SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Standard Voltages. When a supply authority‘s terminals on a consumer‘s premises are alive, an
electric current will flow from one to the other along any closed circuit between them. This
current is due to the difference of electric potential maintained between the terminals by the
authority. This difference of potential is measured in volts, and it is usually referred to as the
VOLTAGE of the supply. The various ranges of voltage are defined in the Electricity Supply
Acts as follows:

Extra-low voltage 30 volts r.m.s, alternating current, or 50 volts direct current, or less

Low voltage 250 volts or less

Medium voltage 251 to 650 volts

High voltage 650 to 3000 volts

Extra-high voltage More than 3000 volts

When the supply is alternating, the voltage passes through a complete series of positive and
negative values (cycles) a certain number of times every second. This number is known as the
frequency. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), where 1Hz equals 1cycle per second.

To facilitate the manufacture of consumers‘ equipment and to make it usable on any

supply system, it would be necessary for all voltages and frequencies of supply to be identical.
This ideal has not yet been attained. A number of direct current systems still remain, but almost
all authorities supply alternating current at the present time.

The low and medium standards which have been nationally agreed, and to which the
industry is gradually working, are:

Direct current 230 and 460 volts

Alternating current 240 and 415 volts, 3-phase 4-wire, or 240 volts, single-phase, at 50Hz.

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DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Direct current is not used to any great extent nowadays for work and domestic supplies, as the
existing systems are gradually being changed over to alternating current.

CONSUMERS’CIRCUITS

Internal Distribution: it may be taken as a general statement that all types of load in a 2-wire
installation, lights, heaters, motors, ete, are connected in parallel at the same voltage. Also, if a
number of loads be supplied at the same voltage, the energy used by any one load is the same
whether the others are connected or not. The addition or subtraction of other loads in parallel has
no effect upon the particular load under consideration.

The lights, each controlled by a 1-way switch, are connected in parallel.

Figure 8 is of a larger 2-wire installation, involving a number of distribution boards on

separate floors, or in separate areas. The method of connecting these distribution boards by
looping-in from one to anther requires less wiring than the method shown in figure 9. The
disadvantage of this method is that if a fault occurs on any part of the rising mains, the mains
fuse will blow and thus disconnect the whole installation.

There is a similar installation with separate circuits to each distribution board, each pair
of mains being controlled by a fuse on the main distribution board. A fault on any pair of mains
will blow the.

Medium-voltage precautions, the 2-m rule. I.E.E. Regulations A 16/20 require that where
apparatus is to be operated at medium voltage, or where medium voltage exists between adjacent
low voltage terminals, all terminals and live parts not permanently shrouded in insulating
material shall be installed so as to be accessible only to authorized persons, or shall be enclosed
in earthed metal or incombustible insulating material.

Every item of apparatus within which medium voltage exists against normal expectation,
shall have a visible warning of the maximum voltage present. This warning is also required
where medium voltage live parts are in separate housings but within reach of each other.

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 All socket-outlets in any one room should be connected to the same phase. Where, in
non-domestic premises, this last requirement is impracticable no socket-outlet shall be nearer
than 2m from any other socket-outlet connected to a different phase.

In a 3-phase 4-wire installation. The supply passes through three main fuses and a neutral
link, the meters, and a linked 3-pole switch or a linked 4-pole switch to a main distribution
board. Single-phase 240V supplies are taken from phase and neutral through double-pole
switches to low voltage lighting distribution boards. The 415V 3-wire supplies for power are
connected to the three phases of the main board.

The I.E.E. Regulations for Control, Distribution and Excess-Current Protection, include
the following:
Every consumer‘s installation supplied from an external source shall be adequately controlled by
switchgear accessible to the consumer, the switchgear to incorporate:
1. Means of isolation,
2. Means of excess-current protection, and
3. Means of earth-leakage protection, though this may not be needed where the impedance
of the earth-leakage path is so low that the excess-current protection also gives earth-
leakage protection.

The general sequence of main switchgear, etc, shall be service fuses and neutral link, if any;
watt-hour meter and time switch, if any; linked switch and consumer‘s main fuses, or excess-
current circuit-breaker with or without earth-leakage trip; and consumer‘s distribution board.

Consumer’s control unit: In a small installation the consumer‘s linked switch, main fuse,
and distribution board as separate items can be combined in one case as a consumer‘s control
unit. This make for neatness, cheapness, and ease of installation.
Single-pole fusing: Regulation A 8 states that in a 2-wire installation connected to earth on
one pole, all fuses and single-pole control devices, e.g, switches, circuit-breakers and the
like, shall be connected in the live conductor only. A 2-wire non-earthed installation will
require double-pole linked devices in both conductors.
Relative ratings of conductors and protective devices, Regulation A 10.
Every conductor in an installation shall be protected by a fuse or circuit-breaker fitted at the
origin of the circuit of which the conductors forms a part. The current rating of every fuse
used for this purpose shall not exceed the current rating of the lowest rated conductor in the
protected circuit, while every circuit-breaker shall operate when subjected to a sustained
current of 1.5 times the rated current of the lowest rated conductor.

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 There are a number of exemptions to this Regulation, and these should be studied.
In this Regulation account is to be taken of the class of excess-current protection afforded
by the fuse or circuit-breaker, close or coarse.
The I.E.E. definitions of close and coarse excess-current protection are given here:
Close will operate within four hours at 1.5 times the designed load current of the circuit
which it protects. Certain types of fuse, and miniature and other circuit-breakers will afford
this protection.
Coarse will not operate within four hours at 1.5 times the designed load current of the
circuit which it protects. Certain other types of fuse give this protection.
Diversity: Regulations A 21 and 22 allow the application of a diversity allowance to the
size of circuit conductors, other than those of a final sub-circuit, where conditions justify.
This allows of a connected load whose aggregate current is greater than the current rating of
the conductors supplying the load. Regulations A 27 and A 28 allow some diversity to a final
sub-circuit supplying cooking appliances.
Appendix 1 of the Regulations includes a Table giving guide values of diversity allowance
for different types of installation.
The Regulations lay down the following arrangement:
Final sub-circuits, Regulations A 23 to A 26. Where an installation comprises more than one
final sub-circuit, each shall be connected to a separate way in a distribution board. The
wiring of each sub-circuit shall be separated from that of any other.
The number of points supplied by a final sub-circuit of rating not exceeding 15A is
limited by their aggregate demand as given by I.E.E. Table A 2. No diversity is allowable
except as shown in the Table.
A final sub-circuit with rating exceeding 15 A shall not supply more than one point,
except for exemptions in regard to cooking appliances and ‗ring‘ and ‗radial‘ circuits.
Domestic ring and radial circuits; general Regulations A 30 to A 33. In domestic
installations, either radial or ring circuits conforming with Table A.3M of the Regulations
may be installed to serve 13-A flat-pin socket-outlets (B.S.S. 1363), and stationary
appliances of rating not greater than 13A, given that:
Each socket-outlet of a twin or multiple unit is reckoned as one socket-outlet.
A permanently connected stationary appliances shall be locally protected by a fuse not
exceeding 13A and controlled by a switch or circuit-breaker to disconnect all live conductors.
The switch should be separate from the appliance and normally accessible.
Table A.3M of the Regulations gives corresponding numbers of 13-A socket-outlets,
minimum cable sizes and fuse or circuit-breaker ratings for domestic radial and ring circuits.

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 Where circuits are installed in groups or in conditions of high ambient temperature, the
cable sizes given shall be increased as necessary.
Domestic ring circuits; particular Regulations A 34 to A 41. Each circuit conductor of a
ring final sub-circuit shall be run in the form of a ring, looping in to socket-outlets and joint
boxes, starting at and returning to the same way in a distribution board. If the conductors are
cut instead of looped at the socket-outlets and joins boxes, they must be so jointed as to have
electrical continuity.
Unless the circuit is run throughout in metallic conduits, ducts or trunking, an earth-
continuity conductor shall also be run as a ring and be earthed at the distribution board.
The number of spurs must not exceed the total number of socket-outlets and stationary
apparatus connected directly in the ring.
Fused spurs must be connected through fused spur boxes in which the rating of the fuse
must not exceed the rating of the cable forming the spur, nor be greater than 13A.
Non-fused spurs must be connected at the terminals of socket-outlets or at joint boxes.
Not more than two socket-outlets or one stationary appliance are to be fed from each non-
fused spur.

In a house or flat, with one ring circuit for each 100 m 2 of floor area, an unlimited
number of 13A socket-outlets with fused plugs may be connected to one ring circuit which is
fused at 30A, and whose conductors are of size 2.5 mm 2 (1/1.78).
Wiring Circuits for Lighting: Looping-in is the normal method of wiring final sub-circuits.
If carried out in all circumstances, no soldered joints need to made in the circuit wires. Figure
13 (a) shows the theoretical diagram of a final sub-circuit of seven lamps, two controlled
separately by 1-way switches, three controlled as a group by a 1-way switch, and two also
controlled by a 1-way switch. If the circuit were wired exactly as in diagram, a large number
of joints would be necessary.
Two-way switching: The control of a light from one point only is not always convenient, e.g,
bedroom or corridor lights. Two-point control is normally required and is obtained by the use
of ‗2-way‘switches.
Figure 15 is a diagram of one light controlled by two 2-way switches. A switch feed from
the distribution fuse board (or looped out of another switch) is connected to the common
terminal A of the first 2-way switch.
The movement of the switch dolly makes connection from the common terminal A to
either of the other terminals B and C. A similar 2-way switch is fixed at the second required
position. Two strapping wires are connected from B to B1 and from C to C1 respectively as
shown. The switch wire is connected from common terminal A1 to the ceiling rose (or lamp
holder connection).

5
 The diagram shows the circuit broken. Movement of either switch dolly will make the
circuit and the lamp will light. Similarly, when the lamp is burning, movement of either
switch dolly will break the circuit.
Thus the lamp is controlled at will from either switch position.
Wiring accessories
Lampholders: These are designed for quick removal and replacement of the lamp, and yet they
must hold the lamp in firm metallic contact to prevent overheating. There are three main sizes of
lampholder: the Bayonet-cap (B.C.), the medium Edison Screw (E.S.) and the Goliath Screw
(G.E.S.). There are other variations such as the three-slot B.C. for the smaller discharge lamps.
For ordinary tungsten filament lamps up to 150W the lamp caps and thus the lampholders are
B.C, up to 200W the caps are E.S, and above 200W they are G.E.S. In every case where a lamp
is to be installed, the appropriate size and type of holder must be fitted. Lampholders may be
either the insulated type of Bakelite or the brass type with porcelain interior.

