LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

GE MATH
MODULE 1
Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR

MARIA FE C. GUERRA
JULIUS G. CAADAN
FLORIA C. DIALDE
RICKY T. OSORIO
RHEA MAE C. BABAS
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY
GINA C. BOTOY
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD

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1. Title: Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World

2. Topic: Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World

3. Time Frame: 6 hrs.

4. Introduction

Why Study Mathematics? Mathematics has become one of the most

powerful tools in understanding the world around us. How nature including the flora
and fauna behave and react can be explained in simple terms if not up to its
complexities.

Quite often, people confine mathematics to numbers and arithmetic. Such

partial and superficial understanding of the nature of this body of knowledge has
restrained a liberal culture of learning in our educational system. This learning
module on patterns in nature can exhibit the potential of learners more about
reasoning, making logical inferences and generalizations, and seeing relationships
in both the visible and invisible patterns in the natural world.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

 Discuss the importance of mathematics in one‘s life;
 Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;
 Explain the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed,
represented and used; and
 Solve basic problem solving in Fibonacci sequence and other number
patterns, including population growth; and
 Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.

6. Learning Activities

Activity 1: Think and Share

Mathematics is all around us. As we discover more and more about our
environment and our surroundings we see that nature can be described
mathematically. The beauty of a flower, the majesty of a tree and mountain, even
the rocks upon which we walk can exhibit nature‘s sense of symmetry and
patterns.

Below are pictures of some common entities in nature. Describe orally the
following pictures below according to how you perceived it.

A. B.

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C. D.

Have you ever stopped to look around and notice all the amazing shapes
and patterns we see in the world around us? Mathematics forms the building
blocks of the natural world and can be seen in stunning ways. Here are some other
examples of math in nature, but there are many other examples as well.

Activity 2: Video Watching

To mathematically explain patterns in the world, watch a video which contains

discussions on the following math concepts:

1. Fibonacci Sequence: https://youtu.be/SjSHVDfXHQ4

2. Golden Ratio: https://youtu.be/9mozmHgg9Sk
3. Tesselations: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7GiKeeWSf4s

Guide Questions:

1. What math concept is fully discussed on each video?

2. What is about these concepts? Cite few more real-world cases or examples
that would show the concepts.
3. What are your insights about these mathematical truths or certainties?
4. What did Galileo mean when he said, “Mathematics is the alphabet by
which God has written the universe”? Do you agree on this adage? Why?

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Points to Ponder: Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World

Ian Stewart, a British mathematician, once quoted that ―Mathematics is the

science of patterns, and nature exploits just about every pattern there is.‖
Philosophers and mathematicians have, for long, dedicated themselves to the
cause of explaining nature, beginning from the very early ventures of ancient
Greeks. After all, mathematics is, in its very essence, a search for patterns of all
kinds – and what better place to find such irregularities than nature itself? A closer
look into nature leads to some very interesting implications about the underlying
beauty of our universe.

Consider the example of a crystal. A ‗perfect‘ crystal is one that is fully

symmetrical, without any structural defects. Of course, perfect crystals do not really
exist; the physical world is rarely perfect. Mathematics is an abstract language,
and the laws of physics serve to apply these abstractions to the real world.
Assuming the object as perfect helps our cause. So, it is just that identifying a
crystal as a symmetrical, uniform structure helps us in making approximations
about its aspects. Similarly, meanders or bends in rivers find explanation in the
branch of fluid dynamics pertaining to physics. On a more cosmic scale, the
characteristic spiral of galaxies that we are all too familiar with is a result of the
laws of gravitation and can be modeled as such. Finding such patterns and
abstractions facilitates our understanding of the world around us.

Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in

the natural world. These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes
be modelled mathematically. Natural patterns include symmetries, trees, spirals,
meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes.

The following are the basic ideas about patterns in nature and the world:

1.1. Fibonacci Sequence

Named for the famous mathematician, Leonardo Fibonacci, this number

sequence is simple, yet profound pattern.

Often called ‗Nature‘s Universal Rule‘, the Fibonacci sequence is perhaps one
of the most famous mathematical sequences. The origin of this sequence is
much contested, although it is commonly attributed to the Italian
mathematician, Leonardo Fibonacci. In his famous work ‗Liber Abaci‘, he
introduced a hypothetical problem involving rabbits and employed the
sequence to find the number of rabbits after a certain period of time.

In this sequence, each number is the sum of the two numbers that precede it.
Take a look:
0….1….1….2….3….5….8….13….21….34

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Illustration:
This sequence begins with the numbers 1 and 1 or 0 and 1, and then each
subsequent number is found by adding the two previous numbers.

After 1 and 1, the next number is 2, that is, 1+1. The next number is 3, taken
from 1+2, and then 5, taken from 2+3 and so on.

Fibonacci sequence:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, …

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, …

Fibonacci Sequence in Nature

The Fibonacci sequence can be observed in a stunning variety of phenomena
in nature.

Nautilus shells, one of the most iconic examples of the Fibonacci sequence,
follow the proportional increase of 1.61.

The total number of petals of a flower is often a number present in the Fibonacci
sequence, as with irises and lilies. Most pineapples have either five, eight,
thirteen or twenty-one spirals; these are also Fibonacci numbers.

Something strange happens when the sequence approaches infinity. The ratio
between two consecutive numbers converges to 1.61803… : ‗phi‘, or as you
might call it, the ‗golden ratio‘.

1.2. Golden Ratio

The "golden ratio" is a unique mathematical relationship. Two numbers are in

the golden ratio if the ratio of the sum of the numbers (a + b) divided by the
larger number (a) is equal to the ratio of the larger number divided by the
smaller number (a/b).

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The golden ratio is about 1.618, and represented by the Greek letter phi, Φ.

The ratios of sequential Fibonacci numbers (2/1, 3/2, 5/3, etc.) approach the
golden ratio. In fact, the higher the Fibonacci numbers, the closer their
relationship is to 1.618.

The golden ratio is sometimes called the "divine proportion," because of its
frequency in the natural world. The number of petals on a flower, for instance,
will often be a Fibonacci number.

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The seeds of sunflowers and pine cones twist in opposing

spirals of Fibonacci numbers.

Even the sides of an unpeeled banana will usually

be a Fibonacci number—and the number of ridges
on a peeled banana will usually be a larger
Fibonacci number.

1.3. Tesselations

Tessellation (Tiling) is a shape that repeats to form a pattern.

Tessellation Definition
A tessellation is created when a shape is repeated
over and over again covering a plane without any
gaps or overlaps.

Another word for a tessellation is a tiling.

Tiling Definition
When you fit individual tiles together with no gaps
or overlaps to fill a flat space like a ceiling, wall, or
floor, you have a tiling.

What are Tessellations?

The word 'tessera' in latin means a small stone cube. They were used to make
up 'tessellata' - the mosaic pictures forming floors and ―tilings‖ in Roman
buildings. The term has become more specialized and is often used to refer to
pictures or tiles, mostly in the form of animals and other life forms, which cover
the surface of a plane in a symmetrical way without overlapping or leaving
gaps.

Examples:

Rectangles Octagons and Squares Different Pentagons

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Tessellations in Nature

Tessellations form a class of patterns found in nature. The arrays of

hexagonal cells in a honeycomb or the diamond-shaped scales that pattern
snake skin are natural examples of tessellation patterns. Distinct shapes are
formed from several geometric units (tiles) that all fit together with no gaps or
overlaps to form an interesting and united pattern. Tessellating patterns are
abstract and non-representational which makes their interpretation open to the
imagination of all people.

Honeycomb Snake skin Flower

Leaves Drought Sunflower

1.4. Fractals
A fractal is a never-ending pattern. Fractals are infinitely complex patterns
that are self-similar across different scales. They are created by repeating a
simple process over and over in an ongoing feedback loop. Driven by recursion,
fractals are images of dynamic systems – the pictures of Chaos. Geometrically,
they exist in between our familiar dimensions. Fractal patterns are extremely
familiar, since nature is full of fractals.

For instance: trees, rivers, coastlines, mountains, clouds, seashells,

hurricanes, etc. Abstract fractals – such as the Mandelbrot Set – can be
generated by a computer calculating a simple equation over and over.

Examples:

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1.5. Other Patterns in Nature

Hexagons in Nature

Another of nature‘s geometric wonders is the hexagon. A regular

hexagon has 6 sides of equal length, and this shape is seen again and again
in the world around us.

The most common example of nature using hexagons is in a bee hive.

Bees build their hive using a tessellation of hexagons. But did you know that
every snowflake is also in the shape of a hexagon?

Honeycomb Bubbles

We also see hexagons in the bubbles that make up a raft bubble.

Although we usually think of bubbles as round, when many bubbles get
pushed together on the surface of water, they take the shape of hexagons.

Concentric Circles in Nature

Another common shape in nature is a set of concentric circles. Concentric

means the circles all share the same center, but have different radii. This
means the circles are all different sizes, one inside the other.

A common example is in the ripples of a pond when something hits the

surface of the water. But we also see concentric circles in the layers of an onion
and the rings of trees that form as it grows and ages.

If you live near woods, you might go looking for a fallen tree to count the
rings, or look for an orb spider web, which is built with nearly perfect concentric
circles.

Patterns in Outer Space

Moving away from planet earth, we can also

see many of these same mathematical features
in outer space.

