Group Theory

P P Savani University

July 31, 2025

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 Binary Operations

Binary Operations

Binary Operations

Let G be a non-empty set. Then G × G = {(a, b) : a ∈ G, b ∈ G}.

If f : G × G → G, then f is said to be binary operation on G. Thus binary
operation on G is a function that assign each ordered pairs of elements of G to
an element of G.

The symbol +, ·, 0, ∗ etc. are used to denote binary operation on a set. Thus + will
be a binary operation on G if and only if
a + b ∈ G for all a, b ∈ G and a + b is unique.
This is said to be the closure property of the binary operation.
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 Binary Operations

Algebraic Structure
A non-empty set together with one or more than one binary operations is called
algebraic structure.

Example:
(N, +), (Z, +), (R, +, ·) are all algebraic structure. Obviously addition and multiplication
are both binary operation on the set R of real numbers. Therefore, (R, +, ·) is an
algebraic structure equipped with two operation.

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 Properties of Group

Law of Binary Operation

Associative Law
A binary operation ∗ on a set S is said to be associative or to satisfy associate
property, if and only if, for any elements a, b, c ∈ S

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c

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 Properties of Group

Law of Binary Operation

Commutative Law
A binary operation ∗ on the elements of the set is commutative or to satisfy
commutative property, if and only if, for any two elements a and b ∈ S,

a∗b=b∗a

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 Properties of Group

Example: The algebraic structure (Z, −) where − denotes the binary operation of
subtraction on Z is neither associative nor commutative since

3 − (4 − 5) = 4 6= −6 = (3 − 4) − 5
and also 3 − 4 6= 4 − 3

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 Properties of Group

Identity Element
An element e in a set S is called an identity element with respect to the binary
operation ∗ if, for any element a in S

a∗e=e∗a=a

If a ∗ e = a, then e is called the right identity element for the operation ∗

and if e ∗ a = a, then e is called the left identity element for the operation ∗.

Example: Consider any element x of the set Q of rational numbers with respect to
the binary operation addition. Obviously, 0 is the identity element,
since 0 + x = x + 0 = x, for every x ∈ Q. and similarly 1 is the identity element of
Q for the binary operation multiplication, since 1.x = x.1 = x, for every x ∈ Q.
(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 7 / 66
 Properties of Group

I It is easily seen that for the set N of natural numbers there is no identity element
for addition; but 1 is an identity element with respect to multiplication.
I The identity element (if it exists) of any algebraic structure is unique.

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 Properties of Group

Inverse Element
Consider a set S having the identity element e with respect to the binary
operation ∗. If corresponding to each element a ∈ S there exists an element
b ∈ S such that
a∗b=b∗a=e
Then b is said to be the inverse of a and is usually denoted by a−1 . We say a
is invertible.

Consider the set R of real numbers which has 0 as the identity element with respect
to the binary operation addition. Then, for any a ∈ R, we see that
(−a) + a = a + (−a) = 0
Thus, for any a of real number set, (−a) is its inverse. This is called the additive
inverse.
(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 9 / 66
 Properties of Group

Example: Show that the binary operation ∗ defined on (R, ∗) where x∗y = max(x, y)
is associative.
Solution:

(x ∗ y) ∗ z = max(x, y) ∗ z
= max(max(x, y), z)
= max(x, y, z)
Again x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ max(y, z)
= max(x, max(y, z))
= max(x, y, z)
Hence (x ∗ y) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z)

Thus, ∗ is associative. J
(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 10 / 66
 Properties of Group

Example: Show that the binary operation ∗ defined on (R, ∗) where x ∗ y = xy is

not associative.
Solution:

(x ∗ y) ∗ z = xy ∗ z
= (xy )z
= xyz
Again x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ y z
z
= xy

z
Since xyz 6= xy , (x ∗ y) ∗ z 6= x ∗ (y ∗ z)
Thus, ∗ is not associative. J
(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 11 / 66
 Properties of Group

Example: Let Z be the set of integers, Show that the operation ∗ on Z, defined by
a ∗ b = a + b + 1 for all a, b ∈ Z satisfies the closure property, associative law and the
commutative law. Find the identity element. What is the inverse of an integer a?

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 Properties of Group

Definition of Group

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 Group

Group

Let (G, ∗) be an algebraic structure, where ∗ is a binary operation, then

(G, ∗) is called a group under this operation if the following conditions are
satisfied.Closure law, Associative law, Identity element and Inverse
element.