Ceiling roses: The great majority of ceiling roses already installed contain either two or three
connection plates, each plate including a pillar terminal for the circuit wires, and a screw
terminal with washer for the flexible wire connection. Figure 75 shows three different types of
ceiling rose, the first being an ordinary 2-plate rose in which the barrier between the terminals is
clearly shown. The second illustration is of the semi-recessed rose for direct fixing to an iron
conduit box. The third is a moulded type ceiling rose with loose interior. The cover has
‗knockouts‘ in the outer rim to provide entries for surface wiring. When wiring ceiling roses with
terminals similar to those illustrated, the flexible wire should be bent under the washer in a
clockwise direction, otherwise it will tend to be squeezed out when the screw is tightened. In
some ceiling roses, pillar terminals are provided for both circuit wires and flexible wire.

Lighting circuit switches: Sub-circuit switches are mostly of the tumbler type. For direct
current circuits the quick-make-and-break switch is most suitable. The quick break is to prevent
the arc formed at the instant of rupture from continuing and burning the contacts.

Plugs and socket-outlets: These are required to enable portable apparatus to be connected to the
final sub-circuits. The socket-outlet is the fixed portion connected to the fixed wiring, and
comprises two or three contact tubes and terminals. The plug is the movable part connected to
the apparatus by flexible wire, and comprises two or three contact pins to fit into the contact

6
tubes. Plugs and socket-outlets are made to British Standard Specifications, the standard sizes
being 2A, 5A, 15A, and 30A. The plug pins are of phosphor-bronze or hard drawn brass, solid or
slotted down the length to form a spring contact in the tubes. The terminals are of substantial
construction to clamp the flexible wire firmly. The plug cover, of hardwood or other tough
incombustible material, is provided with a clamp to prevent the flexible from pulling out of the
plug when in use, this clamp to be inside the cover. The socket-outlet base is of vitreous
porcelain or tough insulating material, and the contact tubes, which must be self-adjusting to the
pins, are of phosphor-bronze or hard-drawn brass with sound terminals. The exposed ends of the
tubes are below the level of the base to prevent them from being touched accidentally.

SINGLE- PHASE CONNECTIONS

Distribution transformer are usually wound with the secondary or low-voltage winding in two
sections, as shown in. when the two low-voltage sections are connected in series, as in, the
transformer may be used to supply a two-wire 240-V load connected to terminals X 1 and X 4 .

Terminals X 3 and X 2 are connected together but are not connected to the load. The series

connection may also be used to supply three-wire common X 2 X 3 terminal of the transformer.
Either 120- or 240-V loads may then be supplied from the three-wire system as described in sec.
2-25. The two low-voltage sections alternatively may be connected in parallel as is shown in to
supply a two-wire 120-V load.

Earlier transformers were made with four insulated secondary leads brought out of the
transformer tank, the series or parallel connection being made outside the tank. In modern
transformers, the connection are made inside the tank, with only three secondary terminals being
brought out of the transformer. The three secondary terminals of the distribution transformer
shown in may be seen in the foreground.

THREE-PHASE CONNECTIONS

Single-phase transformers can be connected to form three-phase transformer banks for raising or
lowering the voltages of three-phase systems. Four common methods of connecting three
transformers for three-phase transformations are the delta-delta, wye-wye, wye-delta
connections. The first three of these are shown, the delta-wye is not shown since it is simply the
reverse of the wye-delta connection.
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The delta-delta connection shown is often used for moderate voltages. An advantage of this
connection is that if one transformer becomes damaged or is removed from service the remaining
two can be operated in at is known as the open-delta or V connection. By being operated in this
way, the bank still delivers three-phase currents and voltages in their correct phase relationships,
but the capacity of the bank is reduced to 57.7 percent of what it was with all three transformers
in service.

In the wye-wye connection shown, only 57.7 percent (or 1/1.73) of the line voltage is impressed
upon each winding. But full line current flows in each transformer winding. Power circuits
supplied from a wye-wye bank often create serious disturbances in communication circuit in
their immediate vicinity. Because of this and other advantages, the wye-wye connection is not as
commonly used as other connections.

The delta-wye connection is well adapted for stepping up voltages since the voltage is increased
by the transformer ratio multiplied by the factor 1.73. likewise the wye-delta connection is used
for stepping down voltages. The high-voltage windings of most transformers operating at above
100,000V are wye connected. It will be noticed that in order to match transformer polarities
correctly,

FEEDER-VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Much of the load on an electrical system is at some distance from the generating station. Because
of this distance, there is a drop in voltage between the generating station and the point of
utilization. Furthermore, this voltage drop is not constant but is proportional to the amount of
load on the circuit at any one time. As the load varies, the voltage drop varies also.

Most electrical equipment is designed to operate at a given voltage, the efficiency of operation of
this equipment is affected appreciably if the applied voltage deviate from the rated valued. This
especially true with domestic loads such as incandescent lighting, electrical ranges, and electric
heaters. With 90 percent of rated voltage applied to an incandescent lamp, for example, the
illumination output is only about 70 percent of rated value. Heating time of electric heater and
ranges is about 120 percent of normal when 90 percent of rated voltage is applied. While

8
induction-motor operation is not affected as greatly by voltage variation as lamps and heaters,
there are changes in efficiency, heating, and speed occasioned by variation in voltage.

Feeder-voltage regulators are used extensively as an aid to maintaining a reasonably constant

voltage at the point of use on an electrical system. A voltage regulator is in effect an
autotransformer with a variable ratio.

ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The distribution of electric energy is accomplished by dividing and sub-dividing large-capacity

feeders of smaller and smaller capacity. At each change in circuit capacity on an electrical
system there is a distribution center at which is grouped circuit-protective and switching
equipment. In general, this true throughout a system from the generator to the loads.

LOW-VOLTAGE PROTECTIVE AND SWITCHING EQUIPMENT

The classification of low-voltage protective and switching equipment as used on circuit rated at
600V or less. This voltage classification includes a large percentage of the utilization systems
such as in home, commercial establishment, and industries since most of these systems utilize
power at 120, 208, 240, 480, or 550V. Protective and switching equipment used on such systems
is used for normal-load switching, for protection against short circuits.

LOW-VOLTAGE FUSES

Fuses: A fuse element consists essentially of a piece of copper or tin lead alloy wire which will
melt when carrying a predetermined current. This element with contacts, carrier, and base is
called a fuse. It is placed in series with the circuit or sub-circuit to be protected, and
automatically breaks the circuit when overloaded. In general, the regulations regarding fuses
require that fuses shall be accessible, and shall be fitted either on the front of a switchboard or in
a protecting case. In most cases in installation work the fuses are fitted in a distribution board.
The position of fuses and distribution boards in an installation has already been dealt with in an
earlier chapter.

The current rating or normal current-carrying capacity of a fuse should not exceed the
current rating of the smallest conductor in the circuit protected by the fuse, account being taken

9
of the class of excess-current protection provided by the fuse, coarse or close. For electric
motors, a higher fuse rating is allowable. I.E.E. Table A.1M . gives the appropriate current
ratings of different sizes of fuse wire. The fusing values of normal duty fuses vary from 160 to
200 percent of the carrying capacity.

Rewireable fuses: The usual type of fuse is the Home Office type, in which the fuse wire is
carried in a removable fuse link. The fuse link may be of porcelain or other suitable insulating
material, so constructed that there is no danger to the operator in removing the fuse link.

Cartridge fuses: A note to Table 5 recommends the use of cartridge fuses. Some of the
advantages of these are: quick and easy replacement, colour coding of fuse sizes, and the lack of
deterioration of the fuse wire. The cartridge fuse consists of a sealed tube with metal end caps.

High breaking capacity fuses: This type of fuse was brought into use some years ago to
overcome the disability of ordinary fuses of destroying themselves in the event of a very heavy
overload.

Miniature circuit-breakers: These are being increasingly used for excess-current protection in
1-phase, 250V circuits. They are deemed by the I.E.E. Regulations to provide close excess-
current protection.

The circuit-breaker is essentially a switch which may be:

1. Opened and closed by hand,

2. Opened automatically when overloaded.

The tripping action may be either magnetic or thermal. In general both these actions are used in
this type of circuit-breaker. Protection against sustained over-current is given by the bending of a
bi-metal strip with its time-lag effect, while high speed protection against a short-circuit is given
by magnetic operation.

The circuit-breaker replaces both switch and fuses in the various circuits in which it is
used. It can be obtained with plug-in contacts for insertion into a fuse base in a distribution board
in place of a plug-in fuse carrier.

10
Consumer’s control unit: In a 1-phase installation whose current rating is no greater than 60A,
the consumer‘s main switch and fuses may be combined with the distribution board as one
combined unit. The consumer‘s main fuses may be omitted if the supply authority agrees.

The unit commonly known as a Consumer‘s Control Unit omits the main fuses. The unit
comprises a 60A 2-pole main switch and up to 8 1-pole circuit fuses. The fuses vary in size, e.g,
5A, 15A, and 30A.

In distribution fuse cutouts. Cutouts consist of a fuse support and fuse holder in which the fuse
link is installed. One commonly used type of fuse cutout is the drop-out enclosed cutout. In this
type of cutout, the fuse holder is enclosed within a porcelain housing. The fuse holder which
contains the fuse link is mounted on the inside of the hinged enclosure door and is so arranged
that it is connected into the circuit when the cutout door is closed. When the fuse link melts in
clearing a short circuit, the cutout door drops open, thereby providing an indication of the blown
fuse. The cutout is placed back in service by inserting a new fuse link in the fuse holder and
closing the cutout door.

HIGH-VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The term high-voltage circuit breaker as used here applies to circuit 600V. High-voltage
circuit breakers have standard voltage ratings of from 4,160 to 765,000 V and three-phase
interrupting ratings of from 50,000 to 50,000,000 KVA. Breakers with even higher ratings are
being developed.

During the early development of electrical systems, the vast majority of high-voltage
breakers used were oil circuit breakers. However, air circuit breakers of the magnetic and
compressed-air types have been developed and are now in common use.

The magnetic air circuit breaker is available in ratings up to and including 750,000 KVA
at 13,800 V. in this type of breaker the current is interrupted between separable contacts in air
with the aid of magnetic blowout coils. As the main current-carrying contacts part during the
interruption of a fault, the arc is drawn out in horizontal direction and transferred to arcing
contacts. At the same time, the blowout coil is connected into the circuit to provide a magnetic
field to draw the arc upward into arc chutes. The arc accelerates upward, aided by the magnetic
field and natural thermal effects, into the arc chutes where it is elongated and divided into small

11
segments. The arc resistance increases until, as the current passes through zero, the arc is broken;
after this it does not reestablish itself.