For instance, the shape of our galaxy is a

Fibonacci spiral. The planets orbit the sun on
paths that are concentric. We also see
concentric circles in the rings of Saturn. But we also see a unique symmetry in

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outer space that is unique (as far as scientists can tell) and that is the symmetry
between the earth, moon and sun that makes a solar eclipse possible.

Every two years, the moon passes between the sun and the earth in such
a way that it appears to completely cover the sun. But how is this possible when
the moon is so much smaller than the sun?

1.6. Number Patterns

Number pattern is a pattern or sequence in a series of numbers. This pattern
generally establishes a common relationship between all numbers.

For example:
0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ...

A sequence is a pattern of numbers that are formed in accordance with a

definite rule.

We can often describe number patterns in more than one way. To illustrate
this, consider the following sequence of numbers {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …}.

Clearly, the first term of this number pattern is 1; and the terms after the first
term are obtained by adding 2 to the previous term. We can also describe this
number pattern as a set of odd numbers.

Activity 3: Patterns of Numbers

Determine the next 3 terms in the following sequences.
1. 13, 21, 34, 55, , ,…
2. 55, 89, 144, 233, , __, …
3. 2, 3, 5, 8, , ,…
4. 21, 34, 55, 89, , ,…
5. 89, 144, 233, 377, , ,…
6. 34, 55, 89, 144, , ,…
7. 8, 13, 21, 34, , ,…
8. 3, 5, 8, 13, , ,…

Activity 4: Generating a Sequence

A. Analyze the given sequence for its rule and identify the next three terms
1. 1, 10, 100, 1000
2. 2, 5, 9, 14, 20
3. 16, 32, 64, 128
4. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8

B. Let Fib(n) be the nth term of a Fibonacci sequence, with Fib(1) = 1,

Fib(2) = 1, Fib(3) = 2. Find:
1. Fib(8)
2. Fib(19)

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1.7. Abstract Reasoning Patterns

An abstract reasoning test uses shapes and patterns to assess your logic,
fluid intelligence and problem-solving skills. You‘ll be expected to quickly
interpret a series of images to deduce the rule or pattern that connects them
(for example, a repetition of colour, shape or size). Abstract tests are common
for research, software development and engineering roles.

For example, you might be asked to select, out of a number of possible

options, which image completes a sequence or statement of fact, which image
is missing from the overall picture or which image doesn‘t correlate to the others
shown.

Activity 5: Abstract Reasoning

Determine what completes the series.

1.8. Population Growth Patterns

Mathematics can be used to model population growth. Using the

exponential growth formula, 𝑨 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒕, where,

A is the size of population after it grows,

P is the initial number of people,
r is the rate of growth,
t is time, and
e is Euler‘s constant, ≈ 2.718

Illustration:
The exponential growth model formula, 𝑨 = 𝟑𝟎𝒆𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝒕, describes the population of
a city in the Philippines in thousands, t years after 1995.
1. What was the population of the city in 1995?
2. What will be the population by the end of 2021?

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Solution:
1. Since our exponential growth model describes the population t years after
1995, we consider 1995 as t=0 and then solve for A, our population size.
𝑨 = 30𝑒0.02𝑡
= 30𝑒0.02(0)
= 30𝑒0
= 30(1)
𝑨 = 𝟑𝟎

Therefore, the city population in 1995 was 30,000.

2. We need to find A by the end of 2021. To find t, we subtract 2021 and 1995 to
get t = 26. Hence,
𝑨 = 30𝑒0.02𝑡
= 30𝑒0.02(26)
= 30𝑒0.52
= 30(2.718)0.52
= 30(1.68194)
𝑨 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟐

Therefore, the city population would be about 50,458 by the end of 2021.

7. Self-evaluation

Fill in the blanks with word to make the statement true.

1. A Fibonacci sequence is often called .

2. A is a pattern of numbers that are formed in accordance with

a definite rule.

3. The arrays of hexagonal cells in a honeycomb is an example of

.

4. The rings of Saturn illustrates _ .

5. Fractals are infinitely _ _ that are self-similar across different

scales.

8. Learning Assessment Task

Answer the items in Worksheet No. 1

9. References:

Mathematics in the Modern World by Rex Bookstore, 2018

https://youtu.be/SjSHVDfXHQ4

https://youtu.be/9mozmHgg9Sk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7GiKeeWSf4s

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https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/fibonacci-sequence.html

https://spectramagazine.org/mathematics/the-fibonacci-sequence-in-nature/

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/golden-ratio

http://www.csun.edu/~lmp99402/Math_Art/Tesselations/tesselations.html

https://fractalfoundation.org/resources/what-are-
fractals/#:~:text=Fractals%20are%20infinitely%20complex%20patterns,systems
%20%E2%80%93%20the%20pictures%20of%20Chaos.

https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/tessellation.html#:~:text=A%20pattern%2
0of%20shapes%20that,are%20no%20overlaps%20or%20gaps.

http://www.spacemakeplace.com/tessellation-
patterns/#:~:text=Tessellations%20form%20a%20class%20of%20patterns%20fo
und%20in%20nature.&text=Distinct%20shapes%20are%20formed%20from,an%
20interesting%20and%20united%20pattern.

https://www.mathsteacher.com.au/year8/ch15_graphs/03_number/patterns.htm

https://www.splashlearn.com/math-vocabulary/number-sense/number-
patterns#:~:text=Number%20pattern%20is%20a%20pattern,by%20skip%20coun
ting%20by%205.

https://www.practiceaptitudetests.com/abstract-reasoning-
tests/#:~:text=An%20abstract%20reasoning%20test%20uses,colour%2C%20sha
pe%20or%20size).

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GE MATH
MODULE 2
The Language of Sets

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR, MA

MARIA FE C. GUERRA, MAEd
FLORIA C. DIALDE, MA
RICKY T. OSORIO, MA
RHEA MAE C. BABAS, MA
GINA C. BOTOY, MA
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY, MS
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD, EdD
JULIUS G. CAADAN, PhD
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA, PhD

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1. Title: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

2. Topic: The Language of Sets

3. Time Frame: 5 hrs.

4. Introduction

A set in mathematics is a collection of well-defined and distinct objects, considered

as an object in its own right. Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in
mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous
part of mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which nearly all of
mathematics can be derived.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. describe sets using the set-roster and set-builder notations;
2. perform the operations involving sets; and
3. solve basic word problems involving sets.

6. Learning Activities

Definition
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Georg Cantor, the founder of
set theory, gave the following definition of a set at the beginning of his Beiträge zur
Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre:

A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our

perception and of our thought – which are called elements of the set.

The elements or members of a set can be anything: numbers, people,

letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so on. Sets are conventionally denoted with
capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have precisely the same
elements. The most basic properties are that a set "has" elements, and that two
sets are equal (one and the same) if and only if every element of one is an element
of the other.

Describing sets
There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set:
1. Rule Method or Semantic Description – using intentional definition or
rules describing the elements of the set. This is otherwise referred as
the set-builder notation.

Illustration:
A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers.
B is the set of colors of the Philippine flag.

2. Roster/Listing Method – listing each member of the set. An extensional

definition is denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets:

Illustration:
C = {4, 2, 1, 3}
D = {blue, white, red, yellow}

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Every element of a set must be unique; no two members may be identical.

The order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant. For instance,

the set {6, 11} can also be written as {11, 6}.

For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be

abbreviated. For instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be
specified as:

{1, 2, 3, …, 1000}

where the ellipsis ("...") indicates that the list continues in the obvious way. Ellipses
may also be used where sets have infinitely many members. Thus, the set of
positive even numbers can be written as

{2, 4, 6, 8, ... }.

The notation with braces may also be used in an intentional specification of a set.
In this usage, the braces have the meaning "the set of all ...".

A more general form of this is set-builder notation, through which, for instance, the
set F of the twenty smallest integers that are four less than perfect squares
can be denoted:

F = {n2 – 4 : n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤ 19}.

In this notation, the colon (":") means "such that", and the description can be
interpreted as "F is the set of all numbers of the form n2 − 4, such that n is a
whole number in the range from 0 to 19 inclusive." Sometimes the vertical bar
("|") is used instead of the colon.

Example 1: Using Set-Roster Notation

1. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, b = {3, 1, 2} and C = {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}. What are the elements
of A, B and C? How A, B and C are related?
2. Is {0} = 0?
3. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?
4. For each nonnegative integer n, let 𝑈𝑛 = {𝑛, −𝑛}. Find 𝑈1, 𝑈2, and 𝑈0.

Solution
1. A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2, and 3. Therefore,
A , B, and C are simply different ways to represent the same set.
2. {𝟎} ≠ 𝟎 because {0} is a set with one element, namely, 0, whereas 0 is just
the symbol that represents the number zero.
3. The set {1, {1} has two elements: 1 and the set whose only element is 1.
4. 𝑈1 = {1, −1}, 𝑈2 = {2, −2}, 𝑈0 = {0, −0} = {0, 0} = {0}

Example 2: Using Set-Builder Notation

Given that 𝑹 denotes the set of all real numbers, 𝑍 the set of all integers, and
𝑍+the set of all positive integers, describe each of the following sets:
1. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5}
2. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5}
3. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍+| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5}

Solution
1. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5} is the open interval of real numbers (strictly) between
-2 and 5, denoted by (-2, 5).

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2. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5} = *−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

3. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍+| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Membership
The key relation between sets is membership – when one set is an element
of another. If a is a member of B, this is denoted a ∈ B, while if c is not a member
of B then c ∉ B.