1 Closure law: The binary ∗ is a closed operation i.e.,a ∗ b ∈ G for all a, b ∈ G.

2 Associative law: The binary operation ∗ is an associative operation
i.e.,a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c for all a, b, c ∈ G.
3 Identity element: There exists an identity element i.e., for some
e ∈ G, e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a, a ∈ G.
4 Inverse element: For each a in G, there exits an element a0 (the inverse of a)
in(P G such that a ∗ a0 = a0 ∗ a = e.Group Theory
P Savani University) July 31, 2025 14 / 66
 Abelian group

Abelian Group
A group G is said to be Abelian if the commutative law holds i.e., a ∗ b = b ∗ a
for all a, b ∈ G

I A group with addition binary operation is known as additive group.

I A group with multiplication binary operation is known as multiplicative group.

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 Abelian group

Example
I The set R of real numbers, for the binary operation of addition, is a group, with
0 as identity element and (−a) as inverse of a. The same is true of the set Z of
integers or the set Q of all rational numbers or the set C of complex numbers.
I The set R∗ of non-zero real numbers, for the binary operation of multiplication,
is a group, with 1 as identity element and (1/a) as inverse of a. The same is
true of the set Q∗ of non-zero rational numbers or the set C∗ of non-zero
complex numbers.
I The set Z+ of positive integers with operation + is not a group. There is no
identity element for + in Z+ . The set Z+ with operation multiplication is not a
group. There is an identity element 1, but no inverse of 3.
(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 16 / 66
 Abelian group

Example: Show that the set of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group
under the composition defined by a ∗ b = (ab)/2.
Solution: Let Q+ denote the set of all positive rational numbers. We have to show that
(Q+ , ∗) is a group under the composition a ∗ b = (ab)/2.
Closure Property: Since for every element a, b ∈ Q+ , (ab)/2 is also in Q+ , therefore Q+
is closed with respect to operation ∗.
Associative Law: For a, b, c ∈ Q+ , we have
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = (ab/2) ∗ c ⇒ (ab/2)c/2 = a/2(bc/2) = a ∗ (bc/2) = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
Identity Element: Let e be the identity element in Q+ , such that e ∗ a = a = a ∗ e.
Now e ∗ a = a ⇒ (ea)/2 = a ⇒ (a/2)(e − 2) = 0
⇒ e = 2, Since a ∈ Q+ ⇒ a > 0
But 2 ∈ Q+ and we have 2 ∗ a = (2a)/2 = a = a ∗ 2 for all a ∈ Q+

(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 17 / 66

 Abelian group

Inverse: Let a be any element of Q+ . If the number b is to be the inverse of a, then

we must have
b ∗ a = e = 2 ⇒ (ba)/2 = 2 ⇒ b = (4/a) ∈ Q+
We have (4/a) ∗ a = 4a/2a = 2 = a ∗ (4/a)
Therefore, 4/a is the inverse of a. Thus each element of Q+ is invertible.
Hence, (Q+ , ∗) is a group.
Commutative Law: For a, b ∈ Q+ , we have
a ∗ b = (ab/2) = (ba/2) = b ∗ a
+
Hence, (Q , ∗) is an abelian group. J

(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 18 / 66

 Abelian group

Composite Table
For finite set, a binary operation on the set can be defined by mean of a table,
called the composite table.

For example, let S = {a, b, c}. Define ∗ on S by the following table.

* a b c
a c b a
b a a a
c b b b

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 Abelian group

From the composite table, one can conclude

i Closure Property: If all the entries in the table are elements of S, then S is
closed for ∗.
ii Commutative law: If every row of the table coincides with the corresponding
column, then ∗ is commutative on S.
iii Identity element: If the row headed by an element a1 of S coincides with the
top row, then a1 is the identity element.
iv Inverse: If the identity element e is placed in the table at the intersection of
the row headed by a and the column headed by b then a−1 = b and b−1 = a.

(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 20 / 66

 Abelian group

Example: Let the binary operation ∗ be defined on S = {a, b, c, d, e} by means of

composite table

∗ a b c d e
a a b c b d
b b c a e c
c c a b b a
d b e b e d
e d b a d e

(a) Compute c ∗ d, b ∗ b, (a ∗ b) ∗ c and [(a ∗ c) ∗ e] ∗ a from the table.

