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6.1. Intersections
Chapter 6
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Intersections are areas shared by two or more roads serving conflicting
traffic when competing for the same space at the same time when going
ahead or changing directions.
Intersections vary in complexity from a simple intersection, which has
INTERSECTIONS, only two roads crossing at a right angle to each other, to a more complex
intersection, at which three or more roads cross within the same area.
INTERCHANGES, AND The process of decision making for road users at intersections is
TERMINALS complex and this is part of the reason why intersections tend to have a
high potential for accidents and delays.
The overall traffic flow on any highway depends to a great extent on the
performance of the intersections, since intersections usually operate at a
lower capacity than through sections of the road.
6.1.1. At-Grade Intersections
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Intersections are generally classified into three general categories: Most highways intersect at-grade, and the intersection area should
At-grade intersections,
be designed to provide adequately for turning and crossing
Grade-separated without ramps, and
movements, with due consideration to sight distance, signs, and
Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as interchanges).
alignments.
At-grade intersections do not provide for the flow of traffic at different
levels, and therefore there exist conflicts between intersecting streams of The basic types of at-grade intersections are:
traffic. T,Y or three-leg intersections, which consist of three approaches;
Grade-separated intersections usually consist of structures that provide four-legor cross intersections, which consist of four approaches; and
for traffic to cross at different levels (vertical distances) without
Multi-leg intersections, which consist of five or more approaches.
interruption.
The potential for accidents at grade-separated intersections is reduced
because many potential conflicts between intersecting streams of traffic
are eliminated.
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6.1.2. Grade Separations and Interchanges
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Intersections at grade can be eliminated by the use of grade-separation
structures that permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without
interruption.
The advantage of such separation is the freedom from cross interference with
resultant saving of time and increase in safety for traffic movements.
Grade separations and interchanges may be warranted:
Figure 5 - 2 Types 1) As part of an express highway system designed to carry high volumes of traffic,
of at grade 2) To eliminate bottlenecks,
intersection 3) To prevent accidents,
4) Where the topography is such that other types of design are not feasible,
5) Where the volumes to be catered for would require the design of an intersection at
grade of unreasonable size, and
6) Where the road user benefit of reducing delays at an at-grade intersection exceeds the
cost of the improvement.
An interchange is a grade separation in which vehicles moving in
one direction of flow may transfer by the use of connecting
roadways.
These connecting roadways at interchanges are called ramps.
Many types and forms of interchanges and ramp layouts are used. Figure 5 - 3. Highway
interchanges
The choice between these intersection types depends on various
factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay, space
requirements, etc.
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6.2. Design Principles of At-Grade Intersections
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The fundamental objectives in the design of at-grade intersections are: The basic requirements of intersection design are maximize safety
to minimize delay, and minimize traffic delay.
to minimize the number and severity of potential conflicts, and
The design of an at-grade intersection involves:
to provide for the smooth flow of traffic across the intersection.
The design should therefore incorporate the operating characteristics of both the 1) The design of the alignment including profiles, minimum radius
vehicles and pedestrians using the intersection. and widths of turning roadways,
The corner radius of an intersection pavement or surfacing should not be less 2) The design of a suitable channeling system for the traffic
than either the turning radius of the design vehicle or the radius required for
pattern,
design velocity of the turning roadway under consideration.
The design also should ensure adequate pavement widths of turning roadways 3) The assurance that the sight distances are adequate for the type
and approach sight distances. of control at the intersection.
This suggests that at-grade intersections should not be located at or just beyond
sharp crest vertical curves or at sharp horizontal curves.
Alignment of At-Grade Intersections
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The best alignment for an at-grade intersection is when the
intersecting roads meet at right or nearly right angles.
This alignment is superior to acute-angle alignments because
much less road area is required for turning at the intersection,
there is a lower exposure, time for vehicles crossing the main Figure. Alternative
methods of
traffic flow, and visibility limitations, particularly for trucks, are realigning skewed
not as serious as those at acute-angle intersections. intersections
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In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the intersection, large It should always be remembered that the combination of horizontal and vertical
changes in grade should be avoided; preferably, grades should not be alignments at an intersection should produce traffic lanes that are clearly seen
by motorists at all times, without the sudden appearance of potential hazards.
greater than 3 percent.
Also, motorists should be able to easily understand the path they should take for
The stopping and accelerating distances for passenger cars on grades of any desired direction.