For example, with respect to the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {blue, white, red},
and F = {n2 − 4 : n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤19}, we say, that

4 ∈ A and 285 ∈ F; but 9 ∉ F and green ∉ B.

Subsets
If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is said to be a
subset of B, written A ⊆ B (also pronounced A is contained in B).

Equivalently, we can write B ⊇ A, read as B is a superset of A, B includes

A, or B contains A. The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called
inclusion or containment.

If A is a subset of, but not equal to, B, then A is called a proper subset of B,
written A ⊊ B (A is a proper subset of B) or B ⊋ A (B is a proper superset of A).

Note that the expressions A ⊂ B and B ⊃ A are used differently by different

authors; some authors use them to mean the same as A ⊆ B (respectively B ⊇ A),
whereas other use them to mean the same as A ⊊ B (respectively B ⊋ A).

Illustration:
1. The set of all men is a proper subset of the set of all people.
2. {1, 3} ⊊ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
3. {1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself:
∅ ⊆ A.
A ⊆ A.

An obvious but useful identity, which can often be used to show that two
seemingly different sets are equal:
A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

A partition of a set S is a set of nonempty subsets of S such that every

element x in S is in exactly one of these subsets.

Example 3: Subsets
Let 𝐴 = 𝑍+, 𝐵 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑍|0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 100} and 𝐶 = {100, 200, 300, 400, 500}. Evaluate
the truth and falsity of each of the following statements.
1. 𝐵 ⊆ A
2. 𝐶 ⊊ A
3. C and B have at least one element in common
4. 𝐶 ⊆ B
5. 𝐶 ⊆ C

Solution
1. False. Zero is not a positive integer. Thus, zero is in B but not in A, and so
B is not a subset of A.

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2. True. Each element in C and, hence, is in A, but there are elements in A

that are not in C. For instance, 1 is in A and not in C.
3. True. For example, 100 is in both C and B.
4. False. For example, 200 is in C but not in B.
5. True. Every element in C is in C. In general, the definition of subset implies
that all sets are subsets of themselves.

Power sets
The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S, including S itself and
the empty set. The number of elements in a power set is determined using the
formula 2n, where n is the number of elements in a given set. For example, the
number of elements in the power set of the set S = {1, 2, 3} is: 2𝑛 = 23 = 8 .

That is, the power set of a set S, written as P(S), has 8 elements: {1, 2, 3},
{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, and ∅. This power set is written as:

P(S) = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, ∅}.

Remarks:
1. The power set of an infinite (either countable or uncountable) set is always
uncountable.
2. The power set of a set is always strictly "bigger" than the original set in the
sense that there is no way to pair the elements of a set S with the elements of
its power set P(S) such that every element of S set is paired with exactly one
element of P(S), and every element of P(S) is paired with exactly one element
of S.
3. Every partition of a set S is a subset of the power set of S.

Cardinality
The cardinality of a set S, denoted by | S |, is "the number of members of
S."

Example: If B = {blue, white, red}, then | B | = 3.

There is a unique set with no members and zero cardinality, which is called
the empty set (or the null set) and is denoted by the symbol ∅ or { }. For example,
the set of all three-sided squares has zero members and thus is the empty set.

Some sets have infinite cardinality. The set N of natural numbers, for
instance, is infinite. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. For
instance, the set of real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural
numbers.

Basic operations
There are several fundamental operations for constructing new sets from
given sets.

1. Unions. Two sets can be "added" together. The union of A and B,

denoted by A 𝖴 B, is the set of all things which are members of
either A or B.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} 𝖴 {red, white} = {1, 2, red, white}
2. {1, 2, green} 𝖴 {red, white, green} ={1, 2, red, white, green}
3. {1, 2} 𝖴 {1, 2} = {1, 2}

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Some basic properties of unions:

1. A 𝖴 B = B 𝖴 A
2. A 𝖴 (B 𝖴 C) = (A 𝖴 B) 𝖴 C
3. A ⊆ (A 𝖴 B)
4. A ⊆ B if and only if A 𝖴 B = B
5. A 𝖴 A = A
6. A 𝖴 ∅ = A

2. Intersections. A new set can also be constructed by determining

which members two sets have "in common". The intersection of A
and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all things which are
members of both A and B. If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to
be disjoint.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} ∩ {red, white} = ∅.
2. {1, 2, green} ∩ {red, white, green} = {green}
3. {1, 2} ∩ {1, 2} = {1, 2}

Some basic properties of intersections:

1. A ∩ B = B ∩ A
2. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
3. A ∩ B ⊆ A
4. A ∩ A = A
5. A ∩ ∅ = ∅
6. A ⊆ B if and only if A ∩ B = A

3. Complements. Two sets can also be "subtracted". The relative

complement of B in A (also called the set-theoretic difference of A
and B), denoted by A \ B (or A − B), is the set of all elements which
are members of A but not members of B.
Note that it is valid to "subtract" members of a set that are not
in the set, such as removing the element green from the set {1, 2,
3}; doing so has no effect. In certain settings, all sets under
discussion are considered to be subsets of a given universal set
U. In such cases, U \ A is called the absolute complement or simply
complement of A, and is denoted by A′.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} \ {red, white} = {1, 2}
2. {1, 2, green} \ {red, white, green} = {1, 2}
3. {1, 2} \ {1, 2} = ∅
4. {1, 2, 3, 4} \ {1, 3} = {2, 4}
5. If U is the set of integers, E is the set of even integers, and O is the set of
odd integers, then U \ E = E′ = O.

Some basic properties of complements:

1. A \ B ≠ B \ A for A ≠ B
2. A 𝖴 A′ = U
3. A ∩ A′ = ∅
4. (A′)′ = A
5. A \ A = ∅
6. U′ = ∅ and ∅′ = U
7. A \ B = A ∩ B′

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An extension of the complement is the symmetric difference, defined for sets A,

B as:
AB  ( A \ B) (B \ A)

For example, the symmetric difference of {7,8,9,10} and {9,10,11,12} is the set
{7,8,11,12}.

4. Cartesian product. A new set can be constructed by associating every

element of one set with every element of another set. The Cartesian product of
two sets A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such
that a is a member of A and b is a member of B.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} × {red, white} = {(1, red), (1, white), (2, red), (2, white)}
2. {1, 2, green} × {red, white, green} = {(1, red), (1, white), (1, green), (2,
red), (2, white), (2, green), (green, red), (green, white), (green, green)}
3. {1, 2} × {1, 2} = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}.

Some basic properties of cartesian products:

1. A × ∅ = ∅
2. A × (B 𝖴 C) = (A × B) 𝖴 (A × C)
3. (A 𝖴 B) × C = (A × C) 𝖴 (B × C)
4. Let A and B be finite sets. Then | A × B | = | B × A | = | A | × | B

Application
1. In a survey of university students, 64 had taken mathematics course, 94 had
taken chemistry course, 58 had taken physics course, 28 had taken
mathematics and physics, 26 had taken mathematics and chemistry, 22 had
taken chemistry and physics course, and 14 had taken all the three
courses. Find how many had taken one course only.

Solution:

Let M, C, P represent sets of students who had taken mathematics, chemistry

and physics respectively

Step 1 :
Venn diagram related to the information given in the question:

Step 2 :
From the Venn diagram above, we have
No. of students who had taken only math = 24
No. of students who had taken only chemistry = 60
No. of students who had taken only physics = 22

Step 3 :
Total no. of students who had taken only one course = 24 + 60 + 22 = 106

Hence, the total number of students who had taken only one course is 106.

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2. In a group of students, 65 play football, 45 play hide and seek, 42 play chess,
20 play football and hide and seek, 25 play football and chess, 15 play hide
and seek and chess and 8 play all the three games. Find the total number of
students in the group (Assume that each student in the group plays at least one
game).

Solution:

Let F, H and C represent the set of students who play football, hide and seek
and chess respectively.

Step 1 :

Venn diagram related to the information given in the question:

Step 2 :

Total number of students in the group :

= 28 + 12 + 18 + 7 + 10 + 17 + 8

= 100

So, the total number of students in the group is 100.

3. In a college, 60 students enrolled in chemistry, 40 in physics, 30 in biology, 15

in chemistry and physics,10 in physics and biology, 5 in biology and chemistry.
No one enrolled in all the three. Find how many are enrolled in at least one of
the subjects.

Solution:

Let C, P and B represents the subjects Chemistry, Physics and Biology

respectively.

The number of students enrolled in at least one of the subjects :

= 40 + 15 + 15 + 15 + 5 + 10 + 0
= 100

So, the number of students enrolled in at least one of the subjects is 100.

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7. Learning Assessment Tasks

Answer your scheduled Quiz in our Google Classroom.

8. References:

Dauben, Joseph W., Georg Cantor: His Mathematics and Philosophy of the Infinite,
Boston: Harvard University Press (1979) ISBN 978-0-691-02447-9.

Halmos, Paul R., Naive Set Theory, Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand (1960) ISBN 0-
387-90092-6.

Stoll, Robert R., Set Theory and Logic, Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications (1979)
ISBN 0-486-63829-4.