The general construction of the magnetic power circuit breaker is somewhat similar to the
large air circuit breaker used on low-voltage circuits except that they are all electrically operated.
These breakers are used extensively in metal-clad switchgear assemblies in industrial plants,
steel mills, and power plants.

Compressed-air breakers (sometimes called air-blast breakers) depend upon a stream of

compressed air directed toward the interrupting contacts of the breaker to interrupt the arc
formed when current is interrupted. This type of breaker was introduced to the American market
in 1940 and since that time it has become universally accepted for use in heavy-duty indoor
applications. More recently, air-blast breakers have been developed for use in extra-high voltage
outdoor stations with standard ratings up to 765,000 V.

Oil circuit-breaker contacts are immersed in oil so that the current interruption takes
place under oil which by its cooling effect helps quench the arc. Since oil is an insulator, the live
parts of oil circuit breakers may be placed closer together than they could be in air. The poles of
small oil circuit breakers are all placed in one oil tank, but in the large high-voltage breakers
each pole is in a separate oil tank. Tanks of small breakers are suspended from a framework so
that the tanks may be lowered for inspection of the contacts. The tanks of very large oil circuit
breakers rest directly on a foundation and have handholes for access to the contact assembly.

The oil tanks of oil circuit breakers are usually sealed, the electrical connections between
the external circuit and the contacts in the tank being made through porcelain bushings. The
breaker contacts are opened and closed by means of insulated lift rods on which the moveable
contacts are mounted. The lift rods are connected to the operating mechanism by means of a
mechanical linkage so that the contacts of all pole of the breakers are

PROTECTIVE RELAYS

Low-voltage air circuit breakers ordinarily have self-contained series trip coils of either
the instantaneous or time-delay types. The tripping energy is supplied by the flow of the short-
circuit current through the trip coil. Power circuit breakers seldom use series trip coils but are
equipped with trip coils designed to operate from a storage battery or a reliable source of

12
alternating current. Auxiliary devices called protective relays, designed to detect the presence of
short circuits on a system, are used to connect the breaker trip coils to the source of tripping
power and thereby trip the breaker.

Protective relays are said to be selective when they trip only the circuit breakers directly
supplying the defective part of the system and no other circuit breakers. When relays and circuit
breakers are selective, short circuits are removed from a system with a minimum of service
interruption. Of course, it is also desirable to isolate the defective system element as quickly as
possible. To this end, relays and circuit breakers have been developed that will clear a short
circuit in less than 0.1s. however, selectivity being more important than speed, the tripping of
some circuit breakers on a system is delayed intentionally to gain selectivity in clearing faults at
certain locations on a system.

Protective-relay operating elements are connected to high-voltage circuits by means of

current and potential transformers so that they in effect ‗‘measure‘‘ the quantities of current,
voltage, or phase angle or combinations of these quantities to determine whether or not an
abnormal condition exists in the circuit being protected. Relays with widely different operating
characteristics have been developed for specific applications in protective schemes for rotating
machines, transformers, buses, and lines. Two of the more commonly used of protective relays to
be described here are overcurrent and differential relays.

Overcurrent relays, as the name indicates, operate to close their contacts when current
through the relay operating oil exceeds a predetermined value. Overcurrent relays are connected
to the protected circuit through current transformers so that the current-transformer secondary
current through the relay is proportional to the current in the primary circuit.

The most generally used overcurrent relay is the induction overcurrent relay. This relay is
similar in principle to the induction watthour meter and has a movable disk driven by an
electromagnet. However, the induction overcurrent relay disk is not free to revolve continuously
as in the watthour meter since the operating torque is opposed by a restraining spring.
Furthermore, a movable contact is attached to the disk shaft so that after a partial revolution the
movable contact makes contact with the stationary contact and further rotation is impossible.

13
 Induction overcurrent relays have inverse-time characteristics; that is, the contact-closing
is fast for high operating-coil currents and slow for low operating-coil currents. Moreover, the
operating time for a given current is adjustable, the time of operation being proportional to the
distance that the disk is allowed to travel before the contacts close.

With both the pickup current and the operating time being adjustable, induction
overcurrent relays may be applied in selective systems with relays close to the generator adjusted
for long operating times and with progressively shorter time settings for relays further away from
the generator. Induction overcurrent relays are relatively inexpensive, are reliable and are easily
calibrated and maintained. Consequently, they are widely used for the protection of transmission
and distribution lines and equipment. A typical induction overcurrent relay completely
assembled in its case shown in Fig. 16-13a. the rear view of this relay removed from its case in
Fig. 16-13b shows the tapped operating coil or electromagnet, the induction disk, and the general
construction of the relay.

Differential relays, like overcurent relays, have an induction disk assembly on which is
mounted a movable contact. However, the differential relay has, in addition to its operating
electromagnet, a restraining electromagnet so connected that the flow of current through it
provides a restraining torque on the relay during the normal functioning of the equipment being
protected by the relay.

Differential relays are commonly used for the protection of rotating --------- entering and
leaving each phase winding of the apparatus being protected. Normally the currents entering and
leaving the apparatus are equal or are directly proportional to each other. However, on the
occurrence of an internal fault in the apparatus, the two currents are no longer equal or
proportional, since short-circuit current is fed into the apparatus from one or both sides. Under
this condition, the difference of the two currents passes through the operating coil of the relay,
causing the relay to close its contacts and trip the necessary circuit breakers to isolate the
apparatus from the system. An elementary diagram showing typical connections for a
transformer differential relay is shown in Fig. 16-14a.

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METAL-CLAD SWITCHGEAR

Metal-clad switchgear is a type of switchgear assembly in which all parts are completely
enclosed in grounded metal enclosures. Circuit breakers used in metal-clad switchgear are either
air or oil breakers of the removable type, equipped with self-coupling primary and secondary
disconnecting devices. All buses, connections, and joints are insulated and are completely
isolated from the secondary wiring and control devices. Instruments, relays, and control switches
are mounted on the front panels of the switchgear.

Metal-clad switchgear is available in both indoor and outdoor types for use on circuits
with voltage ratings below 15,000 V, the standard voltage ratings being 4,160, 7,200, and 13,
800 V. interrupting and continuous-current ratings are based on the ratings of the circuit breakers
used in the switchgear

OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS.

Outdoor substations consist of structural frameworks on which switches, fuses,

and lightning arresters are mounted and from which connections are made to circuit breakers,
transformers, and other heavy equipment installed on the ground under the structure. Structures
are usually constructed of galvanized structural steel, but some low-voltage structures are of
wood. Buses, jumpers, and connections are supported on insulators which are attached to the
structural framework.

There are no limitations to electrical capacity in outdoor substations since equipment of

almost any ratings or capacity can be installed in stations of this type. Spacing of buses and
equipment and arrangement of station are dependent upon the voltage of the station.
Arrangement, of course, is also influenced by the function for which the station is intended.
Substations are usually designed to fit individual requirements, although some standardization is
possible in certain types of substations.

A typical outdoor substation is shown ,this is a step-down substation with a high-voltage

rating of 115,000 V and a low-voltage rating of 69,000 V. The 115,000 V section is on the right
and the 69,000 V section is on the left. The 115/69 KV step-down transformer may be seen
adjacent to the 69,000 V section of the station.

15
 Outdoor substations may be of the step-up type used to connect generating plants to
transmission systems or they may be step-down stations for supplying loads from a high-voltage
transmission system. Step-down stations foe supplying loads or distribution systems at 15,000 V
or less often consist of an open-type steel framework for terminating the high-voltage circuit, a
three-phase transformer, and an assembly of outdoor metal-clad switchgear for the protection
and switching of the low-voltage circuits.

Voltage transformations are not always involved in outdoor substations. Switching

stations in which only circuit breakers and other switching equipment are installed are used at
junctions and taps in transmission systems.

LIGHTNING ARRESTERS

Lightning is a major cause of short circuits on overhead transmission and distribution

lines. Transient voltages on the lines caused by lightning strokes may exceed the insulation level
of the line, causing a flashover which may result in a line-to-ground or line-to-line short circuit.
It is the function of lightning arresters to provide a path by which lightning surges are conducted
to ground before a flashover on the line can occur.

The valve-type lightning arrester, a commonly used type, may be likened to a normally
open circuit breaker connected from the protected circuit to reopens when the surge disappears.
This arrester consists of two elements, a series gap and a valve assembly, both enclosed in a
porcelain housing. The spacing of the series gap is such that it will withstand normal circuit
voltage. However, an overvoltage such as may be caused by a lightning surge causes the gap to
break down, with a resulting flow of current through the valve assembly to ground. The valve
assembly is constructed of a ceramic compound that has the peculiar property of offering a high
resistance to current flow when normal system voltage is applied, but a low resistance to the flow
of high-surge currents. Thus it operates as a current valve and allows the surge current to pass
but assumes its former high resistance to stop the flow of current as soon as the voltage drops to
its normal value.

A fuse is an overcurrent protective device that has a circuit-opening fusible member directly
heated and destroyed by the passage of overcurrent through it. As indicated by the definition, a
fuse contains a current-carrying element so sized that the heat created by the flow of normal

16
current through it is not sufficient to fuse or melt the element. However, when short-circuit or
overload current flow through the fuse, the fusible element melt and open the circuit. The fusible
element of an indoor fuse is enclosed in a protective housing to prevent the heat generated during
the clearing of a short circuit from damaging adjacent equipment. Some representative types of
fuses are shown.

The plug fuse is used on circuits rated 125V or less to ground. This fuse consists of a zinc or
alloy strip fusible element enclosed in a porcelain or pyrex housing which is fitted with a screw
base. The maximum continuous current carrying capacity of plug fuse is 30A, and the commonly
used standard sizes are 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30A.

Cartridge fuses are used on circuits with voltage ratings up to 600V, the common voltage ratings
of these fuse being 250 and 600V. The nonrenewable cartridge fuse is constructed with a zinc or
alloy fusible element enclosed in a cylindrical fiber tube. The ends of the fusible element are
attached to metallic contact pieces at the ends of the tube.

Time-lag fuses are made in both the plug and cartridge types. These fuses are constructed so as
to have a much greater time lag than ordinarily fuses, especially for overload currents. They do
operate, however, to clear short-circuit currents in about the same time as to the standard fuses.