3 percent or less are not much different from those of cars on flat grades; The angle of turn, the turning speed, the design vehicle, and traffic volume are
however, significant differences start to occur at grades higher than 3 the main factors governing the design of curves at at-grade intersections.
percent. When the turning speed at an intersection is assumed to be 25 km/h or less, the
curves for the pavement edges are designed to conform to at least the minimum
When it is unavoidable to use grades of 3 percent or more, design turning path of the design vehicle.
factors such as stopping distances and accelerating distances should be When the turning speed is expected to be greater than 25 km/h, the design speed
adjusted so that conditions equivalent to those on level ground exist. is also considered.
In any case, it is not advisable to use grades higher than 6 percent at It is also necessary to increase the pavement width of turning roadways when
intersections. the speed is greater than 25 km/h.
Channelization of At-Grade Intersections
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AASHTO defines channelization as the separation of conflicting Islands in an intersection serve one or more of the following
traffic movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or purposes:
pavement markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of 1. Separation of conflicts
both vehicles and pedestrians. 2. Control of angle of conflict
A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes where
3. Reduction of excessive pavement areas
vehicular traffic is excluded and provided to regulate the
4. Regulation of traffic flow in the intersection area
movement of vehicles or to serve as a pedestrian refuge.
5. Arrangements to favour a predominant turning movement
A properly channelized intersection will result in increased
capacity, enhanced safety, and increased driver confidence. 6. Protection of pedestrians
Properly designed channelization systems increase intersection 7. Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
capacity and decrease conflicts and accidents. 8. Location of traffic control devices.
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Islands are generally grouped into three major classes: Divisional islands are most frequently used on undivided
1. directional or channelised, highways approaching intersections.
2. divisional, and
They serve to alert the driver to the intersection and regulate the
3. refuge.
flow of traffic into and out of the intersection.
Islands can be formed by using raised curbs, pavement markings,
or the pavement edges. Their use is particularly advantageous for controlling left-turning
Directional islands are designed primarily to guide the motorist
traffic at skewed intersections.
through the intersection by indicating the intended route. Refuge island is located at or near crosswalks to aid and protect
Where spacious area exists at an intersection and leaves much to pedestrians crossing the roadway.
the discretion of the driver, islands may be used to channel the Refuge islands are most generally used on wide streets in urban
motorist into the desired lane by placing a channelling island in areas for loading and unloading of transit riders.
the little-used portion of the intersection.
6.3. Traffic Controls
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The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to
drivers, and thus to facilitate highway safety by ensuring the
orderly and predictable movement of all traffic on highways.
Control may be achieved by using traffic signals, signs, or
markings that regulate, guide, warn, and/or channel traffic.
There are three types of conflicts which are merging, diverging,
and crossing.
There are 32 conflict points in figure below.
The number of possible conflict points at any inter-section
depends on the number of approaches, the turning movements, and
the type of traffic control at the intersection.
Figure. Types and shapes of islands
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Types of intersection control
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YIELD Signs: - Yield signs are usually placed on minor-road
approaches; where it is necessary to yield the right of way to the major-
road traffic.
All drivers on approaches with yield signs are required to slow down
Figure. Conflict points at and yield the right of way to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection.
four-approach
Stopping at yield signs is not mandatory, but drivers are required to stop
unsignalised intersection
when necessary to avoid interfering with a traffic stream that has the
right of way.
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STOP Signs: - A stop sign is used where an approaching vehicle is required to Traffic Signals: - One of the most effective ways of controlling
stop before entering the intersection. traffic at an intersection is the use of traffic signals.
A stop sign may be used on a minor road when it intersects a major road, at an
unsignalised intersection, and where a combination of high speed, restricted Traffic signals can be used to eliminate many conflicts because
view and serious accidents indicates the necessity for such a control. different traffic streams can be assigned the use of the intersection
Stop signs should not be used at signalised intersections or on through roadways at different times.
of expressways.
Since this results in a delay to vehicles in all streams, it is
Roundabouts: - A roundabout is a means of traffic control where one-way
traffic is circulating around a central island. important that traffic signals be used only when necessary.
Priority within the roundabout is controlled by GIVE WAY (YIELD) signs for The most important factor that determines the need for traffic
entering traffic, although occasionally traffic signals may be used. signals at a particular intersection is the intersection's approach
It considerably reduces the number and severity of conflicts, makes the traffic
flow self regulatory and continuous, reduces congestion, and promotes safety.
traffic volume, although other factors such as pedestrian volume
and accident experience may also play a significant role.
