞ˡˢ˪ˡ˦˧ˢ˥ˬˢ˙ˆ˘ˡ˞˜˖˛˜ ˦˨ˣˣˢ˥˧˧ˢʵ˥˜˧˔˜ˡϠ˦˦˘˟˙ʠ˦˧ˬ˟˜ˡ˚ˢˡ˪ˢ˥˟˗˔ˡ˗˛ˢˠ˘
Awaya – the mayor of Hiroshima. Killed instantly when Little Boy detonated, ˦˧˔˚˘˦˔ˡ˗˗˘ˠˢˡ˦˧˥˔˧˜ˡ˚˛ˢ˪ˡˢ˧˜ˢˡ˦ˢ˙ϟ˧˛˘
ʴ˪˔ˬ˔˕˘˖˔ˠ˘Ϣ˔ˠ˔ˡ˟ˢ˦˧˧ˢ˛˜˦˧ˢ˥ˬϣʡˀ˔˖ʺ˥˘˚ˢ˥˨ˡ˖ˢ˩˘˥˘˗ʴ˪˔ˬ˔Ϡ˦ ʵ˥˜˧˜˦˛˪˔ˬˢ˙˟˜˙˘Ϡˣ˟˔ˬ˘˗˜ˡ˧ˢ˜˗˘˔˦˔˕ˢ˨˧˗˨˧ˬ˔ˡ˗
˥˘ˠ˔˥˞˔˕˟˘˟˜˙˘˔˙˧˘˥Ѓˡ˗˜ˡ˚˛˜˦ˣ˔ˣ˘˥˦˜ˡ˧˛˘ˇˢ˞ˬˢˁ˔˧˜ˢˡ˔˟ʿ˜˕˥˔˥ˬʟ˦˧ˢ˥˘˗˧˛˘˥˘ encouragements to enlist, Monger underscores the
in obscurity since 1965. pervasive nature of British propaganda. He says it was
MacGregor also dedicates admirable space to the man whose efforts continue largely successful in attracting neutral sympathy and
to determine how we remember Hiroshima and think about nuclear weapons. ˜ˡ˧˘˥˩˘ˡ˧˜ˢˡʟ˥˘˖˥˨˜˧˜ˡ˚ˣ˘ˢˣ˟˘˧ˢЃ˚˛˧˔ˡ˗˪ˢ˥˞˔ˡ˗
The Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist and war reporter John Hersey travelled to ˠ˔˜ˡ˧˔˜ˡ˜ˡ˚ˣ˨˕˟˜˖˖ˢˡ˦˘ˡ˧˧ˢ˧˛˘˪˔˥Ϡ˦˘ˡ˗ʡʿˢˡ˚˘˥
ʽ˔ˣ˔ˡˠˢˡ˧˛˦˔˙˧˘˥ˉʽʷ˔ˬ˔ˡ˗˕˥ˢ˨˚˛˧˧˔˟˘˦ˢ˙˧˛˘˕ˢˠ˕˜ˡ˚Ϡ˦˛˨ˠ˔ˡ˜ˠˣ˔˖˧ʟ term, however, failure to deliver the stated ideals
˜ˡ˖˟˨˗˜ˡ˚˜˧˦˗˘˔˗˟ˬ˔˙˧˘˥ʠ˘˙˙˘˖˧˦ʟ˧ˢ˔ˊ˘˦˧˘˥ˡ˔˨˗˜˘ˡ˖˘˙ˢ˥˧˛˘Ѓ˥˦˧˧˜ˠ˘ʡˇ˛˘ and goals encouraged cynicism that deepened with
ʻ˜˥ˢ˦˛˜ˠ˔ˀ˘ˡ˖ˢˡ˧˜ˡ˨˘˦ʻ˘˥˦˘ˬϠ˦˪ˢ˥˞ʟ˚˜˩˜ˡ˚˔˖ˢˠˣ˥˘˛˘ˡ˦˜˩˘˔˖˖ˢ˨ˡ˧ˢ˙ the advent of a second, even more destructive and
˧˛˘˙˔˖˧˦˔ˡ˗˟˘˔˩˜ˡ˚˨˦˧ˢ˗˘˖˜˗˘˜˙˜˧˪˔˦˝˨˦˧˜Ѓ˔˕˟˘ʡ LH vicious global war. JS

79
 NEW

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 HOMEFRON T

A R T E FACT O F WA R

BA L AC L AVA
P O C K E T WATC H
This William IV silver timepiece and its owner survived
the Charge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava
wo years after his promotion to captain in the