(b) Is ∗ commutative? Why?

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 Abelian group

Example: Prove that the fourth roots of unity 1, −1, i, −i form an abelian
multiplicative group.
Solution: Let G = {1, −1, i, −i}. We form the composite table as

× 1 −1 i −i
1 1 −1 i −i
−1 −1 1 −i i
i i −i −1 1
−i −i i 1 −1

Closure Property: Since all the entries in the table are the elements of G and
hence G is closed with respect to multiplication.
Associative Law: a(bc) = (ab)c for all values of a, b, c in G.

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 Abelian group

Identity element: It can be seen from the first row and first column of table. 1 ∈ G
is identity element as 1.a = a.1 = a.
Inverse: Inverse of 1, −1, i, −i are 1, −1, −i, i respectively and all those belong to G.
Hence, G is a multiplicative group.
Commutative Law: ab = ba for all a, b in G.
From the composition table it is clear that elements in each row are the same as
elements in the corresponding column so that ab = ba.
Hence, it follows that G is an abelian multiplicative group. J

(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 23 / 66

 Abelian group

Example: Show that the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is not a group under addition modulo 6.
Solution: Let G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The operation addition modulo 6 is denoted by
+6 . We can operate +6 on the elements in G and prepare the composition table as

+6 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 0
2 3 4 5 0 1
3 4 5 0 1 2
4 5 0 1 2 3
5 0 1 2 3 4

Since all the entries in the composition table do not belong to G, in particular 0 ∈
/ G.
Hence, G is not closed w.r.t. +6 . Consequently (G, +6 ) is not a group. J

(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 24 / 66

 Groupoid, Semigroup & Monoid

Groupoid

Let (S, ∗) be an algebraic structure in which S is a non-empty set and ∗ is a

binary operation on S. Thus S is closed with the operation ∗. Such a structure
consisting of a non-empty set S and a binary operation defined in S is called
a groupoid.

Semigroup

An algebraic structure (S, ∗) is called a semigroup if the following conditions

are satisfied:
1 The binary operation ∗ is a closed operation. (Closure law)
2 The binary operation ∗ is an associative operation. (Associative law)
(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 25 / 66
 Groupoid, Semigroup & Monoid

Monoid
An algebraic structure (S, ∗) is called a Monoid if the following conditions are
satisfied:
1 The binary operation ∗ is a closed operation. (Closure law)
2 The binary operation ∗ is an associative operation. (Associative law)
3 There exists an identity element.
Thus a monoid is a semigroup (S, ∗) that has an identity element.

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 Groupoid, Semigroup & Monoid

Example: Show that N , the set of positive integers, and ∗ is the operation of least
common multiple (l.c.m) on N, (N, ∗) is a semigroup, it is also commutative.
Solution: For a, b ∈ N , defined a ∗ b = l.c.m(a, b). Clearly a ∗ b ∈ N and for
a, b, c ∈ N.
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = [l.c.m(a, b)] ∗ c
= l.c.m[l.c.m(a, b), c]
= l.c.m[a, b, c]
= l.c.m[a, l.c.m(b, c)]
= a ∗ (b ∗ c)
So ∗ is associative, Hence (N, ∗) is a semigroup.
Clearly, a ∗ b = l.c.m(a, b) = l.c.m(b, a) = b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ N. Hence ∗ is
commutative. J
(P P Savani University) Group Theory July 31, 2025 27 / 66
 Subgroup

Subgroup

Let (G, ∗) be a group and H is a subset of G. (H, ∗) is said to be subgroup of

G if (H, ∗) is also group by itself.

Now every set is a subset of itself. Therefore, if G is a group, then G itself is subgroup
of G. Also if e is the identity element if G. Then the subset of G containing only
identity element is also a subgroup of G. There two subgroup (G, ∗) and ({e}, ∗) of
the group (G, ∗) are called improper or trivial subgroup, others are called proper
or non-trivial subgroup.

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 Subgroup

Example:
i The multiplicative group {1, −1} is a subgroup of the multiplicative group
{1, −1, i, −i}
ii The additive group of even integers is a subgroup of the additive group of all
integers.
iii The set Q+ of all non-zero positive rational numbers is a subgroup of the
multiplicative group Q∗ of all non-zero rational numbers.