A current-limiting fuse is defined by American National standard institute standard as a fuse that,
when it is melted by a current within its specified current range, abruptly introduce a high arc
voltage to reduce the current magnitude and direction.‖ Because of its current limiting action,
low-voltage current-limiting fuses typically have interrupting capacities as high as 200,000A.

SAFETY SWITCHES

A switch is a device for isolating parts of an electric circuit or for changing connection in a
system when a switch is mounted in a metal enclosure and is operated by means of an external
handle, its called a safety switch.

The breaker automatically trips when the current exceeds a certain value. In the lower current
ratings, automatic tripping is accomplished by a thermal tripping device. The thermal trip
consists of a bimetallic element so calibrated that the heat from the normal current through it
does not cause it to deflect. However, an abnormally high current caused either by an overload or

17
by a short circuit causes the element to deflect and trip the linkage holding the circuit-breaker
contacts closed. The breaker contacts are opened by spring action.

As directed previously, breakers may be either manually or electrically operated breakers are
used when infrequent operation is required. Electrically operated breakers are used when
breakers need to be operated frequently or when remote control is required. Electrically operated
breaker may be closed and tripped from a pushbutton or control switch mounted in a convenient
location remote from the breaker.

Automatic tripping of large air circuit breakers is accomplished on some breakers by a direct-
acting series overcurrent tripping device. The operating coil of the tripping device is connected
in series with the power circuit in which the breaker is installed. The flow of an abnormally high
current in the latch of the breaker-operating mechanism to open the circuit. One other type of
tripping system is used with large air circuit breakers in which the tripping function is performed
by a static overcurrent trip unit.

PANELBOARDS

A panel board consists of a group of overcurrent-protective devices, with or without switches,

including buses, assembled into a cabinet which is accessible only from the front. Panel boards
are located between the secondary feeders and the branch circuits that supply the utilization
equipment. So located, they are the means of control and protection for lighting and power
circuits and the equipment supplied by them.

Panel board overcurrent-protective devices may be fuses, either plug or cartridge type, or circuit
breakers. Fusible panel board used for lighting and small-appliance loads often have a switch in
series with each of the branch-circuit fuses and are called switch-and-fuse panel-boards.

Cabinet enclosures for panel-boards are usually made of galvanized sheet steel. Cabinets are
large enough to provide ample wiring space around the panel assembly. Cabinets are constructed
so that the panel-board may be either flush or surface mounting. The flush-mounting type is
installed so that the front of the panel-board is flush with the wall surface and all wiring is
concealing in the wall.

18
LOAD-CENTER UNIT SUBSTATIONS

Load-center unit substations are combinations of transformers and metal-enclosed switchgear

assembled as a unit. These substations may have switchgear either on the high-voltage or low-
voltage side, or on both sides of the transformer. The unit substation has a high-voltage
incoming-line section consisting of an air interrupter switch, a ventilated dry-type transformer
section, and a low voltage metal-enclosed switchgear section equipped with nine draw out air
circuit breakers, an instrument compartment, and six spare compartments. The usual voltage
ratings of unit substations are 15,000V or less for the high-voltage section and 600V or less for
the low-voltage section . Transformers are usually rated 2,000KVA or less.

HIGH-VOLTAGE FUSES

High-voltage fuses are used both indoors and outdoors for the protection of circuit and
equipment with voltage ratings above 600V. There are many types of fuses and they are mounted
in many different ways. Some of the more commonly used fuses and mountings are maintained
briefly in the following paragraphs

Expulsion fuses consist of a fusible element mounted in a fuse tube and depend upon the
vaporization of the fuse element and the fuse-tube liner to expel conducting vapors and metal
from the fuse tube, thereby extinguishing the arc formed when current is interrupted. Another
type of fuse, called the liquid fuse, depends on a spring mechanism to separate quickly the ends
of the melted fuse element in a nonflammable liquid to extinguish the arc. Still another type of
fuse is the solid-material fuse, in which the arc is extinguished in a hole in a solid material. In
one type of solid –material fuse a spring mechanism similar to that of the liquid fuse is used to
separate the arcing terminals when the fuse blows. In this fuse, overload and low fault currents
are interrupted in a small cylindrical chamber in the solid arc extinguishing material, and large
fault currents are interrupted in a larger chamber in the same fuse holder.

High-voltage fuses are often mounted in the same enclosure with disconnect switches to provide
short-circuit protection and switching facilities for circuits and equipment. Typical equipment of
this type removed from its enclosure is shown. The equipment shown is for use on 13,800-V
circuits and consists of a three-pole load- interrupter switch above and three solid-material fuses
below.

19
Outdoor high-voltage fuses for low-capacity overhead lines are mounted.

ILLUMINATION

Light is a form of radiant energy. It may be produced by electric currents passed through
filaments as in incandescent lamp, through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through gases
as in neon and other gas tubes. In some forms of lamps the light is due to fluorescence excited by
radiation arising from the passage of electricity through mercury vapour.

Most bodies reflect light in some measure, and when illuminated from an original source they
become a secondary source of light. A good example is the moon, which illuminates the earth by
means of reflected light originating in the sun.

Illumination by reflected light is of great practical importance; electric lamps are rarely used
without reflectors, and light reflected from the walls and ceiling of a room makes an important
contribution to the illumination of the room.

TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATUION

LUMINOUS INTENSITY (symbol I): In the preceding paragraph we have spoken of ‗the
strength of a source of light‘. As we have seen it is measured in candelas. The luminous intensity
of the light sent by a lamp in a given direction is an indication of the rate at which it is sending
out luminous energy in that direction.

BRIGTHNESS: When the eye receives a great deal of light from an object we say it is bright,
and ‗brightness‘ is an important quantity in illumination. It is all the same whether the light is
produced by the object or merely reflected from it. The object sends out light as though each
small piece of it surface were of a certain luminous intensity. Generally the brightness of an
object is the same from all points of view.

GLARE: The size of the opening of the pupil in the human eye is controlled by its iris. If the eye
looks at a bright object such as a naked lamp which sends a large amount of light into the eye

20
and produces an intense image on the retina, the iris automatically contracts to protect the eye by
reducing the intensity of the image. If the eye is looking at some other object, much less bright,
while the very bright object remains in the field of view, the contraction of the iris will cut down
the amount of light received on the retina from every object in the field of view and make it more
difficult to see the object desire.

CALCULATION OF ILLUMINATION BY THE ‗LUMEN METHOD‘

This method of calculation assumes that in a room or workshop, the whole of the lamp output in
lumens is available to give a reasonably uniform level of illumination at the working plane i.e.,
bench or desk tops.

E A
N=
  CU  MF

Where: N is the number of fittings needed

E is the required illumination in lux

A is the working area in square metres

 is the flux produced per fitting

CU is the coefficient of utilization

MF is the maintenance factor

COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION: This factor allows for the losses incurred by absorption of
light by walls, ceiling, floor, furniture, etc. Dark colours absorb more light than pale colours. A
further important loss involved is the loss in the lighting fitting, which may be large. Tables
giving values of the coefficients of utilization for different types of lighting fittings combined
with absorption factors for the walls, etc. are readily available.

21
MAINTENANCE FACTOR: This factor is used on the assumption that the installation gives
only a fraction of the illumination it would give when perfectly clean. The factor is commonly
given as 0.8. Sometimes a depreciation factor is given instead of the maintenance factor, and for
a maintenance factor of 0.8, would be 1.0/0.8= 1.25.

EXAMPLE

An office 18m by 43m requires an illumination at desk level of 330 lux. The mounting height of
the lamps above desk level will be 2m. The following alternatives are suggested:

(i) 80W fluorescent lamps giving 4800 lumens when new,

(ii) 150W tungsten filament lamps giving 1950 lumens when new.
Calculate the number of lamps needed for each alternative assuming a coefficient of
utilisation of 0.6, and a maintenance factor of 0.85.

E A
Use the formula N=
  CU  MF

Then

330  18  43

(i) NF = = 104 lamps
4800 0.6  0.85
330  18  43
(ii) NT = = 257 lamps
1950 0.6  0.85

In spacing out the lamps, it is assumed that the distance between lamp centres in any row is
approximately equal to the distance between adjacent rows. It is also approximately equal to the
distance between adjacent rows. It is also assumed that the distances between the outside row
and the wall, and between the end lamp and the end wall, is half the spacing distance.

If a scale plan of the office be drawn, the spacing of the lamps may be found either by
calculation or by trial.

(i) There will be seven rows approximately 2.6m apart, each of 15 fluorescent lamps,
105 lamps in all, the lamp centres in the rows being approximately 2.8m apart.

22
 (ii) There will be ten rows each of 26 tungsten lamps, a total of 260 lamps. The rows are
approximately 1.8m apart and the lamp centres are approximately 1.65m apart.
The mounting height is the vertical distance between light fitting and the working level.

SPACING - MOUNTING HEIGHT RATIO: In general, it is taken that this value should not be
greater than 1.5. For the higher illumination values or for more uniform illumination the factor
can be considerable less than 1.5.

Thus, in calculating (i) above:

2.6 2.8
Space - mounting height = =1.3 and = 1.4
2 2

And in (ii):

1 .8 1.65
Spacing - mounting height = = 0.9 and = 0.825
2 2

23
 DISTRIBUTION
BOARD

-VE OR NEUTRA

CONSUMER’S +VE OR LINE

SWITCH
METRE
D.P. LINKED
SERVICE FUSE
METRE AND
NEUTRAL LINK
-VE OR NEUTRA
+VE OR LINE
24
 R

Y
THREE PHASE
3 WIRE B
TO MOTORS
ETC
N
MAIN D.F.B

N
B

Fig. Three - phase 4 – wire installation

25
 NEUTRAL
B BI
A AI
+VE OR
LINE C CI

Fig. Two – way switching

26
 Gen Gen

Metal –
4,160 – V
clad
Switchgear

Generating
Station
Y Y
Outdoor
34,500 – Substation
V

34,500 – V
feeders Metal – clad
Switchgear

Y
Load – centre
Y Unit 34.5/4.16Kv
480 Metal – enclosed
Substation Step down
V Low – voltage Sub station
Switchgear
480
V
Large Y Small
120/208
motor Motor
V
s branch
Lighting circuits
Branch circuits Lighting Power Panel boards
Panel boards Lighting
Branch circuits

Fig Electrical system one – line diagram to illustrate the use of circuit – protective and switch
equipment

27
Synchronous machines

Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current (AC) generators. They supply
the electric power used by all sectors of modern societies: industrial, commercial, agricultural,
and domestic. Synchronous generators usually operate together (or in parallel), forming a large
power system supplying electrical energy to the loads or consumers. Synchronous generators are
built in large units, their rating ranging from tens to hundreds of megawatts. Synchronous
generator converts mechanical power to ac electric power. The source of mechanical power, the
prime mover, may be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, a water turbine, or any similar device. For
high-speed machines, the prime movers are usually steam turbines employing fossil or nuclear
energy resources. Low-speed machines are often driven by hydro-turbines that employ water
power for generation. Smaller synchronous machines are sometimes used for private generation
and as standby units, with diesel engines or gas turbines as prime movers.