Velleman, Daniel, How To Prove It: A Structured Approach, Cambridge University

Press (2006) ISBN 978-0-521-67599-4

http://home.ku.edu.tr/~amostafazadeh/math107/F2012/Handouts/Sets%20from%
20Wikipedia_2012_09_18.pdf

https://www.onlinemath4all.com/word-problems-on-sets-and-venn-diagrams.html

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GE MATH
MODULE 3
The Language of Relations
and Functions

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR, MA

MARIA FE C. GUERRA, MAEd
FLORIA C. DIALDE, MA
RICKY T. OSORIO, MA
RHEA MAE C. BABAS, MA
GINA C. BOTOY, MA
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY, MS
JHOAN G. ANDUYAN
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD, EdD
JULIUS G. CAADAN, PhD
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA, PhD

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1. Title: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

2. Topic: The Language of Relations and Functions

3. Time Frame: 4 hrs.

4. Introduction

The concept of function was brought to light by mathematicians in the 17th century.
In 1637, a mathematician and the first modern philosopher, Rene Descartes, talked
about many mathematical relationships in his book Geometry. Still, the term ―function‖
was officially first used by German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz after
about fifty years. He invented a notation y = x to denote a function, dy/dx, to denote a
function‘s derivative. The notation y = f (x) was introduced by a Swiss mathematician
Leonhard Euler in 1734.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Differentiate functions from relations; and
2. Find the domain and range of functions.

6. Learning Activities

What is a set?
A set is a collection of distinct or well-defined members or elements. In mathematics,
members of a set are written within curly braces or brackets {}. Members of assets can be
anything such as; numbers, people, or alphabetical letters, etc.

Example:
1. {a, b, c, …, x, y, z} is a set of alphabet letters.
2. {…, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, …} is a set of even numbers.
3. {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, …} is a set of prime numbers

Two sets are said to be equal; they contain the same members. Consider two sets, A =
{1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 1, 2}. Regardless of the members‘ position in sets A and B, the two
sets are equal because they contain similar members.

What are ordered-pair numbers?

These are numbers that go hand in hand. Ordered pair numbers are represented within
parentheses and separated by a comma. For example, (6, 8) is an ordered-pair number
whereby the numbers 6 and 8 are the first and second elements, respectively.

What is a domain?
A domain is a set of all input or first values of a function. Input values are generally ‗x‘
values of a function.

What is a range?
The range of a function is a collection of all output or second values. Output values are ‗y‘
values of a function.

What is the Relation?

It is a subset of the Cartesian product. Or simply, a bunch of points (ordered pairs). In
other words, the relation between the two sets is defined as the collection of the ordered
pair, in which the ordered pair is formed by the object from each set.

For instance, (-2, 1), (4, 3), (7, -3)}, usually written in set notation form with curly brackets.

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Relation Representation
There are other ways too to write the relation, apart from set notation such as through
tables, plotting it on XY- axis or through mapping diagram.

What is a function?
In mathematics, a function can be defined as a rule that corresponds/relates every
element in one set, called the domain, to exactly one element in another set, called the
range. For example, y = x + 3 and y = x2 – 1 are functions because every x-value produces
a different y-value.

The common functions in algebra include:

1. Linear Function
2. Inverse Functions
3. Constant Function
4. Identity Function
5. Absolute Value Function

How to Determine if a Relation is a Function?

We can check if a relation is a function either graphically or by following the steps below.
1. Examine the x or input values.
2. Examine also the y or output values.
3. If all the input values are different, then the relation becomes a function, and if the
values are repeated, the relation is not a function.

Note: if there is a repetition of the first members with an associated repetition of the
second members, the relation becomes a function.

A function is a "well-behaved" relation. Just as with members of your own family, some
members of the family of pairing relationships are better behaved than other. (Warning:
This means that, while all functions are relations, since they pair information, not all
relations are functions. Functions are a sub-classification of relations.) When we say that
a function is "a well-behaved relation", we mean that, given a starting point, we know
exactly where to go; given an x, we get only and exactly one y.

Example 1. Identify the range and domain the relation below:

{(-2, 3), {4, 5), (6, -5), (-2, 3)}
Solution
Since the x values are the domain, the answer is, therefore, {-2, 4, 6}
The range is {-5, 3, 5}.

Example 2. Determine the domain and range of the following function:

Z = {(1, 120), (2, 100), (3, 150), (4, 130)}.
Solution
Domain of Z is {1, 2, 3, 4} and the range is {120, 100, 150, 130}.

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Example 3. Check if the following ordered pairs are functions:

W= {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)}
Y = {(1, 6), (2, 5), (1, 9), (4, 3)}
Solution
All the first values in W = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)} are not repeated, therefore, this is a
function.
Y = {(1, 6), (2, 5), (1, 9), (4, 3)} is not a function because, the first value 1 has been
repeated twice.

Example 4. Determine whether the following ordered pairs of numbers are a function.
R = (1,1); (2,2); (3,1); (4,2); (5,1); (6,7)
Solution
There is no repetition of x values in the given set of ordered pairs of numbers.
Therefore, R = (1,1); (2,2); (3,1); (4,2); (5,1); (6,7) is a function.

Example 5. Determine the following mapping whether it is a function or simply a relation.

This is a function. You can tell by

tracing from each x to each y. There is
only one y for each x; there is only one
arrow coming from each x.

This is a function! There is only one

arrow coming from each x; there is only
one y for each x. It just so happens that
it's always the same y for each x, but it
is only that one y. So this is a function.

This one is not a function: there are two

arrows coming from the number 1; the
number 1 is associated with two
different range elements. So this is a
relation, but it is not a function.

Each element of the domain that has a pair

in the range is nicely well-behaved. But
what about that 16? It is in the domain, but
it has no range element that corresponds to
it! This won't work! So then this is not a
function; not even a relation!

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The Vertical Line Test

If a vertical line intersects the graph in all places at exactly one point, then the relation is
a function.

Example 6. Using the vertical line test, determine whether each of the following graph
represents a function or simply a relation.

This graph represents a relation only,

because if we draw a vertical line through
it, an infinite set of points from the graph
intersects the vertical line.

This graph shows a function, because

there is no vertical line that will cross this
graph twice.

This graph does not show a function, it

simply represents a relation, because any
number of vertical lines will intersect this
oval twice. For instance, the y-axis
intersects (crosses) the line twice.

Example 7. Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Suppose x in A is related to y in B if and

only if, x < y. Use the notation x R y for ―x is related to y‖. Determine the following:
a. Is 0 R 1?
b. Is 2 R 3?
c. Is 1 R 1?
d. Is 2 R 1?

Solution:
a. Yes, 0 R 1 because 0 < 1.
b. Yes, 2 R 3 because 2 < 3.
c. No, 1 R 1 because 1 = 1 and 1 < 1
d. No, 1 R 1 because 2 > 1 and 2 < 1

Example 8. Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}.

Determine if 𝐴 x 𝐵 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵} is a function or not.

Solution:
𝐴 x 𝐵 represents a Cartesian product of A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}. That is,
𝐴 x 𝐵 = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}. Clearly, one x-value is
paired to more than one y-value. For instance, (0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3). Thus, the relation is not
a function.

Example 9. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 as follows:
Given any (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐴 x 𝐵, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 means that 𝑥−𝑦 is an integer.
2
a. Is (1, 1) ∈ 𝑅?
b. Is (2, 3) ∈ 𝑅?

Solution:
0
a. (1, 1) ∈ 𝑅 because 1−1 = = 0, which is an integer.
2 2
−1
b. (2, 3) ∈ 𝑅 because 2−3 = , which is not an integer.
2 2

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Properties of Function
A function 𝐹 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is a relation with domain A and range B that satisfies
the following two properties:
1. For every element 𝑥 in 𝐴, there is an element 𝑦 in 𝐵 such that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐹.
(This means that ―every element of 𝐴 is the first element of an ordered pair in 𝐹.‖)

2. For all elements 𝑥 in A and 𝑦 and 𝑧 in B, if (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐹 and (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝐹, then 𝑦 = 𝑧.

(This means that ―no two distinct ordered pairs in 𝐹 have the same first element.‖)

Example 10. Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5}. For all (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐴 x 𝐵, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆 means
that 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1. Determine if 𝑆 is a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵.

Solution:
𝑆 is not a function because it does not satisfy property (1). It is not true that every element
in 𝐴 is the first element of the ordered pair in 𝑆. For example, 6 ∈ 𝐴 but there is no 𝑦 in 𝐵
such that 𝑦 = 6 + 1 = 7.

Equality of Functions
A relation is a subset of a Cartesian product and a function is a special kind of relation.
Specifically, if 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵, then
𝒇 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑨 x 𝑩|𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒈 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑨 x 𝑩|𝒚 = 𝒈(𝒙)

It follows that 𝒇 equals 𝒈, written as 𝑓 = 𝑔, if and only if, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in 𝐴.

Example 11. Define 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 and 𝑔: 𝑅 → 𝑅 by the following formulas:

𝒇(𝒙) = |𝒙| for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 , and 𝒈(𝒙) = √𝒙𝟐 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅.
Does 𝑓 = 𝑔?

Solution:
Yes. Because the absolute value of any real number equals the square root of its square,
|𝑥| = √𝑥2 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅. Hence, 𝑓 = 𝑔.

Example 12. Determine the domain and range of a functions:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1
b. h(x)  x  4

Solution:
a. Through inspection, when you replace x by any value from the set of real
numbers, it will yield a unique value of y, (or f(x)). For instance,

Suppose 𝑥 = 1, 𝑓(1) = 2(1) + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3. This implies a pairing of (1, 3).

If 𝑥 = 0, 𝑓(0) = 2(0) + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1. This means an ordered pair (0, 1).
If 𝑥 = −1, 𝑓(−1) = 2(−1) + 1 = −2 + 1 = −1. This means a pairing of
(−1, −1).