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 Cosets

Cosets
Let H be a subgroup of group G and let a ∈ G. Then the set {a ∗ h : h ∈ H}
is called the left coset generated by a and H and is denoted by aH.
Similarly the set Ha = {h ∗ a : h ∈ H} is called the right coset and is denoted
by Ha.

I The element a is called a representative of aH and Ha.

I It is evident that both aH and Ha are subsets of G.
I If e be the identity element of G, then e ∈ H and He = H = eH. Therefore, H
itself is a right as well as a left coset.
I If G be the abelian group then aH = Ha.
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 Cosets

Index of s subgroup in group

If H is a subgroup of a group G, the number of distinct right(left) cosets of H

in G is called the index of H in G and is denoted by [G : H] or by iG (H).

Example: Let G = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } be the additive group of integers.

Let H be the subgroup of G obtained on multiplying each element of G by 3.
Then H = {· · · , −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, · · · }.
Since the group G is abelian group then any right coset will be equal to the corresponding
left coset. Let us form the right coset of H in G.
We have 0 ∈ G and H = H + 0 = {· · · , −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, · · · }
Again 1 ∈ G and H + 1 = {· · · , −8, −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, 10, · · · }.
Then 2 ∈ G and H + 2 = {· · · , −7, −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, 11, · · · }.
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 Cosets

Cont..

We see that the right coset H, H + 1 and H + 2 are all distinct and moreover these
are disjoint i.e, have no element common.
Now 3 ∈ G and H + 3 = {· · · , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, · · · }.
We see that H + 3 = H. Also we observe that 3 ∈ H.
Again 4 ∈ G and H + 4 = {· · · , −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, · · · } = H + 1
Thus there exists three disjoint right cosets namely H, H + 1, H + 2.
The Union of all right coset of H in G will be equal to G. i.e.
G = H ∪ (H + 1) ∪ (H + 2)
Hence, The index of H in G is 3. J

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 Normal subgroup

Normal Subgroup
A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if Ha = aH
for all a ∈ G.

Clearly every subgroup of an Abelian Group is a normal subgroup.

To verify that a subgroup is normal one can use below theorem
A subgroup H of a group G is normal if and only of g −1 hg ∈ H for every h ∈ H, g ∈ G.

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 Lagrange’s theorem

Order of a group
The number of elements in group is called the order of the group.

The order of a group G is denoted by o(G). A Group of finite order is called a finite
group.

Lagrange’s Theorem
The order of each subgroup of a finite group G is a divisor of the order of the
group G.

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 Lagrange’s theorem

Example: If G be an abelian group with identity e, then prove that all elements x
of G satisfying the equation x2 = e form a subgroup H of G.
Solution: Let H = {x : x2 = e} Now x2 = e ⇒ x = x−1
Therefore, if x ∈ H, then x−1 also belongs to H.
Furthermore e2 = e. Hence the identity element of G also belongs to H.
Let x, y ∈ H.
Then, since G is abelian, we have
xy = yx
= y −1 x−1 , as x−1 = x and y −1 = y
= (xy)−1 .
Therefore, (xy)2 = e
So xy ∈ H and H is a subgroup of G. J
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 Cyclic group

Cyclic Group
A group G is called a cyclic group if, for some a ∈ G, every element of G is of
the form an , where n is some integer i.e, G = {an : n ∈ Z}. The element a is
then called a generator of G.

If G is a cyclic group generated by a, it is denoted by G =< a >. The element of G

are in the form · · · , a−2 , a−1 , a0 , 0, a1 , a2 , a3 , · · ·
There may be more than one generator of a cyclic group. Every cyclic group has at
least two generators, generator and inverse of it.

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 Cyclic group

Example: The set of integers with respect to +, i.e (Z, +) is a cyclic group, show
that it have a generator being 1.
Solution: We have 11 = 1, 12 = 1 + 1, 13 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 and so on.
Similarly 1−1 = Inverse of 1 = −1 and
1−2 = (12 )−1 = −2
1−3 = (13 )−1 = −3 and so on.
Thus each element of G can be expressed as some integral power of 1.
Similarly we can show that −1 is also a generator. J

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 Cyclic group

Example: The multiplicative group {1, w, w2 } is a cyclic group.