Types of Synchronous Machine

According to the arrangement of the field and armature windings, synchronous machines may be
classified as rotating-armature type or rotating-field type.

Rotating-Armature Type: The armature winding is on the rotor and the field system is on the
stator.

Rotating-Field Type: The armature winding is on the stator and the field system is on the rotor.

According to the shape of the field, synchronous machines may be classified as cylindrical-rotor
(non-salient pole) machines and salient-pole machines

28
Construction

The winding consists of copper bars insulated with mica and epoxy resin.
The conductors are secured by steel wedges.
The iron core is supported by a steel housing.

29
30
31
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATIONOF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
The synchronous electrical generator (also called alternator) belongs to thefamily of electric
rotating machines. Other members of the family are the direct current(dc) motor or generator, the
induction motor or generator, and a number of derivatives of all these three. What is common to
all the members of this family is that the basic physical process involved in their operation is the
conversion of electromagnetic energy to mechanical energy, and vice versa. Therefore, to
comprehend the physical principles governing the operation of electric rotating machines, one
has to understand some rudiments of electrical and mechanical engineering.

ALTERNATED CIRCUITS (AC)

As it will be shown later, alternators operate with both alternating (ac) and direct-current (dc)
electric power. The dc can be considered a particular case of the general ac, with frequency equal
to zero.
The frequency of an alternated circuit is measured by the number of times the currents and/or
voltages change direction (polarity) in a unit of time. The Hertz is the universally accepted unit
of frequency, and measures cycles per second.
THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
The two-wire ac circuits shown above (called single-phase circuits or systems),are commonly
used in residential, commercial, and low voltage—low power industrial applications. However,
all electric power systems to which industrial generators are connected are three-phase systems.
Therefore any discussion in this book about the ―power system‖ will refer to a three-phase
system. Moreover in industrial applications the voltage supplies are, for all practical reasons,
balanced, meaning all three-phase voltages are equal in magnitude and apart by 120 electrical
degrees. In those rare events where the voltages are unbalanced, its implication into the operation
of the generator will be discussed in other chapters of this book.
Three-phase electric systems may have a fourth wire, called ―neutral.‖ The―neutral‖ wire of a
three-phase system will conduct electricity if the source and/orthe load are unbalanced. In three-
phase systems two sets of voltages and currents can be identified. These are the phase and line
voltages and currents. A figure shows the main elements of a three-phase circuit. Three-phase

32
circuits can have their sources and/or loads connected in wye (star) or in delta. (See Fig. 1.12 for
a wye-connected source feeding a delta-connected load.) Almost without exception, turbine-
driven generators have their windings connected in wye (star). Therefore in this book the source
(or generator) will be shown wye-connected. There are a number of important reasons why
turbogeneratorsare star-connected. They have to do with considerations about its effective

12 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Fig. 1.11 Three phase systems. Schematic depiction of a three-phase circuit and the vector
(phasor) diagram representing the currents, voltages, and angles between them.Y-Connected
Source
1.5.4 Electromechanical Energy Conversion
The fourth and final physical law that captures, together with the previous three,all the physical
processes occurring inside an electric machine, is the ―principle of energy conversion.‖ Within
the domain of the electromechanical world of an electric rotating machine, this principle states
that: All the electrical and mechanical energy flowing into the machine, less all the
electrical and mechanical energy flowing out the machine and stored in the machine,equals the
energy dissipated from the machine as [Link] is important to recognize that while mechanical
and electrical energy can go in or out the machine, the heat generated within the machine always
has a
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
At this point the rudiments of electromagnetism have been presented, together with the four
basic laws of physics describing the inherent physical processes coexisting in any electrical
machine. Therefore it is the right time to introduce the basic configuration of the synchronous
machine, which, as mentioned before, is the type of electric machine that all large turbine-driven
generators belong to.
Background
The commercial birth of the alternator (synchronous generator) can be dated back to August 24,
1891. On that day, the first large-scale demonstration of transmission of ac power was carried
out. The transmission extended from Lauffen, Germany, to Frankfurt, about 110 miles away. The
demonstration was carried out during an international electrical exhibition in Frankfurt. This
demonstration was so convincing about the feasibility of transmitting ac power over long
distances, that the city of Frankfurt adopted it for their first power plant, commissioned in

33
1894. This happened about one hundred and eight years before the writing of this book (see Fig.
1.17).
The Lauffen-Frankfurt demonstration—and the consequent decision by the
city of Frankfurt to use alternating power delivery—were instrumental in the adoption by New
York‘s Niagara Falls power plant of the same technology. The Niagara Falls power plant became
operational in 1895. For all practical purposes the great dc versus ac duel was over. Southern
California Edison‘s history book reports that its Mill Creek hydro plant is the oldest active
polyphase (three-phase) plant in the United States. Located in San Bernardino County,
California, its first units went into operation on September 7, 1893, placing it almost two years
ahead of the Niagara Falls project. One of those earlier units is still preserved and displayed at
the plant.
It is interesting to note that although tremendous development in machine ratings, insulation
components, and design procedures has occurred now for over one hundred years, the basic
constituents of the machine have remained practically unchanged.

1.6.2 Principles of Construction

A description of the design criteria leading to the construction of a modern turbogenerator, as
well as contains a detailed description of allcomponents most commonly found in such a
machine. This section is limited to the presentation of the basic components comprising a
synchronous machine, with the purpose of describing its basic operating theory.
Synchronous machines come in all sizes and shapes, from the miniature permanent magnet
synchronous motor in wall-clocks, to the largest steam-turbine driven generators of up to about
1500 MVA. Synchronous machines are one of two types: the stationary field or the rotating dc
magnetic field.
The stationary field synchronous machine has salient poles mounted on the stator—the stationary
member. The poles are magnetized either by permanent magnets or by a dc current. The
armature, normally containing a three-phase winding, is mounted on the shaft. The armature
winding is fed through three slip rings (collectors) and a set of brushes sliding on them. This
arrangement can

34
be found in machines up to about 5 kVA in rating. For larger machines—all those covered in this
book—the typical arrangement used is the rotating magnetic field.
The rotating magnetic field (also known as revolving-field) synchronous
machine has the field-winding wound on the rotating member (the rotor), and the armature
wound on the stationary member (the stator). A dc current, creating a magnetic field that must be
rotated at synchronous speed, energizes the rotating field-winding. The rotating field winding
can be energized through a set of slip rings and brushes (external excitation), or from a diode-
bridge mounted on the rotor (self-excited). The rectifier-bridge is fed from a shaft-mounted
alternator, which is itself excited by the pilot exciter. In externally fed fields, the source can be a
shaft-driven dc generator, a separately excited dc generator, or a solid-state rectifier. Several
variations to these arrangements exist. The stator core is made of insulated steel laminations. The
thickness of the laminations and the type of steel are chosen to minimize eddy current and
hysteresis losses, while maintaining required effective core length and minimizing costs. The
core is mounted directly onto the frame or (in large two-pole machines) through spring bars. The
core is slotted (normally open slots), and the coils making the
winding are placed in the slots. There are several types of armature windings, such as concentric
windings of several types, cranked coils, split windings of various types, wave windings, and lap
windings of various types. Modern large machines typically are wound with double-layer lap
windings (more about thesewinding types in Chapter 2).
20 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
The rotor field is either of salient-pole (Fig. 1.19) or non-salient-pole construction, also known as
round rotor or cylindrical rotor (Fig. 1.20). Non-salient-pole(cylindrical) rotors are utilized in
two- or four-pole machines, and, very seldom, in six-pole machines. These are typically driven
by steam or combustion turbines. The vast majority of salient-pole machines have six or more
poles. They include all synchronous hydro generators, almost every synchronous condenser, and
the overwhelming majority of synchronous [Link]-salient-pole rotors are typically
machined out of a solid steel forging. The winding is placed in slots machined out of the rotor
body and retained against the large centrifugal forces by metallic wedges, normally made of
aluminum or steel. The retaining rings restrain the end part of the windings (end-windings). In
the case of large machines, the retaining rings are made out of steel. Large salient-pole rotors are

35
made of laminated poles retaining the winding under the pole head. The poles are keyed onto the
shaft or spider-and-wheel
Fig. 1.19 Synchronous machine construction. Schematic cross section of a salient-pole
synchronous machine. In a large generator, the rotor is magnetized by a coil wrapped around it.
The figure shows a two-pole rotor. Salient-pole rotors normally have many more than two poles.
When designed as a generator, large salient-pole machines are driven by water turbines. The
bottom part of the figure shows the three-phase voltages obtained at the terminals of the
generator, and the equation relates the speed of the machine, its number of poles, and the
frequency of the resulting voltage.
THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 21
Fig. 1.20 Schematic cross section of a synchronous machine with a cylindrical round-rotor
(turbogenerator). This is the typical design for all large turbogenerators. Here both the stator and
rotor windings are installed in slots, distributed around the periphery of the machine. The lower
part shows the resulting waveforms of a pair of conductors, and that of a distributed winding.
The formula giving the magneto-motive force (mmf) created by the windings. structure. Salient-
pole machines have an additional winding in the rotating member.
This winding, made of copper bars short-circuited at both ends, is embedded in the head of the
pole, close to the face of the pole. The purpose of this winding is to start the motor or condenser
under its own power as an induction motor, and take it unloaded to almost synchronous speed,
when the rotor is ―pulled in‖ by the synchronous torque. The winding also serves to damp the
oscillations of the rotor around the synchronous speed, and is therefore named the damping-
winding(also known as amortisseursor damper-windings).
This book focuses on large turbine-driven generators. These are always twoor four-pole
machines, having cylindrical rotors. The discussion of salient-pole machines can be found in
other books. (See the Additional Reading section at
the end of this chapter.)
22 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
1.6.3 Rotor Windings
In turbogenerators, the winding producing the magnetic field is made of a number of coils,
single-circuit, energized with dc power fed via the shaft from the collector rings riding on the
shaft and positioned outside the main generator bearings. In self-excited generators, shaft-
mounted exciter and rectifier (diodes) generate the required field current. The shaft-mounted

