Further Pure Mathematics 1 – Revision Notes
1. Roots of Polynomial Equations
Relations between roots and coefficients for polynomials allow us to express sums and products of
roots without solving the equation. For a quadratic ax²+bx+c=0 with roots α,β:
α + β = -b/a, αβ = c/a
For cubic ax³+bx²+cx+d=0 with roots α,β,γ:
α + β + γ = -b/a, αβ + βγ + γα = c/a, αβγ = -d/a
Symmetric functions of the roots can be evaluated using these identities. Substitutions (e.g., for
reciprocals 1/α, 1/β, etc.) are often used to derive new equations.
Example: Solve for the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of x² - 3x + 2 = 0.
2. Rational Functions and Graphs
For rational functions where numerator and denominator degrees ≤ 2, key steps include finding
vertical/horizontal/oblique asymptotes, intercepts, and ranges (often using discriminants).
Transformations such as y=f(x), y²=f(x), y=f(hx), and y=f(x+h) shift or reshape graphs and are used to
solve inequalities and equations visually.
Example: Sketch y=(x²-4)/(x-1), indicating asymptotes and turning points.
3. Summation of Series
Standard sums for natural numbers (n terms):
∑r = n(n+1)/2, ∑r² = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6, ∑r³ = [n(n+1)/2]²
The method of differences simplifies telescoping series. Convergence is determined by examining the
nth term and sum to infinity (if |r|<1 for a geometric series).
Example: Find the sum of ∑ (1/(k(k+1))) for k=1 to n.
4. Matrices
Matrices (up to 3×3) can be added, subtracted, and multiplied. Determinants and inverses for 2×2 and
3×3 are essential for solving systems and transformations. Geometric transformations (rotations,
reflections, stretches) can be expressed with matrices.
The determinant represents the area (scale factor) for 2D transformations. Invariant points and lines
satisfy T(x)=x for transformation T.
Example: Find the inverse of [[2,1],[5,3]] and identify any invariant lines.
5. Polar Coordinates
The conversion between Cartesian and polar coordinates uses x=rcosθ, y=rsinθ. Curves can be
represented in either system. Sector area formula:
Area = (1/2) ∫ r² dθ
Example: Sketch r=2cosθ for 0≤θ≤π.
6. Vectors
Planes can be expressed as ax+by+cz=d, r·n=p, or r=a+λb+µc. The cross product a×b gives a vector
perpendicular to both a and b. Applications include finding distances, angles, and lines of intersection.
Example: Find the line of intersection between planes x+y+z=6 and 2x-y+z=3.
7. Proof by Induction
Induction involves proving the base case, assuming true for n=k, and showing it holds for n=k+1. Used
for summations, divisibility, and sequences.
Example: Prove by induction that ∑r = n(n+1)/2.