Solution: We have w0 = 1, w1 = w, w2 = w2 , w3 = 1
and (w2 )0 = 1, (w2 )1 = w2 , (w2 )2 = w4 = w
Thus each element of the group can be expressed as some integral powers of w and
w2 . Hence the group is a cyclic group with generators w and w2 . J

Example: The group (G, +6 ) is a cyclic group where G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Solution: We see that 11 = 1, 12 = 2, 13 = 3, 14 = 4, 15 = 5, 16 = 0
Thus G = {11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 = 0}
Hence G is a cyclic group and 1 is generator.
Similarly, it can be shown that 5 is another generator. J

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 Cyclic group

Some important properties of Cyclic Group

I Every cyclic group is an abelian group.

I If a is a generator of a cyclic group G, then a−1 is also a generator of G.
I If a cyclic group G is generated by an element a of order n, then am is a
generator of G if and only if the greatest common divisor of m and n is 1 i.e., if
and only if m and n are relatively primes.

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 Cyclic group

Example: How many generators are there of the cyclic group G of order 8?
Solution: Let a be generator of G. Then o(a) = 8.
We can write G = {a, a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a7 , a8 }
7 is prime to 8 therefore, a7 is also generator of G.
5 is prime to 8 therefore, a5 is also generator of G.
3 is prime to 8 therefore, a3 is also generator of G.
Thus there are only four generators of G i.e., a, a3 , a5 , a7 .

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 Cyclic group

Example: Show that the group ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, ×7 ) is cyclic. How many generators
it have ?
Solution: G be a given group. If there exists an element a ∈ G such that o(a) = 6
i.e., equal to the order of the group G then the group G will be a cyclic group and a
will be a generator of G. Note that o(3) = 6 because
(31 = 3)
(32 = 3 ×7 3 = 2)
(33 = 32 ×7 3 = 6)
(34 = 33 ×7 3 = 4)
(35 = 34 ×7 3 = 5)
(36 = 35 ×7 3 = 1) i.e., the identity element.
So, G is cyclic and 3 is a generator of G. We can write G = {3, 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 }.
Now 5 is prime to 6. There 35 i.e., 5 is also generator of G.
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 Permutation group

Permutation group

Permutation
Let A be a finite set. Then a function f : A → A is said to be a permutation
of A if
1 f is one-one
2 f is onto
i.e., A bijection from A to itself is called a permutation of A.

The number of distinct element in finite set A is called the degree of permutation.

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 Permutation group

Equality of Two Permutation

Let f and g be two permutation on set X. Then f = g if and only if f (x) = g(x)
for all x in X.

Example: Let f and g be given by

! !
1 2 3 4 3 2 1 4
f= g=
2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1

Evidently f (1) = 2 = g(1), f (2) = 3 = g(2)

f (3) = 4 = g(3), f (4) = 1 = g(4)
Thus, f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}; which implies f = g.

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 Permutation group

Identity Permutation
If each element of a permutation be replaced by itself. Then it is called the
identity permutation and is denoted by the symbol I.

For example, !
a b c
I= is an identity permutation.
a b c

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 Permutation group

Product of Permutation (or Composition of Permutation)

The product of two permutations f and g of same degree is denoted by f ◦ g

or f g.

Meaning first perform f and then perform g.

! !
a1 a2 a3 · · · an b1 b2 b 3 · · · bn
f= g=
b1 b2 b3 · · · bn c1 c2 c3 · · · cn
!
a1 a2 a3 · · · an
Then f ◦ g =
c1 c2 c3 · · · cn

Clearly, f ◦ g is also a permutation on S.

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 Permutation group

Example: Find the product of two permutations and show that it is not commutative.
! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
f= and g =
2 1 4 3 3 2 1 4
Solution:
! ! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
fg = =
2 1 4 3 3 2 1 4 2 3 4 1
! ! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
gf = =
3 2 1 4 2 1 4 3 4 1 2 3

We observe that f g 6= gf .
This shows that the product of two permutations is not commutative.
But we can prove that permutations multiplication is associative.
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 Permutation group

Inverse Permutation
Since a permutation is one-one onto map and hence it is invertible, i.e., every
permutation f on a set P = {a1 , a2 , · · · , an } has a unique inverse permutation
denoted by f −1 .