Clearly, whatever value from the set of real numbers we assign to x, it

corresponds to a unique value in y, which are also in the set of real numbers.
Thus, the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is the set of real numbers, and its range is also the
set of real numbers. In symbol,
Domain: 𝐷𝑓 = 𝑅 and Range: 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅

b. In finding the domain of 𝑕(𝑥), we are concerned of the values that we replace
for 𝑥 so that 𝑕(𝑥) is defined. Remember that from the set of real numbers,
negative numbers have no defined square roots. Hence, in choosing for the
value of 𝑥 that we replace in 𝑕(𝑥), our goal is to have a value which is not a
negative number. This means that we target to have a radicand (the entity
inside the radical symbol) which is non-negative; meaning, values from 0 and
positive numbers.

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Now, if x = 1, x – 4 = 1 – 4 = -3, which is outside of our goal. So, 1 is not in the

domain of h(x). But if x = 4, x – 4 = 4 – 4 = 0, which is non-negative. Also, if x
= 5, x – 4 = 5 – 4 = 1, also non-negative. This means that whatever value we
assign for x from the set [4, ∞), it will also yield to positive value, thus, with
defined square roots.

Therefore, the domain of h(x) is [𝟒, ∞) or {𝒙/𝒙 ≥ 𝟒}.

To find the range, we will consider that the values for h(x) should be non-
negative. Hence, the range is [𝟎, ∞) or {𝒚/𝒚 ≥ 𝟎}.

Application Problems:
1. The square patch of grass below needs to be seeded around the 4
identical circular ponds. Write a function for the area (A) of grass that
needs to be seeded in terms of the radius of the ponds (r).

Solution:
To solve a word problem, the first step is always to translate the writing
into math. We know that the important pieces are:
 The area of the grass (A)
 The radius of the ponds (r)
 There are 4 ponds
 The sides of the square are 4 times the ponds' radius.

Since this problem involves area, your variables will probably be squared. That means that this
function is most likely going to describe a nonlinear relationship--the area of the grass won't
increase or decrease steadily alongside the radius of the ponds.

We know that the outline of all the grass is in a square around the edges of the circular ponds.
Think about how the ponds lay on the grass, and try to imagine what operation we could use
to figure out the exact area (if not the equation itself).

Since the ponds fit neatly inside the square of grass, and the grass covers all the remaining
area, we can subtract the area of the circles (we'll call that 𝐴𝑐) from the area of the square
(we'll call that 𝐴𝑠).

In this problem, we need the area of a circle (𝐴𝑐 = 𝜋𝑟2) and the area of a square (𝐴𝑠 = 𝑠2).
Since there are 4 ponds, the total area of the ponds will be 4𝐴𝑐, and since one side of the
square is equal to 4 times a pond's radius, we can say that 𝑠 = 4𝑟. To find the area
surrounding the ponds, we simply take the difference between the area of the big grass
square and the four smaller circles.

So now we know all our basic equations:

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑠 − 4𝐴𝑐
𝐴 = 𝑠2 − 𝜋𝑟2
𝐴 = (4𝑟)2 − 𝜋𝑟2
𝐴 = 16𝑟2 − 𝜋𝑟2

Thus, the area (A) of grass that needs to be seeded in terms of the radius of the ponds
(r) can be expressed as
𝐴(𝑟) = 16𝑟2 − 𝜋𝑟2

Practice! An employee receives a weekly salary of Php 340 and a 6% commission on

all sales.
a. Write a rule to describe the function f(d) that gives weekly earnings in terms of d
pesos in sales.
b. Find the employee‘s earnings for a week with Php 660 total sales.
c. What were the employee‘s total sales for a week in which her earnings were Php
1300?

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7. Learning Assessment Tasks

Refer to the scheduled Quiz in our Google Classroom.

8. References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

https://www.storyofmathematics.com/relations-and-
functions#:~:text=In%20mathematics%2C%20a%20function%20can,produces%
20a%20different%20y%2Dvalue.&text=A%20relation%20is%20any%20set%20of
%20ordered%2Dpair%20numbers.

https://byjus.com/maths/relations-and-functions/

https://www.purplemath.com/modules/fcns.htm

https://www.expii.com/t/function-word-problems-4322

GE Math– Mathematics in the Modern World 8

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

GE MATH
MODULE 4
Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR

MARIA FE C. GUERRA
FLORIA C. DIALDE
RICKY T. OSORIO
RHEA MAE C. BABAS
GINA C. BOTOY
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY
JHOAN G. ANDUYAN
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD
JULIUS G. CAADAN
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

1. Title: Problem Solving and Reasoning

2. Topic: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

3. Time Frame: 4 hrs.

4. Introduction

The two major types of reasoning, deductive and inductive, refer to the process by
which someone creates a conclusion as well as how they believe their conclusion to
be true. Deductive reasoning requires one start with a few general ideas, called
premises, and applies them to a specific situation. Recognized rules, laws, theories,
and other widely accepted truths are used to prove that a conclusion is right. Inductive
reasoning uses a set of specific observations to reach an overarching conclusion; it is
the opposite of deductive reasoning.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. distinguish inductive or deductive reasoning through identification of the
statements;
2. use reasoning skills to draw logical conclusion through induction and deduction
process; and
3. apply inductive and deductive reasoning to solve problems.

6. Learning Activities

WHAT IS MATHEMATICAL REASONING?

It refers to the ability of a person to analyze problem situations and construct logical
arguments to create both conceptual foundations and connections to be able to
process the available information and solve the problem. In our daily lives, we
make decisions based on our reasoning but this is a process that varies depending
on the situation obtained on the ground.

There are two types of reasoning:

1. Inductive Reasoning
2. Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list
according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.

Illustration:
1. Every object that I release from my hand falls to the ground. Therefore, the
next object I release from my hand will fall to the ground.

2. Every crow I have ever seen is black. Therefore all crows are black.

3. Based on available data, the Earth has revolve around the sun following an
elliptical path for millions of years. Therefore, the Earth will continue to revolve
around the sun in the same manner next year.

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For a deeper understanding on the concept of inductive reasoning, watch the video
with following link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NarWCrwSBKI

EXAMPLE 1: Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus, we
predict that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by
3. It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more
than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the
next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In Example
2 we use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an arithmetic procedure.

EXAMPLE 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure:

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the
sum by 2, and subtract 3.

Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.

Solution

Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:
Original number: 5

Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40

Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46

Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23

Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our
original number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final
result of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases
the resulting number is four times the original number. We conjecture that following
the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.

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Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
used inductive reasoning to discover that the time required for a pendulum to
complete one swing called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of
the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured the periods of
pendulums in "beartbeats." The following table shows some results obtained for
pendulums of various lengths. For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches
has been designated 1 unit.

Length of pendulum, in Period of pendulum, in

units heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
The period of a pendulum is the time it
25 5 takes for the pendulum to swing from left
36 6 to right and back to its original position.

EXAMPLE 3: Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the data in the above table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the
following questions.

a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

Solution

a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length.
Thus we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period
of 7 heartbeats.

b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that
of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has
a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that
quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.

Counterexamples

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find
one case for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the
statement is a false statement. In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a
false statement by finding a counterexample for each.

EXAMPLE 4: Find a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by example.

For all numbers x:

a. |𝑥| > 0
b. 𝑥2 > 𝑥
c. √𝑥2 = 𝑥

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Solution
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one
counterexample to verify that the statement is false.

a. Let 𝑥 = 0. Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a

counterexample. Thus, ― for all x, |𝑥| > 0‖ is a false statement.

b. For 𝑥 = 1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a

counterexample. Thus, ―for all numbers x, 𝑥2 > 𝑥‖ is a false statement.

c. Consider 𝑥 = 3. Then , √(−3)2 = √9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have

found a counterexample. Thus, ―for all x, √𝑥2 = 𝑥‖ is a false statement.

Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is
distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general principles and procedures.

Illustration:
1. All men are mortal. I am a man. Therefore, I am mortal.
(General principle: If p implies q and p holds, then q must follow.)

2. Given two supplementary angles with one of them measuring 120 degrees, the
measure of the other angle 60 degrees.
(General principle: supplementary angles add up to 180 degrees)

3. If 6𝑥 = 12, then 𝑥 = 2.
(General principle: if a, b, and c are real numbers and a=b, then ac=bc.)

Watch the video with following link for a deeper understanding on deductive
reasoning:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yMzNaqdxiZY

EXAMPLE 5: Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a umber
that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,
divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

Solution

Let 𝑛 represent the original number.

Multiply by 8: 8𝑛

Add 6: 8𝑛 + 6

Divide by 2: 8𝑛+6 = 4𝑛 + 3
2

Subtract 3: 4𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 4𝑛

We started with 𝑛 and ended with 4𝑛. The procedure given in this example
produces a number that is four times the original number.

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Deductive Reasoning in Mathematics

You may have observed that some of your math classes made extensive use of
deductive reasoning to prove theorems and solve problems. The following quote
by the mathematician Paul R. Halmos (1916-2006) advocates that you not limit
yourself to only using deductive reasoning to prove theorems "Mathematics is not
a deductive science-that's a cliché. When you try to prove a theorem, you don't
just list the hypotheses, and then start to reason. What you do is trial and error,
experimentation, guesswork."
I Want to be a Mathematician: An Automathography (1985).

Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

In Example 6 we analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or

deductive reasoning.