T
4th Light Dragoons, Thomas Everard Hutton
rode in the Charge of the Light Brigade at the
Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War (1853-
56). During the attack on 25 October 1854
˛˘˪˔˦˛˜˧˜ˡ˧˛˘˥˜˚˛˧˧˛˜˚˛˕ˬ˅˨˦˦˜˔ˡЃ˥˘ʡʴ˖˖ˢ˥˗˜ˡ˚
˧ˢ˛˜˦˖ˢˠˠ˔ˡ˗˜ˡ˚ˢ˙Ѓ˖˘˥ʟʿˢ˥˗ʺ˘ˢ˥˚˘˃˔˚˘˧ʟʻ˨˧˧ˢˡ
exclaimed: “Low, I am wounded; what shall I do?” His
squadron leader replied: “If you can sit on your horse,
you had better come with us; there’s no use going
back now; you’ll only be killed.” Hutton continued
in the assault, striking down several enemy
troops, before a second Russian shot struck
his left thigh. His horse came off even worse:
it received 11 wounds in the battle and had
to be destroyed.
The captain was treated for his injuries
at Scutari and Malta, and received his
Crimea Medal from Queen Victoria at the
ˣ˥˘˦˘ˡ˧˔˧˜ˢˡ˖˘˥˘ˠˢˡˬˢˡʻˢ˥˦˘ʺ˨˔˥˗˦
˃˔˥˔˗˘˜ˡˀ˔ˬʤʫʨʨʡˇ˪ˢˬ˘˔˥˦˟˔˧˘˥ʟ
Hutton sold his commission and retired
as a brevet major.
Today, several items from his uniform
and military equipment, including his sword,

Above: The watch

dates from c.1836

Hussar saddle and shako, are in the care of the National

ʴ˥ˠˬˀ˨˦˘˨ˠʡˇ˛˘ˬ˔˥˘˗˜˦ˣ˟˔ˬ˘˗˔˟ˢˡ˚˦˜˗˘ʿ˜˘˨˧˘ˡ˔ˡ˧
ˊ˜˟˟˜˔ˠʺˢ˥˗ˢˡϠ˦˦˧˔˕˟˘˝˔˖˞˘˧ʟ˕˟ˢˢ˗˦˧˔˜ˡ˘˗˙˥ˢˠ˧˛˘
Charge of the Light Brigade.
ʴˡˢ˧˛˘˥˜˧˘ˠ˪ˢ˥ˡ˕ˬʻ˨˧˧ˢˡ˔˧ʵ˔˟˔˖˟˔˩˔ʟ˛˜˦ˊ˜˟˟˜˔ˠ
Left: The British IV silver pocket watch, was recently sold by Olympia
cavalry charge
against heavily ʴ˨˖˧˜ˢˡ˦˔˦ˣ˔˥˧ˢ˙˧˛˘˅ˢ˕˘˥˧ʸʵ˥ˢˢ˞˘˥ʽ˥ʶˢ˟˟˘˖˧˜ˢˡ
defended Russian ˢ˙˅˔˥˘ʴˡ˧˜ˤ˨˘ʴ˥ˠ˦˔ˡ˗ʴ˥ˠˢ˨˥ʡˇ˛˘˪˔˧˖˛˙˘˔˧˨˥˘˦
positions was ˔˞˘ˬʠ˪ˢ˨ˡ˗ˠ˘˖˛˔ˡ˜˦ˠʟ˔Єˢ˥˔˟ˣ˔˧˧˘˥ˡ˜ˡ˧˛˘˖˘ˡ˧˥˘
a disaster and a three-colour gold border, and the case bears the
inscription: “Worn by Capt Thos Hatton, 4th L Dns, at the
Balaclava Charge 1854.”
Images: Alamy, Olympia Auctions

O LY M P I A AU C T I O N S Hutton enjoyed a long retirement from the military

Captain Hutton’s pocketwatch fetched £5,500 on and died in 1896 aged 75. He is buried at Locksbrook
25 June 2025. The auction house specialises in
Cemetery in Lower Weston, Bath. His daughter dedicated
selling antique arms, armour and militaria, along
with art and jewellery. It is located on Blythe Road in Hammersmith, London, ˔˪˛˜˧˘ˠ˔˥˕˟˘ˠ˘ˠˢ˥˜˔˟˧ˢ˛˜ˠ˜ˡʵ˔˧˛ʴ˕˕˘ˬ˪˜˧˛˔ˡ
and will auction most artefacts worth over £100. For more information visit inscription that borrows from Psalm 140:7 in the King
www.olympiaauctions.com James Bible: “One of the Six Hundred… Thou hast covered
my head in the day of battle.”

82
9000 9001