Thus if !
a1 a2 a3 · · · an
f=
b1 b2 b3 · · · bn
Then !
−1 b1 b 2 b3 · · · bn
f =
a1 a2 a3 · · · an

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 Permutation group
!
1 2 3 4 5
Example: Find the inverse of the permutation
2 3 1 5 4
Solution: Let the inverse of the given permutation be
!
1 2 3 4 5
x y z u v
! ! !
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
then =
2 3 1 5 4 x y z u v 1 2 3 4 5
! !
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
i.e, = ∴ x = 3, y = 1, z = 2, u = 4, v = 5
y z x v u 1 2 3 4 5
!
1 2 3 4 5
Hence the required inverse is J
3 1 2 5 4
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 Permutation group

Total number of Permutation

Let X be a set consisting n distinct elements. Then the elements of X can be
permuted in n! distinct ways. If Sn be the set consisting of all permutations of
degree n, then the set Sn will have n! distinct permutations of degree n. This
set is called symmetric set of permutation of degree n.

{1, 2, 3}, then S3

For example, if A = ! =!{P0 , P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , !
P5 } where !
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
P0 = IA = P1 = P2 = P3 =
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 3 2
! !
1 2 3 1 2 3
P4 = P5 =
3 2 1 2 1 3

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 Permutation group

The multiplication table for the composition of permutations is S3 is given below:

◦ P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
P0 P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
P1 P1 P2 P0 P4 P5 P3
P2 P2 P0 P1 P5 P3 P4
P3 P3 P5 P4 P0 P2 P1
P4 P4 P3 P5 P1 P0 P2
P5 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1 P0

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 Permutation group

The table shows that

i The multiplication of any two permutations of S3 gives a permutation of S3 . So
is closed with respect to multiplication.
ii Associativity law holds for (P1 P3 )P4 = P4 P4 = P0 and P1 (P3 P4 ) = P1 P2 = P0
iii Identity element exists, P0 when composed with any permutation gives that
permutation.
iv Every permutation has its own inverse.
Since S3 is group. It is a non-commutative group since P1 P5 6= P5 P1

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 Permutation group

Permutation Group
Let A be a set of degree n. Let Pn be the set of all permutations of degree n on
A. Then (Pn , ∗) is a group, called a permutation group and the operation ∗
is the composition (multiplication) of permutations.

Cyclic Permutation
A permutation which replaces n objects cyclically is called a cyclic permutation
of degree n.

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 Permutation group
!
1 2 3 4
Let us consider the permutation P =
2 3 4 1
We simply write S = (1 2 3 4).
We read the new symbol in cyclic order from left to right as follows: 1 is replaced by
2. 2 is replaced by 3, 3 is replaced by 4, and 4 is replaced by 1.
Thus the meaning of the symbol is to replace each number which follows and the last
number by the first.
Note that (1 2 3 4) = (2 3 4 1) = (3 4 1 2) = (4 1 2 3). Thus a circular permutation
may be denoted by more than one rowed symbols.
The number of elements permuted by a cycle is said to be its length and the disjoint
cycles are those which have no common elements. A cycle of length one means that
the image of an element is the element itself and represents identity permutation.
Cycles of length one are generally omitted.
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 Permutation group

Every permutation of a finite set can be expressed as a cycle or as a product of

disjoint cycles e.g. !
1 2 3 4 5 6
t=
2 1 4 6 5 3
is written as t = (1 2)(3 4 6)(5)
The cycle (1 2) has length 2. The cycle (3 4 6) has length 3 and the cycle (5) has
length 1 and none of them have a symbol common and hence they are disjoint cycles.

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 Permutation group

Transpositions

A cyclic permutation such as (a b) which interchange the symbols leaving all

other unchanged is called a transposition. In other words, transposition is cycle
of length two of the form (a b) i.e., it is a mapping which maps each object
onto itself excepting two, each of which is mapped on the other.
e.g., (1 2) is transposition.

Every permutation can be resolved as a product of finite number of transpositions

but the decomposition is not unique. However, for given permutation the number of
transpositions is always even or always odd.
The process consists of two steps:
(i) Express the permutation as a product of disjoint cycles.
(ii) Express each
(P P Savani cycle as a product ofGroup
University) transpositions.
Theory July 31, 2025 55 / 66
 Permutation group

Example: If A = (1 2 3 4 5) and B = (2 3)(4 5), then find AB.