36
exciter is itself excited from a stationary winding. The fact that unlike the stator, the rotor field is
fed from a relatively low power, low voltage circuit has been the main reason why these
machines have the field mounted on the rotating member and not the other way around. Moving
high currents and high power through the collector rings and brushes (with a rotating armature)
would represent a serious technical challenge, making the machine that much more complex and
expensive.
Older generators have field supplies of 125 volts dc. Later ones have supplies of 250 volts and
higher. Excitation voltages of 500 volts or higher are common in newer machines. A much more
elaborated discussion of rotor winding design and construction can be found in Chapter 2.
1.6.4 Stator Windings
The magnitude of the voltage induced in the stator winding is, as shown above, a function of the
magnetic field intensity, the rotating speed of the rotor, and the number of turns in the stator
winding. An actual description of individual coil design and construction, as well as how the
completed winding is distributed around the stator, is meticulously described in Chapter 2. In this
section a very elementary description of the winding arrangement is presented to facilitate the
understanding of the basic operation of the machine.
As stated above, coils are distributed in the stator in a number of [Link] has its own
advantages and disadvantages. The basic goal is to obtain three balanced and sinusoidal voltages
having very little harmonic content (harmonic voltages and currents are detrimental to the
machine and other equipment in a number of ways). To achieve a desired voltage and MVA
rating, the designer may vary the number of slots, and the manner in which individual coils are
connected,
producing different winding patterns. The most common winding arrangement is the lap
winding, and it shown in Figure 1.21.
A connection scheme that allows great freedom of choice in designing the windings to
accommodate a given terminal voltage is one that allows connecting sections of the winding in
parallel, series, and/or a combination of the two.
Figure 1.22 shows two typical winding arrangements for a four-pole generator.

BASIC OPERATION OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 23

Stator Slots

37
Fig. 1.21 ―Developed‖ view of a four-pole stator, showing the slots, the poles, and asection of
the winding. The section shown is of one of the three phases. It can be readilyseen that the
winding runs clockwise under a north pole, and counterclockwise under asouth pole. This pattern
repeats itself until the winding covers the four poles. Asimilarpattern is followed by the other
two phases, but located at 120 electrical degrees [Link]. 1.22 Schematic view of a two-pole
generator with two possible winding configurations:
(1) A two parallel circuits winding, (2) A two series connected circuits per [Link] the right,
the three phases are indicated by different tones. Note that, some slots only have coils belonging
to the same phase, while in others, coils belonging to two phases
share the slot.
24 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES mentioned above, all
large turbogenerators are three-phase machines. Thus the best place to start describing the
operation of a three-phase synchronous machine is a description of its magnetic field.
Earlier we described how a current flowing through a conductor produces a magnetic field
associated with that current. It was also shown that by coiling the conductor, a larger field is
obtained without increasing the current‘s magnitude. Recall that if the three phases of the
winding are distributed at 120 electrical degrees apart, three balanced voltages are generated,
creating a three-phase system. Now a new element can be brought into the picture. By a simple
mathematical
analysis it can be shown that if three balanced currents (equal magnitudes and120 electrical
degrees apart) flow in a balanced three-phase winding, a magnetic field of constant magnitude is
produced in the airgap of the machine. This magnetic field revolves around the machine at a
frequency equal to the frequency of the currents flowing through the winding (see Fig. 1.23). The
importance of a three-phase system creating a constant field cannot be stressed enough. The
constant magnitude flux allows hundred of megawatts of power to be transformed Fig. 1.23
Production of stator rotating field. A constant magnitude and constant rotational speed magnetic
flux is created when three-phase balanced currents flow through a three-phase symmetrical
winding. In a two-pole winding, however, any the same result applies for any number of pairs of
poles.
BASIC OPERATION OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 25 inside an electric machine
from electrical to mechanical power, and vice versa,without major mechanical limitations. It is
important to remember that a constant magnitude flux produces a constant-magnitude torque.

38
Now try to imagine the same type of power being transformed under a pulsating flux (and
therefore
pulsating torque), which is tremendously difficult to achieve. It is convenient to introduce the
fundamental principles describing the operation of a synchronous machine in terms of an ideal
cylindrical-rotor machine connected to an infinite bus. The infinite bus represents a busbar of
constant voltage, which can deliver or absorb active and reactive power without any limitations.
The ideal machine has zero resistance and leakage reactance, infinite permeability, and no
saturation, as well as zero reluctance torque. The production of torque in the synchronous
machine results from the natural tendency of two magnetic fields to align themselves. The
magnetic field produced by the stationary armature is denoted as !s. The magnetic field produced
by therotating field
Motor Operation
The subject of this book is turbogenerators. These units seldom operate as a motor. (One such
example is when the main generator is used for a short periodof time as a motor fed from a
variable speed converter. The purpose of this operation is for starting its own prime-mover
combustion turbine). However, this section presents an introductory discussion of the
synchronous machine, and thus the motor mode of operation is also covered. If a breaking torque
is applied to the shaft, the rotor starts falling behind the revolving-armature-induced
magnetomotiveforce (mmf) (Fs). In order to maintain the required magnetizing mmf (Fr)
the armature current changes. If the machine is in the underexcited mode, the condition motor in
Figure 1.24a represents the new phasor diagram.
On the other hand, if the machine is overexcited, the new phasor diagram is represented by motor
in Figure 1.24b. The active power consumed from the network under these conditions is given by
Active power = V1 × I1 × cos #1 (per phase) If the breaking torque is increased, a limit is
reached in which the rotor cannot keep up with the revolving field. The machine then stalls. This
is known as ―falling out of step,‖ ―pulling out of step,‖ or ―slipping poles.‖ The maximum torque
limit is reached when the angle & equals '/2 electrical. The convention is to define & as negative
for motor operation and positive for generator operation. The torque is also a function of the
magnitude of !r and !f. When overexcited, the value of !f is larger than in the underexcited
condition. Therefore synchronous motors are capable of greater mechanical output when

39
overexcited. Likewise, underexcited operation is more prone to result in an ―out-of-step‖
situation.
Generator Operation
Let‘s assume that the machine is running at no load and a positive torque isapplied to the shaft;
that is, the rotor flux angle is advanced ahead of the stator flux angle. As in the case of motor
operation, the stator currents will change to create the new conditions of equilibrium shown in
Figure 1.24, under [Link] the machine is initially underexcited, condition (a) in Figure 1.24
obtains. On the other hand, if the machine is overexcited, condition (b) in Figure 1.24 results.
It is important to note that when ―seen‖ from the terminals, with the machine operating in the
underexcited mode, the power factor angle (#1) is leading (i.e., I1leads V1). This means the
machine is absorbing reactive power from the system.
The opposite occurs when the machine is in the overexcited mode. As for the motor operation, an
overexcited condition in the generating mode also allows for greater power deliveries.

DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS AND CONTROLS

A motor is a machine that converts electric energy into mechanical energy. The dc motor is very
similar to a dc generator in construction. In fact, a machine that runs well as a generator will
operate satisfactorily as a motor.

MOTOR PRINCIPLE

Every conductor carrying current as a magnetic field around it, the direction of which may be
established by the right-hand rule. The strength of the field depends on the amount of current
flowing in the conductor.

If a wire carrying current away from the reader is placed in a uniform magnetic field, the
combined fields will be similar to that shown. Above the conductor, the field due to the
conductor is from left to right, or in the same direction as the main field. Below the conductor,
the magnetic lines from the conductor and the main field magnetic lines are in opposite
directions. The result is to strengthen the field or increase the flux density above the conductor
and to weaken the field or decrease the flux density below the conductor.

40
TORQUE DEVELOPMENT IN A MOTOR

Torque is defined as the action of a force on a body that tends to cause that body to rotate. Thus,
the measure of the tendency of a motor armature to rotate is called torque of a motor.

Motor-armature windings are wound in the same manner as are generator windings. When a
voltage is applied to the brushes of a motor, current flows in to the positive brush, through the
commutator and armature windings, and out the negative brush. Armature conductor are wound
so that all conductors under the south field poles carry current in one direction, while all the
conductors under the north field poles carry current in opposite direction. Figure bellow shows
the distribution of armature current in a four-pole motor for a given polarity of applied terminal
voltage.

When voltage is applied to a motor, such as shown, current flows through the field winding
establishing the magnetic field. Current also flow through the armature winding from the positive
brushes to the negative brushes. Since each armature conductor under the four pole faces is
carrying current in the magnetic field, each of those conductors has a exerted on it, tending to
move it at right angles to that field.

GENERATOR ACTION OF A MOTOR

As the armature of a generator is rotated by a prime mover, a torque is developed in the

generator opposing the action of the prime mover. This countertorque may be considered to be a
motor action in a generator.

Likewise, a generator action is developed in every motor. Whenever a conductor cuts lines of
force, and emf is induced in that conductor. The driving force is immaterial; if a conductor is
moved through a magnetic field, an emf will be induced in that conductor. The direction of that
emf is in accordance with flemming‘s right-hand rule for generator action. The conductor of the
figure below represent of the many-current carrying conductor of a motor armature. For the field
polarity shown, the current in the conductor is such that by motor action it will be moved
downward. It cuts lines of force and an emf is induced in it. The direction of this emf flemming‘s
right-hand rule for a generated emf is fund to forward the reader. Since this emf is in a direction
opposite to the flow of current in the conductor, it is called a counter electromotive force.

41
Since the counter emf of a motor is generated by the action of armature conductors cutting line
of force, its value will depend on the field strength and the armature speed. The value of the
counter emf E g that is generated in a motor is given by the relation

Eg  Kn

Where k is a constant depending on the physical properties of the motor. It will be remembered
that equation (7.2) was used to determining the generated emf of the generator.

The effective voltage acting in the armature circuit of a motor is the applied or terminal voltage
minus the counter emf. The armature current by ohm‘s law is

Et  E g
Ia  (7-3)
Ra

Where I a = armature current

E t = motor terminal voltage

E g = counter emf

Ra = armature circuit resistance

Multiplying both sides of Eq.(7-3) by Ra and transposing results in

Et  E g  I a Ra

Which is the fundamental motor equation. Note that this is the same as the generator equation
with the sign of the I a Ra term changed. The counter emf of a motor is always less than its
terminal voltage.