EXAMPLE 6: Determine Types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive

reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last
year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated
that my home improvement will cost Php 35,000. Thus, my home improvement
will cost more than Php 35,000.

Solution

a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an

example of inductive reasoning.

b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this an

example of deductive reasoning.

Logic Puzzles

Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be solved by using deductive
reasoning and a chart that enables us to display the given information in a visual
manner.

EXAMPLE 7: Solve a Logic Puzzle

Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation
(editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the
occupation of each neighbor.

1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the following chart, write XI
(which stands for "ruled out by clue 1) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of
Maria's tow
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah
Brian

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor
column of Sarah's row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah
is not the banker. Write X2 in the Banker column of Sarah's row
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah X2 X2
Brian

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs
for three of the four occupations in Sarah's row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef.
Place a (/) in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the other three people can
be the chef. Write X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Maria's row; therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert a (/) to
indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean
nor Brian is the editor.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean X3 X3
Maria / X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
Brian X3 X3

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. See the following
table. Since there are three Xs in the Banker column. Sean must be the banker.
Place a (/) in that box. Thus, Sean cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that box.
Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a (/)
in that box.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean X3 / X3 X4
Maria / X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 /

Therefore, Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is
the dentist.

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7. Practice Exercises
Answer the following comprehensively. Write your answer in a separate sheet of
paper.

1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

2. Consider the following procedure:

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide the
sum by 3, and subtract 5.

Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.

3. Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a

counterexample for each.
a. 𝑥 = 1 b. √𝑥2 + 16 = 𝑥 + 4
𝑥

4. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a

number that is three times the original number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product,

divide the sum by 2, and subtract 5. Hint: Let 𝑛 represent the original
number.

5. Brianna, Ryan, Tyler and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers
(president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer) of the freshmen class in a
certain state college. From the following clues, determine which position each
holds:
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary and next-door neighbors.

8. Learning Assessment Tasks

Answer the scheduled Quiz in the Google Classroom.

9. References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

https://www.wtamu.edu/academic/anns/mps/math/mathlab/int_algebra/int_alg_tut
8_probsol.htm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yMzNaqdxiZY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NarWCrwSBKI

GE Math– Mathematics in the Modern World 8

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

GE MATH
MODULE 5
Problem Solving Strategies

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR

MARIA FE C. GUERRA
FLORIA C. DIALDE
RICKY T. OSORIO
RHEA MAE C. BABAS
GINA C. BOTOY
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY
JHOAN G. ANDUYAN
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD
JULIUS G. CAADAN
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA

GE Math– Mathematics in the Modern World 1

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

1. Title: Problem Solving and Reasoning

2. Topic: Problem Solving Strategies

3. Time Frame: 4 hrs.

4. Introduction

Whether you like it or not, whether you are going to be a mother, father, teacher,
computer programmer, scientist, researcher, business owner, coach, mathematician,
manager, doctor, lawyer, banker (the list can go on and on), problem solving is
everywhere. Some people think that you either can do it or you can't. Contrary to that
belief, it can be a learned trade. Even the best athletes and musicians had some
coaching along the way and lots of practice. That's what it also takes to be good at
problem solving.

George Polya, known as the father of modern problem solving, did extensive
studies and wrote numerous mathematical papers and three books about problem
solving. I'm going to show you his method of problem solving to help step you through
these problems.

5. Objective

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. solve word problems involving numbers, percents, rectangles, supplementary
angles, complementary angles, consecutive integers, and breaking even.

6. Learning Activities

In 1945 George Polya published the book How To Solve It which quickly became
his most prized publication. It sold over one million copies and has been translated
into 17 languages. In this book he identifies four basic principles of problem
solving, namely:

1. UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Sometimes the problem lies in understanding the problem. If you are
unclear as to what needs to be solved, then you are probably going to
get the wrong results. In order to show an understanding of the problem,
you, of course, need to read the problem carefully. Sounds simple
enough, but some people jump the gun and try to start solving the
problem before they have read the whole problem. Once the problem is
read, you need to list all the components and data that are involved. This
is where you will be assigning your variable.

2. DEVISING A PLAN (translate)

When you devise a plan (translate), you come up with a way to solve
the problem. Setting up an equation, drawing a diagram, and making a
chart are all ways that you can go about solving your problem. In this
tutorial, we will be setting up equations for each problem.

3. CARRYING OUT THE PLAN (solve)

The next step, carry out the plan (solve), is big. This is where you solve
the equation you came up with in your 'devise a plan' step. The
equations in this tutorial will all be linear equations.

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4. LOOKING BACK
You may be familiar with the expression 'don't look back'. In problem
solving it is good to look back (check and interpret).. Basically, check
to see if you used all your information and that the answer makes
sense. If your answer does check out, make sure that you write your
final answer with the correct labeling.

Solving Numeric Word Problems

Example 1: Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that

number. Find the number.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
Since we are looking for a number, we will let
x = a number

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If you take twice the difference of 6 and 1, that is the same as 4 more than
6, so this does check.

FINAL ANSWER: The number is 6.

Example 2: One number is 3 less than another number. If the sum of the two
numbers is 177, find each number.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times. We are
looking for two numbers, and since we can write the one number in terms
of another number, we will let
x = another number

One number is 3 less than another number:

x - 3 = one number

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

GE Math– Mathematics in the Modern World 3

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If we add 90 and 87 (a number 3 less than 90) we do get 177.

FINAL ANSWER: One number is 90. Another number is 87.

Solving Percent Problems

Whenever you are working with a percent problem, you need to make sure you
write your percent in decimal form. You do this by moving the decimal place of the
percent two to the left. For example, 32% in decimal form is .32.

When you are wanting to find the percentage of some number, remember that ‗of‘
represents multiplication - so you would multiply the percent (in decimal form)
times the number you are taking the percent of.

Example 3: Find 45% of 125.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are looking for a number that is 45% of 125, we will let
x = the value we are looking for

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

56.25 is 45% of 125.

FINAL ANSWER: The number is 56.25.

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Example 4: A math class has 30 students. Approximately 70% passed their last
math test. How many students passed the last math test?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are looking for how many students passed the last math test, we will let

x = number of students

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

21 is 70% of 30.

FINAL ANSWER: 21 students passed the last math test.

Example 5: I purchased a new cellphone case at a local electronics store for

Php 541.25, which included tax. If the tax rate is 8.25%, find the price of the
cellphone case before they added the tax.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are looking for the price of the cellphone case before they added the
tax, we will let
x = price of the cellphone case before tax was added.

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If you add on 8.25% tax to 500, you would get 541.25.

FINAL ANSWER: The original price of the cellphone case is PhP 500.

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Solving Geometry Problems

Example 6: In a blueprint of a rectangular room, the length is 1 inch more than 3

times the width. Find the dimensions if the perimeter is to be 26 inches.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are looking for the length and width of the rectangle. Since length can
be written in terms of width, we will let
w = width

length is 1 inch more than 3 times the width:

1 + 3w = length

The following formula will be used in solving:

Perimeter of a Rectangle = 2(length) + 2(width)

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If width is 3, then length, which is 1 inch more than 3 times the width
would have to be 10. The perimeter of a rectangle with width of 3 inches
and length of 10 inches does come out to be 26.

FINAL ANSWER: Width is 3 inches. Length is 10 inches.

Example 7: Find the measure of each angle in the figure below. Note that since
the angles make up a straight line, they are supplementary to each other.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are already given in the figure that
x = one angle
5x = other angle

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Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If x is 30, then 5x = 5(30) = 150. 150 and 30 do add up to be 180, so they
are supplementary angles.

FINAL ANSWER: The two angles are 30 degrees and 150 degrees.

Solving Consecutive Integers Problems

Consecutive integers are integers that follow one another in order.

For example, 5, 6, and 7 are three consecutive integers.

If we let x represent the first integer, how would we represent the second
consecutive integer in terms of x? Well if we look at 5, 6, and 7 - note that 6 is
one more than 5, the first integer.

In general, we could represent the second consecutive integer by x + 1. And

what about the third consecutive integer.

Well, note how 7 is 2 more than 5. In general, we could represent the third
consecutive integer as x + 2.

Consecutive EVEN integers are even integers that follow one another in
order. For example, 4, 6, and 8 are three consecutive even integers. If we
let x represent the first EVEN integer, how would we represent the second
consecutive even integer in terms of x? Note that 6 is two more than 4, the first
even integer.

In general, we could represent the second consecutive EVEN integer by x +

2. And what about the third consecutive even integer? Well, note how 8 is 4
more than 4.

In general, we could represent the third consecutive EVEN integer as x + 4.

Consecutive ODD integers are odd integers that follow one another in order.
For example, 5, 7, and 9 are three consecutive odd integers. If we let x represent
the first ODD integer, how would we represent the second consecutive odd integer
in terms of x? Note that 7 is two more than 5, the first odd integer.

In general, we could represent the second consecutive ODD integer by x + 2.

And what about the third consecutive odd integer? Well, note how 9 is 4 more
than 5.

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In general, we could represent the third consecutive ODD integer as x + 4.

Note that a common misconception is that because we want an odd number that
we should not be adding a 2 which is an even number. Keep in mind that x is
representing an ODD number and that the next odd number is 2 away, just like 7
is 2 away form 5, so we need to add 2 to the first odd number to get to the second
consecutive odd number.