Solution: We have

AB = (1 2 3 4 5)(2 3)(4 5)
! !
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
=
2 3 4 5 1 1 3 2 5 4
!
1 2 3 4 5
= = (1 3 5)
3 2 5 4 1

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 Permutation group

!
1 2 3 4 5 6
Example: Express the permutation as a product of transpositions.
6 5 2 4 3 1
Solution:
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
= (1 6)(2 5 3)
6 5 2 4 3 1
= (1 6)(2 5)(2 3)

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 Permutation group

Even and Odd permutations

A permutation is said to be even or odd according as it can be expressed as a
product of even or odd number of transpositions.

Note:
I Identity permutation is an even permutation.
I Every transposition is an odd permutation.
I Product of two odd permutation is an even permutation.
I Product of even and odd permutation is an odd permutation.

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 Permutation group

!
1 2 3 4 5 6
Example: Show that the permutation is odd,
5 6 2 4 1 3
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
while the permutation is even.
6 3 4 5 2 1
Solution: We have
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
= (1 5)(2 6 3)
5 6 2 4 1 3
= (1 5)(2 6)(2 3)

Thus, the given permutation can be expressed as product of an odd number of

transpositions and hence the permutation is odd permutation.
Same way the other one is even permutation. J
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 Homomorphism & Isomorphism of groups

Homomorphism of groups

Structure preserving maps between groups are called morphisms. So, to relate two
groups requires notions about such maps, which is defined below.
Let (G, ∗) and (G1 , ∗1 ) be two groups and f is a function from G into G1 , then f is
called a homomorphism of G into G1 if for all a, b ∈ G

f (a ∗ b) = f (a) ∗1 f (b)

A homomorphism is called epimorhism if f is onto G1 and f is called a

monomorphism if f is one-one. If there is an epimorphism f from G onto G1 , then
G1 is called a homomorphic image.

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 Homomorphism & Isomorphism of groups

Example: Let G = Z is additive group and G0 = {1, −1} the multiplicative group.
the mapping f : G → G0 defined by f (n) = 1 if n is even number and f (n) = −1 if n
is odd number is group homomorphism, as f (m + n) = f (m).f (n) for all m, n ∈ Z.

Example: Let G = R be the group of real numbers under addition and G0 = R+ ,

the group of positive real numbers for multiplication. The mapping f : G → G0 given
by f (a) = 2a is a group homomorphism, because f (a + b) = 2a+b = 2a 2b = f (a).f (b).

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 Homomorphism & Isomorphism of groups

Isomorphism of group

A homomorphism f of group G into a group G1 is called a isomorphism of G onto

G1 if f is one-one onto G1 . Hence G and G1 are said to be isomorphic and denoted
by G ∼= G1 . An isomorphism of a group G onto G is called automorphism.

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 Homomorphism & Isomorphism of groups

Example: If R be the group of real numbers under addition and let R+ be the
group of positive real numbers under multiplication. Let f : R → R+ be defined by
f (x) = ex then show that f is an isomorphism.
Solution: If f (a) = f (b), so that ea = eb , then a = b. Thus f is one to one.
If c ∈ R+ , then ln c ∈ R and f (ln c) = eln c = c.
Thus each element of R+ is the image of some element of R and hence f is onto.
Again f (a + b) = ea+b = ea eb = f (a)f (b).
Hence f is an isomorphism. J

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 Homomorphism & Isomorphism of groups

Example: If R+ be the multiplicative group of all positive real numbers. Define

f : R+ → R+ by f (x) = x2 for all x ∈ R+ . Show that f is automorphism of R+ .
Solution: Now for any x, y ∈ R+ , f (xy) = (xy)2 = x2 y 2 = f (x)f (y).
Further f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x2 = y 2 ⇒ x = y, since x > 0, y > 0.
Hence f is a one-one mapping.
√ √ √
Given x ∈ R+ , x ∈ R+ such that f ( x) = ( x)2 = x.
This proves that f is also onto.
Consequently f is an automorphism. J

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 Homomorphism & Isomorphism of groups

Homomorphism of Semi-groups

Let (S, ∗) and (T, ◦) be any two semigroups, A mapping f : S → T such that for any
two element a, b ∈ S f (a ∗ b) = f (a) ◦ f (b) is called a semigroup homomorphism.
A homomorphism of a semigroup into itself is called a semigroup endomorphism.
A homomorphism f : S → T is called a semigroup isomorphism if f is a one-to-one
onto.
An isomorphism of a semigroup onto itself is called a semigroup automorphism.

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 Homomorphism & Isomorphism of groups

τ ~αnk Ψφu !!

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