POWER RELATIONSHIPS IN A MOTOR

If each term of the fundamental motor equation is multiplied by I a , the resulting equation is

E t I a  E g I a  I a Ra
2

42
The term Et I a is the power supplied to the armature of the motor. The power lost as heat in the
2
armature circuit is represented by the term I a Ra . Thus, the term E g I a must represent the power

developed by the armature. This power is not all available at the pulley since some of this
developed power must be used to overcome the mechanical or rotational losses of the motor.

CONTROLLERS AND STARTERS

A controller is a device for regulating the operation of the apparatus to which it is connected. A
dc motor controller performs the basic function of the starting, controlling speed, reversing,
stopping, and providing some measure of protection for the motor that if governs. The more
common types of controllers are the faceplate, the drum, and the magnetic controller.

A starter is a controller whose main function is to start and accelerate the motor.

FACEPLATE STARTERS

Faceplate starter are manually operated controllers used mainly with shunt and compound motors
that do not require frequent starting or stopping. A connection diagram of this type of starter is
shown and the general appearance of an enclosed-type faceplate starter is shown below.

DRUM CONTROLLERS

The drum controller is commonly used for starting and controlling series motors such as

electric-train drive motors. Drum controllers are also used with shunt and compound motors that

require frequent starting, stopping, and reversing and have virtually superseded the faceplate

starter as a manual dc motor starter.

A drum controller consists essentially of a cylinder, insulted from a central shaft on

which is mounted a series of copper segments. As the cylinder is rotated by a handle, which is

keyed to the shaft, the various contact segments come in contact with contact fingers. The

contact fingers are held in place by adjusting screws and by springs strong enough to ensure a

43
good electrical connection with the contact segments. By designing the controller with different

sequences for the making and breaking of the contacts as the drum is rotated, a great variety of

switching operations may be performed.

When the operating handle of a drum controller, used with a shunt or compound motor, is

advanced to the START position, contacts are made to circuit through a starting resistance. As

the drum is moved to succeeding contact, the starting resistance is gradually cut out until the

armature is connected directly across the line. Additional contacts may be arranged so that, after

the starting resistance is cut out, speed control may be provided by inserting resistance into the

field circuit.

Reversing may be accomplished by rotating the drum in the opposite direction from the

neutral, or OFF, position. This operation reverses the armature connections, which in turn

reverses the direction of rotation of the motor.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

Automatic starting, stopping, and reversing of dc motors are commonly accomplished by

means of magnetically operated switches called magnetic contactors. Controllers using magnetic

contactors to control the operation of the motor to which they are connected are called magnetic

controllers.

Magnetic controllers may be actuated by means of a push button which is often located at

some point remote from the motor and controller. Controllers are also made entirely automatic

by actuating them by various automatic devices. If, for example, a motor drives an air

compressor that supplies air to a storage tank, the starting and stopping ―signals‖ to the motor

44
may be given by a pressure switch connected to the tank. When the pressure falls below a certain

value, the motor is started; it is stopped again when the pressure has risen to the desired value.\

MAGNETIC CONTACTORS

The basic part of all magnetic controllers is the magnetic contactor. An operating coil is

placed on an iron core so that when current flows through the coil the iron core becomes

magnetized. This attracts a movable iron armature that carries one or more insulated electric

contacts. As the armature is moved toward the core, the moving contacts are moved against

stationary contacts. The contacts are connected in series with the controlled device, such as a

motor-armature circuit, thereby completing the circuit when the operating coil is energized.

When the circuit of the operating coil is opened, the iron core becomes demagnetized and the

armature is released, being returned to its open position by means of a spring or by gravity. Since

the contacts of a magnetic contactor may be designed to carry heavy currents, a means is

provided whereby large amounts of current can be controlled by means of the relatively feeble

current needed for energizing the operating coil. To extinguish the arc formed when heavy

currents are interrupted, magnetic blowout coils are often used. A single-pole magnetic contactor

equipped with a blowout coil.

Magnetic contactors are used when it is desired to control a motor or other device from a

remote point. It is not necessary to run the main supply lines to the point of control. Only small

control wires need be used.

If a switch is to be opened and closed frequently, magnetic control is also desirable. An operator

is easily able to operate a push button to actuate a contactor several times a minute, whereas the

operation of heavy manual controls might cause undue fatigue.

45
 Undervoltage release, undervoltage protection, and overload protection are easily

provided by the use of magnetic contactors as is described in the following sections.

CONTROL OF MAGNETIC CONTACTORS MOTOR PROTECTION

A wiring diagram and a schematic control diagram of a two-wire control circuit using a

magnetic contactor for connecting a motor to the line. It will be noted that the wiring diagram

identifies the electrical devices, terminals, and interconnecting wiring. The control schematic

shows by means of graphic symbols the electrical connections and functions of the control

circuits. The schematic diagram facilitates tracing the circuit and its functions without regard to

the physical location of the component parts.

When a switch S is closed, the operating-coil circuit is completed from point 1 on

through the switch, coil M, and the normally closed overload realy contacts to. This closes the

main contacts M connecting the motor to the supply. The method for cutting out the starting

resistance is not shown as this will be considered. When the switch S is opened, contactor coil M

is deenerigized, the main contacts M open and the motor is disconnected from the line.

If, while a motor is in operation, the supply voltage falls below a certain value or fails

completely, the contactor disconnects the motor from the line. When the supply voltage is

restored, the contactor M is reenergized and the motor restarts. This type of control is said to

provide the motor with undervoltage release. This is desirable where it is necessary that the

motor be restarted automatically after a voltage failure.

The switch s may be replaced by any of a number of automatic devices such as a thermostat,

float switch, photoelectric cell, or limit switch.

46
A three-wire push-button control circuit for a contactor is also available. The START button is a

momentary contact switch that is held normally open by a spring. The STOP button is held

normally closed by a spring. When an operator depresses the START button, the operating-coil

circuit is competed from point 1 on through the STOP button, the START button, the coil and

the normally-closed overload relay contacts to. T this energizes contactor M, closing the main

contacts M which connects the motor to the supply. At the same time, contactor M auxiliary or

interlock contacts M-1 are closed.

When contacts M-1 close, a new circuit is established from point 1 through the STOP

button to point, 2, through contacts M-1 to point 3, through coil M and the overload relay to.

Since the operating-coil circuit is no maintained by the M-1 contacts, the operator may release

the START button. When the STOP button is depressed, the coil is deenergized, thereby opening

both the main and auxiliary contacts and stopping the motor.

If the supply voltage drops below a certain value, or fails, the main contacts and the

auxiliary contacts are both opened. Upon return of the supply voltage, the contactor cannot close

until the START button is again closed. Because a contactor that is controlled by a three-wire

control circuit maintains the interruption of the circuit even after the line voltage is restored, it is

said to provide undervoltage protection for the motor. This protection is used when it is desired

to prevent the unexpected starting of a motor.

Overload protection for motors is used to protect the motor and control apparatus from

excessive heating due to motor overloads. Thermal-overload relays are commonly used for

motor-overload protection. There are two principal types of thermal-overload relays. Both types

are operated from the heat generated in a heating element through which the motor current

47
passes. In one type the heat bends a bimetallic strip, and in the other the heat melts a film of

solder. Both act to open the motor-control circuit.

A bimetallic strip is made of two different metals whose surfaces have been welded

together. One of the metals expands rapidly when heated, while the other is not affected greatly

by the heat. When heat is applied, the strip is caused to deflect or curl up due to the different

expansion of the two metals. When the motor current reaches a predetermined value, the heat

generated deflects the strip far enough to trip a latch that opens the motor control circuit. When

the strip cools sufficiently, the relay may be reset and the motor restarted.

In the solder-film type of overload relay the heat generated at a given overload current

melts the film which releases a latch arrangement and opens the motor-control circuit. When the

solder has cooled enough to hold the latch, the relay may be reset.

MAGNETIC CONTROLLERS FOR STARTING DC MOTORS.

It was shown that a resistance must be connected in series with a dc motor-armature

circuit during the starting period. If magnetic control is to be used for starting a motor, some

method must be used for inserting this resistance at starting and removing it as the motor speed

increases. This is commonly done by using contactors to short-circuit sections of the starting

resistance as the motor comes up to speed. In general, the contactors are actuated by one of three

methods: the counter-emf method, the definite-time method, and the current-limit method.

A counter-emf starter in which the starting resistance is cut out in one step. Contactor M, with

its contacts M and M-1, is operated by means of a three-wire push-button station. The coil of

contactor A, called the accelerating contactor, is connected directly across the armature, while

48
the accelerating contacts, A are connected across the starting resistance. Depressing the START

button closes contactor M, connecting the motor to the supply lines with the starting resistance in

series with the motor armature. Because the counter emf of the motor is zero at starting, the

voltage across the armature is low, being due to the armature IR drop only. As the motor speed

and counter emf increase, the voltage across the armature increases. When the voltage across the

armature and the coil of contactor A reaches approximately 80 percent of line voltage, contactor

A closes, thereby short-circuiting the starting resistance. This connects the armature directly

across the line.

To obtain smoother acceleration, several contactors may be arranged to close on different

amounts of voltage so that the starting resistance is cut out in several steps. Counter emf starting

is quite simple but is usually limited to small dc motors that always start approximately the same

load. If a different load is started each time, the accelerating contactors may close too soon or too

late.

In definite-time starting, the starting resistor is cut out in steps by contactors that operate

successively at definite intervals. When the START button is depressed, the armature circuit is

completed with the starting resistance in series. A timing device is automatically started at the

same time. The timer then causes the contactors to close at predetermined.

TESTING
Testing an installation: Before a completed installation may be connected to the supply a number of
tests are required to indicate the general condition of the installation, both with regard to the insulation
resistance of the conductors and other current-carrying parts and with regard to the conductance of the
earthing system. The tests which are to be made are not a complete guarantee of the quality of the

49
installation for all time, and regular testing is necessary in order that it may be maintained in a proper
condition throughout its life.

Insulation resistance: This is the resistance in ohms between the live parts of the installation and earth,
measured through the insulating covering of the conductors, etc. In the case of metal-covered wiring or
conduit wiring, the term ‗earth‘ means in practice the metallic covering or conduit which itself is
connected directly to earth. Additionally, the insulation resistance is measured between lines, that is,
between the opposite poles of the installation with lamps or other apparatus disconnected and switches on.