Example 8: The sum of 3 consecutive integers is 258. Find the integers.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are looking for 3 consecutive integers, we will let
x = 1st consecutive integer
x + 1 = 2nd consecutive integer
x + 2 = 3rd consecutive integer

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

The sum of 85, 86 and 87 does check to be 258.

FINAL ANSWER: The three consecutive integers are 85, 86, and 87.

Example 9: The ages of 3 sisters are 3 consecutive even integers. If the sum of
twice the 1st even integer, 3 times the 2nd even integer, and the 3rd even integer
is 34, find each age.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are looking for 3 EVEN consecutive integers, we will let
x = 1st consecutive even integer
x + 2 = 2nd consecutive even integer
x + 4 = 3rd consecutive even integer

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

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Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If we take the sum of two times 4, three times 6, and 8, we do get 34

FINAL ANSWER: The ages of the three sisters are 4, 6, and 8.

Solving Business Problems: Breaking Even

In a business related problem, the cost equation, C is the cost of manufacturing a

product. In the revenue equation, R is the amount of money the manufacturer
makes on a product.

If a manufacturer wants to know how many items must be sold to break

even, that can be found by setting the cost equal to the revenue.

Example 10: The cost C to produce x number of cd‘s is C = 50 + 5x. The cd‘s
are sold wholesale for Php15 each, so revenue R is given by R = 15x. Find how
many cd‘s the manufacturer needs to produce and sell to break even.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
We are looking for the number of cd‘s needed to be sold to break even,
we will let
x = the number of cd’s

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

When x is 5 the cost and the revenue both equal 75.

FINAL ANSWER: 5 cd’s.

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7. Practice Exercises
Answer the following comprehensively. Write your answer in a separate sheet of
paper.
1. The sum of a number and 2 is 6 less than twice that number.

2. A local furniture store is having a terrific sale. They are marking down every
price 45%. If the couch you have our eye on is Php 440 after the markdown,
what was the original price? How much would you save if you bought it at
this sale?

3. A rectangular garden has a width that is 8 feet less than twice the
length. Find the dimensions if the perimeter is 20 feet.

4. Complimentary angles sum up to be 90 degrees. Find the measure of each

angle in the figure below. Note that since the angles make up a right angle,
they are complementary to each other.

5. The sum of 3 consecutive odd integers is 57. Find the integers.

6. The cost C to produce x numbers of VCR‘s is C = 1000 + 100x. The VCR‘s

are sold wholesale for $150 each, so the revenue is given by R = 150x. Find
how many VCR‘s the manufacturer needs to produce and sell to break
even.

8. Learning Assessment Tasks

Answer the scheduled Quiz in the Google Classroom.

9. References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

https://www.wtamu.edu/academic/anns/mps/math/mathlab/int_algebra/int_alg_tut
8_probsol.htm

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GE MATH
MODULE 6
Propositions

Organized by:
JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR
MARIA FE C. GUERRA
FLORIA C. DIALDE
RICKY T. OSORIO
RHEA MAE C. BABAS
GINA C. BOTOY
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY
JHOAN G. ANDUYAN
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD
JULIUS G. CAADAN
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA

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Learning Module 6 in
Mathematics in the Modern World
Topic 6.1: Propositions

Time Frame: 1hr

Introduction:

Propositional calculus is a branch of logic. It is also called propositional logic, statement

logic, sentential calculus, sentential logic, or
sometimes zeroth-order logic. It deals
with propositions (which can be true or false) and argument
flow. Compound propositions are formed by connecting
propositions by logical connectives. The propositions without
logical connectives are called atomic propositions.
Unlike first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with
non-logical objects, predicates about them, or quantifiers.
However, all the machinery of propositional logic is included
in first-order logic and higher-order logics. In this sense,
propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic and higher-order logic.

Objectives: At the end of the lesson students are expected to:

 Performs operations on mathematical expression correctly.

 Explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
 Define proposition. Give examples and non-examples ;
 Describes simple and compound propositions;
 Differentiates simple and compound propositions;
Pretest:
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

I. Determine whether the following statements are propositions. If it is a proposition, determine

its truth value if possible.

1. Is the traffic heavy along Katipunan Avenue today?

Ans:

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2. Please close the door.

Ans:

3. x + 2 = 11
Ans:

4. 144 is a perfect square.

Ans:

5. Keep right while passing through the corridor.

Ans:

II. For each of the following compound propositions, identify the simple components and the
logical connectors used.
1. You went to the rock concert and your ears hurt.
Simple component 1:
Simple component 2:
Connector:

2. It is not the case that it is Monday today.

Simple component 1:
Connector:

3. Either today is a rainy day or today is a sunny day.

Simple component 1:
Simple component 2:
Connector:

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Learning Activities:
Let‟s Try these:
Underline the declarative sentences given below that are either true or false.
 The sun is the center of the universe.
 What a great day it is!
 The wedding was a symbol of their love.
 What time is it?
 You have to be fit to climb a mountain.
 Where do I begin?
 When your temperature rises to 380 then you have a fever.
 Ouch! It hurts so much.

What you were doing was identifying propositions already.

Logic (Propositions)
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false,
but not both. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true
which is denoted by T; otherwise, its truth value is false and is
denoted by F.
A declarative sentence is a sentence in the form of a statement (in
contrast to a command, a question, or an exclamation). In a
declarative sentence, the subject normally precedes the verb.

EXAMPLE 1. Determine whether each of the following

statements is a proposition or not. If a proposition, give its
truth value.
p: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
q: Find a number which divides your age.
r: My seatmate will get a perfect score in the Logic exam.
s: Welcome to the Philippines!
t: 3 + 2 = 5

p2: Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.

p3: If you are a college student, then you are a Filipino.

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p4: If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen's card, and if you
are entitled to a Senior Citizen's card, then you are more than 60 years old.
Solutions. Recall that for a statement to be a proposition it has to be a declarative sentence,
and it should have a truth value of either true or false, but not both true and false at the same
time.

p. This is a declarative sentence, and Mindanao is an island in the Philippines. Hence, p is a

true proposition.

q. This is an imperative sentence, and so it is not a proposition.

r. The statement is a declarative sentence. Although the truth value will only be known after the
Logic exam, we know that it can only be either true (my seatmate gets a perfect score) or false
(she has some mistakes), but not both. Hence, r is a proposition.
Remark that for a declarative sentence to be a proposition, it is not necessary that its true value
is immediately known.

s. Statement s is an exclamatory sentence, and so it is not a proposition.

t. Obviously, 3 + 2 = 5 is a true mathematical sentence. But, is it a declarative sentence? Yes!

To see this, note that you may read it as The sum of three and two is five," which is clearly a
declarative sentence. Therefore, t is a true proposition.

u. This is a declarative sentence. Since the numerator of the function is not a polynomial, the
function f is not rational and so the statement if false. Therefore, u is a false proposition.
You can remark that false mathematical sentences are still propositions.

v. It is an interrogative sentence. Hence, it is not a proposition.

w. Although w is a declarative sentence, it is not a proposition because it can neither be true nor
false. To see this, suppose one assumes that w is true that is, it is the case that I am lying.
Since I am lying, my statement is not true, and so w must also be false. Similarly, assuming that
w is false would also lead to the conclusion that it is true as well.

p1. This is a declarative sentence and it will be shown later that √2 cannot be expressed as a
quotient of two integers. Thus, p1 is a proposition.

p2. It is a declarative sentence, which is true for anyone because each of us finds logic either
fun or boring. Hence, p2 is a true proposition.

p3. This is a declarative sentence, but it is not true. There are also college students of other
nationalities.

p4. We know that it is a true proposition. Furthermore, we can express the whole sentence as
_You are more than 60 years old if and only if you are entitled to a Senior Citizen's card." (You
may remark that this is an example of a biconditional statement, which will be discussed in the
next lesson.)

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Definition
A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simpler propositions using logical
connectors or some combination of logical connectors. Some logical connectors involving
propositions p and/or q may be expressed as follows:
not p
p and q
p or q
if p then q
where < ° > stands for some proposition. A proposition is
simple if it cannot be broken down any further into other
component propositions.

For each of the propositions in Example 1, determine

whether it is a simple or compound proposition. If it is a
compound proposition, identify the simple components.

Solution. The propositions p, r, t, and u are all simple

propositions. On the other hand, the following are
compound propositions.
p1: It is not the case that √2 is a rational number.
p2: Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
p3: If you study hard, then you will get good grades.
p4: If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen's card, and if
you are entitled to a Senior Citizen's card, then you are more than 60 years old.
Proposition Simple Components
P1 r: √2 is rational number
P2 f: Logic is Fun
i: Logic is interesting
b: Logic is boring
P3 h: You study hard
g: you get good grades
P4 a: You are more than 60 years old
s: You are entitled to a senior citizen‟s card

The compound propositions can thus be expressed as follows:

; not r
: f and i or b
: if h, then g
: (if a then s) and (if s then a)

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Self Evaluation:
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Construct five propositions and then determine its truth value if possible.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Review of Concepts:

 A proposition is a statement that can be either true or

false; it must be one or the other, and it cannot be both.
EXAMPLES.
The following are propositions:

 the reactor is on;

 the wing-flaps are up; –
 John Major is prime minister.

Whereas the following are not:

 Are you going out somewhere?
 2+3

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 Any two propositions can be combined to form a third proposition called the conjunction
of the original propositions.
 Any two propositions can be combined by the word „or‟ to form a third proposition called
the disjunction of the originals.
 Many statements, particularly in mathematics, are of the form:
o if p is true then q is true.
o Another way of saying the same thing is to write: p implies q.