The difference between insulation and conductor resistance is shown in the sketches. In
measuring the resistance of a conductor AB, the resistance is measured along the wire from end to end,
and increase of conductor length means increase of resistance. In measuring the insulation resistance of
the conductor, the measurement is made from the conductor outwards.

l
The formula for conductor resistance is R  , where l is the length of the conductor, a is the
a
cross-sectional area, and  is the resistivity of the conductor material. Using a similar formula for

 'l '
installation ( it is sufficiently true for the purpose of this argument), R '  , where l ' is the thickness
a'
of the insulation, a ' is proportional to the length of the wire, and  is the resistivity of the insulating
'

material.

The insulation resistance of a completed installation cannot be calculated, it can only be found by actual
measurement. There are two kinds of leakage path: direct leakage through the insulation, and surface
leakage. Both are much affected by dampness. If the insulating material is damp it will allow current to
leak away, that is, the insulation resistance will be low. This particularly applies to materials such as
cotton, paper, asbestos, and badly glazed porcelain, all of which are ‗hygroscopic‘- they absorb moisture.
Surface leakage takes place along the surface of the insulation, particularly at switches, ceiling roses,
distribution boards, etc, where dust may collect, and at the ends of cables especially if not properly
cleaned. Thus the installation tests taken of an installation in a new building in which the plaster and
mortar are not properly dried out will be lower than those of an installation in a dry situation.

The various tests of an installation which follow, are to be made before the installation is
connected to the supply.

Insulation resistance test: Regulations E 6 and E 9. The various tests of an installation which follow are
to made before the installation is connected to the supply. For the insulation resistance tests large

50
installations may be divided into groups of not less than 50 outlets. For this purpose the expression
‗outlet‘ includes every point (position for attachment of lamp, lighting fitting, or current-using appliance),
and every switch and socket-outlet. A socket-outlet, appliance or lighting fitting incorporating a switch is
regarded as one outlet.

Testing voltage: The voltage used for insulation resistance tests shall be a direct current voltage not less
than twice the normal direct current voltage, or in the case of alternating current not less than twice the
normal r.m.s. voltage; but it need not exceed 500 V for medium-voltage circuits. Thus a 500 V insulation
resistance tester is sufficient for general purposes.

Testing the installation to earth: The test shall be made with all fuse links in place, all switches
including the main switch closed and, except where earth-concentric wiring is concerned, all poles or
phases electrically connected together.

If required, all lamps and appliances may be removed during the test, in which case each piece of
apparatus should be separately tested. The measured insulation to earth shall be not less than 1 MΩ. the
insulation resistance of each piece of apparatus measured separately shall be not less than 0.5 MΩ to earth
(between live parts and frame), and 0.5 MΩ between poles or phases.

The sketch (Fig. 95) shows the connections for testing the insulation resistance to earth of a
completed 2-wire installation with lamps and other apparatus disconnected. The wires of both poles of the
supply to the main switch are twisted together and connected to the ‗line‘ terminal of the ohmmeter. The
‗earth‘ terminal of the ohmmeter is connected to the consumer‘s earthing terminal. The three terminals of
2-way switches should temporarily be connected together. Heating appliances should be tested to earth
separately; (see sketch, Fig. 96, which shows a test on an electric kettle).

Testing between conductors: This test is made between all the conductors connected to any one pole or
phase of the supply, and all conductors connected to any other pole or phase of the supply. The insulation
resistance is to be not less than 1 MΩ.

All lamps should be removed, all current-using apparatus disconnected and all local switches
controlling lamps or apparatus closed. When the removal of lamps and apparatus is not practicable, all
local switches should be open. The test does not apply to earthed concentric wiring systems. Figure 97
gives the connections for the test of a 2-wire installation. Only one test is required in this case.

For 3 and 4-wire installations more than one between phases test is necessary. A 3-wire direct
current installation will require three tests:

1. Between positive line and neutral,

51
 2. Between negative line and neutral
3. Between positive and negative lines.

A 3-wire 3-phase installation will also require three tests:

1. Between lines R and Y,

2. Between lines R and B,
3. Between lines Y and B.

A 3-phase 4-wire installation will require six tests:

1. Three separate tests between pairs of lines, R-Y, R-B, and Y-B,
2. Three separate tests, R-neutral, B-neutral and Y-neutral.

Figures 98 (a) to (d) show the test connections in a simplified form.

Verification of polarity of single-pole switches, etc. Regulation E 2 requires that it shall be ensured that
all fuses and single-pole control devices are connected in the live conductor only; that the outer contacts
of centre-contact bayonet and Edison-type screw lampholders are connected to the neutral or earthed
conductor; and that plugs and socket-outlets have been correctly wired.

On p.12 it was noted that by I.E.E. Regulation all single-pole non-linked switches were to be
fitted in the outer or phase conductor. If the proper coloured cable is used throughout the installation, i.e,
in a 2-wire installation, red for switch feeds and switch wires and black for light feeds, no confusion
should arise.

Testing for polarity with circuit alive: The simplest way to test is with the circuit alive, switched on at
the main switch. All single-pole switches should be ‗ON‘, their covers removed, all lamps should be out,
and other apparatus should be disconnected. If the single-pole switches are in the correct conductor, the
phase or outer conductor, they will be alive. A portable lamp with a pair of long insulated leads is used.
The leads should terminate in insulated test prods in the interests of safety. The end of one prod is
connected to the known earthed conductor at the main switch, and the other prod is touched to the single-
pole switch terminals. The test lamp should light, should the switch be in the wrong or earthed conductor,
the test lamp will not light as the switch will be at earth potential. This procedure is repeated at all the
switches in turn. In the case of 2-way switches, the three terminals of the switches should be temporarily
connected together for the test. In a large installation the work can be sectionalized by checking the
polarity of the busbars at the distribution boards and working from these positions instead of running the

52
test lead back to the main switch. The test should be extended to verify that the three-pin socket outlets
are properly connected, that is, with the terminal marked ‗L‘ connected to the outer or phase conductor.

In testing screw-type lampholders to ensure that the outer contact is earthed, one prod should be
touched to the live side of the main switch and other prod to the outer contact of the lampholder, when the
test lamp should light. It must be remembered that the test is being made on a live circuit, and care must
be taken, otherwise unpleasant or dangerous shocks may be sustained.

Testing for polarity with circuit dead: Testing instruments are available by which the polarity of the
circuit switches can be tested before the installation is connected to the supply. In its simplest form the
instrument consists of a direct-reading ohmmeter and a small dry battery contained in a small case, with
two terminals to which a pair of test leads with or without testing spikes may be connected. Figure 103
illustrates the test. The main switch and fuses are out, lamps and other apparatus are out or disconnected,
and the single-pole switches are on. One lead of the polarity tester is connected to the phase or outer
conductor at the outgoing side of the main fuses. The other lead is touched to the terminals of the single-
pole switches in turn. Provided the polarity is correct, the instrument reading will be less than 1 Ω
normally, since the instrument is measuring the resistance of the circuit wiring from the main fuse to the
switch being tested. If the single-pole switch is in the incorrect conductor the instrument reading will be a
maximum, i.e, infinity. The polarity of the 3-pin socket outlet is tested in a similar way.

Test of earth-leakage circuit breaker. In accordance with regulation E5, the effectiveness of
earth-leakage circuit-breakers is to be verified. Iterm 3 of Appendix 6 of the regulations states
that a voltage not exceeding 45 V, obtained from a double-wound transformer connected to the
mains supply, shall be applied across the neutral and earth terminal (of neutral and frame
terminal of a voltage- operated earth-leakage circuit-breaker) and the circuit-breaker shall trip
instantaneously.

Two diagrams (I.E.E. Figs. 2 and 3) illustrating the above tests are given in the Regulations and
will not be reproduced here.

Earth-fault loop testing . Regulation E 4requires that when earth-leakage protection relies on the
operation of fuses or excess-current circuit-breakers, the effectiveness of earthing shall be tested
by means of an earth-loop impedance test in accordance with appendix 6.

The diagram figure 104 shows the path of leakage current from an earth fault on a2-wire final
sub-circuit. The path of the leakage current is from the fault (F) along the earth-continuity

53
conductor to the consumer‘s earthing terminal and thence to the consumer earth electrode. From
here the fault passes through the general mass of earth to the supply authority‘s earth electrode at
the supply transformer, through the transformer winding and along the line through the
consumer‘s wiring to the fault. This path is called the line-earth loop, and it is this loop which is
to be tested. The Regulation allow the neutral-earth loop to be tested as an alternative. A line-
earth tester such as the Megger line-earth tester would be used. The operation of this instrument
is as follows.

The instrument passes a short duration current through the loop, the value of the current
depending upon the impedance of the loop as well as upon the voltage of the tester.

Test of earth-continuity conductor. Regulation E 3 requires that every earth – continuity

conductors of known resistance shall be disconnected and used as part of the test circuit. At the
remote end of the final sub – circuit this cable and the earth – continuity conductor are connected
together forming a lead and return. At the other end an alternating current supply not exceeding
40V at approximately supply frequency is applied to the ends of the conducted/ e.c.c. loop. A
current of approximately 1 – 5 times the rating of the final sub – circuit is passed through the
loop, with a maximum value of 25A.

Measurement of consumer’s earth – electrode resistance. If the earth – fault loop impedance
test gives too high a result, it may be necessary to measure the resistance of the earth electrode.

The resistance area of an earth electrode is the area of soil around the instruments exists.
In the diagram Figure 108, X is the earth electrode two resistance areas do not overlap. Z is a
second auxiliary electrode placed halfway between X and Y.

An alternating current of steady value is passed through the earth path from X to Y. this
is measured by the ammeter. On the assumption that X and Y are similar electrodes in similar
circumstances, the voltage drop from X to the circumference of its resistance area should be half
the total voltage drop. The other half of the total voltage drop would be in Y and its resistance
area. Between the resistance areas of X and Y there would be negligible resistance and thus
negligible voltage drop.

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Test of ring – circuit continuity. Regulation E 10 requires that all conductors, including the earth
– continuity conductors, shall be verified for continuity. This may be done with a continuity
tester, probably a battery type as used for polarity testing on p. 116

All apparatus must be disconnected from the ring. The ring is then disconnected at the
distribution board so that the four ends of the ring conducted are exposed. Tourching the
continuity tester across the two ends of the line conductor will give a very low reading, showing
continuity. The neutral conductor is checked in a similar way.

To check the conductors in the spurs, the ring should remain open with ends exposed. A
continuity test would be made across line and neutral from the end socket – outlet on any spur,
when the indication should be infinite resistance. This could be repeated at every spur end. If one
pair of exposed wires, line and neutral, at the exposed ends be now temporarily short – circuited,
continuity readings from each spur end should show very low resistance, thus verifying
continuity.

The earth – continuity conductors could be checked for continuity at the same time.

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