Posttest:
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

I. Determine whether the following statements are propositions then identify its truth value if
possible.

1. 2 ≤ 1
Ans:

2. The year 2016 is a leap year and the equation has no real solutions.
Ans:

3. If a triangle has a right angle, then the triangle is called a right triangle.
Ans:

4. Either a student takes mathematics elective next semester, or he takes a business elective
next year.
Ans:

5. What is 5/10 in simplest form?

Ans:

II. For each of the following compound propositions, identify the simple components and the
logical connectors used.
1. If fewer than 10 persons are in attendance, then the meeting will be cancelled.
Simple component 1:
Simple component 2:

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Connector:

2. Carlos will not fail the course if his final exam score exceeds 50%
Simple component 1:
Simple component 2:
Connector:

References:
Anfmann, R., et al., (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World. Phils. Ed., Rex Books Store, Inc.
Manila, Phils
Nocon, RC, Nocon, EG. (2018). Essestial Mathematics for the Modern World. First Ed. C&E Publishing,
Inc. Quezon City, Phils
https://en.wikipedia.org/
https://sites.math.northwestern.edu/~mlerma/courses/cs310-04w/notes/dm-propositions.pdf
https://www.thoughtco.com/declarative-sentence-grammar
https://www.slideshare.net/Iyha14/logic-lesson-truth-table-negation-conjunction-dis-junction
http://proofsfromthebook.com/2016/09/11/compound-propositions/
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions/
https://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/people/michael.wooldridge/teaching/soft-eng/lect07.pdf

Appendix:
Underline the declarative sentences given below that are either true or false. (ANSWERS)

 The sun is the center of the universe.

 What a great day it is!
 The wedding was a symbol of their love.
 What time is it?
 You have to be fit to climb a mountain.
 Where do I begin?
 When your temperature rises to 380 then you have a fever.
 Ouch! It hurts so much.

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Topic 6.2: Logical Operators

Time Frame: 2hrs.

Introduction:
Logical operators can build compound conditions into a formula, such as two or more
conditions that must be met before you choose a particular
method of calculation. With logical operators, you can describe
such combinations of conditions.

Mathematicians often develop ways to construct new

mathematical objects from existing mathematical objects. It is
possible to form new statements from existing statements by
connecting the statements with words such as ―and‖ and ―or‖ or by
negating the statement.

A logical operator (or connective) on mathematical statements

is a word or combination of words that combines one or more mathematical statements to make
a new mathematical statement. A compound statement is a statement that contains one or
more operators. Because some operators are used so frequently in logic and mathematics, we
give them names and use special symbols to represent them.

Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students are expected to:

 Perform operations on mathematical expression correctly;

 Constructs a truth table;
 Define the logical operators: negation, conjunction, disjunction,
conditional and biconditional.

Pretest:
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

State the negation of the following propositions.

1. Mary received a text message from her friend.
Answer:

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2. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑧2
Answer:

3. Eden teaches high-level mathematics to college students.

Answer:

4. James was not able to fetch his sister from school today.
Answer:

5. The student brings at most two bags with him every school day.

Answer:

Learning Activities:
Let‟s do this;
Underline the correct connector for each set of sentences;
1. I accidentally step on my friend‟s foot.
I said sorry to him. (not, then, or)
2. Shylo is good in reading.
She excels in her classes. (and, then, or)
3. Lino have to study hard.
Lino will pass his exams. (and, then, or)
4. I will do the Laundry.
I will go to bed. (not, then, or)
5. My mom have forgotten to pay the water bill.
We do not have water supply at home. (and, then, or)
By answering the short activity above, you have already used some of the logical operators.

Logical Operators and Truth Tables

Definition: Given a proposition, its truth table show all its possible truth
values.
Example 1. Since a proposition has two possible truth values, a
proposition would have the following truth table.

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~n2: ―It is not true that 2 is an odd number‖, or ―2 is an even number.‖

~n3: ―The tinikling is not the most difficult dance.‖
~n4: ―Not everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.‖

Definition. The conjunction of the propositions p and q is denoted by

Example 3:
Express the following conjunctions as English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.
(a) p ^ q
(b) p ^ (~q)
(c) 'Angels do not exist and 𝜋 ≤ 3.'
(d) 'While angels do not exist, 𝜋 > 3.'

Solution. The corresponding English sentences are given below.

(a) p ^ q: 'Angels exist and _ 𝜋 >3.'
(b) p ^ (~q): 'Angels exist and 𝜋 >3', or 'Angels exist, yet 𝜋 >3.'
(c) In symbols, we have (~ p) ^ (~q)

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(d) In logic, the statement is a conjunction and so, in symbols, (~p) ^ (q)

Definition. The disjunction of two propositions and is denoted by

and is defined through its truth table

The propositions and are called disjuncts.

The above truth table shows us that the disjunction is false only when both disjuncts p and q are
false.

Example 4: Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:

p:Victor has a date with Liza.
q: Janree is sleeping.
r: Eumir is eating.

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Example 5: Let p, q and r be propositions as in the:

p: Victor has a date with Liza.
q: Janree is sleeping.
r: Eumir is eating.
Consider the following scenario.
One Friday night, Victor and Janree are busy studying for their Logic exam. Meanwhile, Eumir
just tweeted a picture of himself eating crispy pata and sisig!
What is the truth value of the proposition (~ p) v (q ^ r)?

Solution. From Eumir's tweet, we can conclude that he is eating and so proposition r is true.
Since
Janree is studying, proposition q is false. This implies that conjunction q ^ r is false, since one of
the conjuncts is false. The proposition p is also false because Victor is studying, which means
that
(~ p) is true. Hence, the disjunction (~ p) v (q ^ r) is true as one of the disjuncts is true.

This discussion may be summarized in a table as in the following:

Suppose that Geebee is a 1st year college student. Consider the following conditionals:
p1: If Geebee is taking up engineering course, then she is a college student.

p2: If Geebee is a 1st year college student, then she is working as a lawyer.

p3: If Geebee has a degree in Computer Science, then she believes in true love.

Analyze the truth values of these conditionals.

p1: The hypothesis and the conclusion are true. Thus, is true (from the first row
of the truth table for the conditional statement).

p2: While the hypothesis is true, the conclusion is not (a college student is not
qualified to be a lawyer). From the definition of the conditional (second row of its
truth table), the conditional statement is not true.

p3: The hypothesis is not true since Geebee is still in Grade 11. On the other hand, we cannot
determine the truth value of the conclusion ―she believes in true love.‖ From the last two rows of
the truth table, regardless of the truth value of the conclusion, the conditional statement is true.

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One day, Richard tweeted: “If I get promoted, then I will stop posting selfies on
Facebook.” Let be the statement “Richard gets promoted,” and let
be the statement, “Richard stops posting selfies on Facebook.”
Determine whether the conditional is true given the following
scenarios.

Scenario A: Richard got the promotion and promptly stopped posting

selfies on Facebook.

Scenario B: Richard got promoted, but then he realized that posting selfies has become a habit
he cannot break easily.

Scenario C: Richard stopped posting selfies, but he did not get the promotion.

.Scenario A: In this scenario both the hypothesis and the conclusion are true. This means that
Richard kept his promise. According to the first row of the truth table, the conditional p→q is
true.

Scenario B: In this scenario, Richard broke his promise. According to the second row of the
truth table, the conditional p →q is false.

Scenario C: In this scenario, did Richard break his promise? Of course not. He did not say that
his promotion is the only way to make him stop posting selfies. Perhaps Richard read an article
which claims that people who are fond of posting selfies have some psychological disorder! In
any case he did not break his promise, and according to the third and fourth rows of the truth
table, the conditional p →q is true.

Self Evaluation:
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:
State the negation of the following propositions.
1. Mathematics is easy to study.
Answer:

2. Nellie‟s favorite song is ―Hero‖ by Mariah Carey.

Answer:

3. Logic is not taken up in junior high school.

Answer:

Let p, q, and r be the propositions p: ―Rena eats at the Spanish restaurant.‖,

q: ―Rena orders the restaurant‟s special paella.‖,

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r: ―Rena has dessert.‖

Express the following statements in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.
1. ―Rena orders the restaurant‟s special paella, but she does not have dessert.‖
Answer:

2. ―Whenever Rena eats at the Spanish restaurant, either she orders the restaurant‟s special
paella or she has dessert.‖
Answer:

3. ―If Rena eats at the Spanish restaurant, she orders the restaurant‟s special paella if and only
if she does not order dessert.‖
Answer:

Review of Concepts:
A logical operator is a symbol or word used to connect two or more
expression s such that the value of the compound expression
produced depends only on that of the original expressions and on
the meaning of the operator.
Common logical operators include AND, OR, and NOT.
A logical expression can only have the values .true. or .false.
Relational operators are used to form logical expressions to
determine choice and decision-making structures.

Posttest:
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

1. ―Annie does not have a stomach ache, yet she misses the exam.‖
Answer:

2. ―If Annie has a stomach ache, then she misses the exam and does not receive a passing
grade for the subject.‖
Answer:

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3.
Answer:

4.
Answer:

Let u, v and w be the propositions u: ―Bea drives over the speed limit along the highway.‖, v :
―Bea is pulled over by the traffic enforcer.‖ and w: ―Bea receives a speeding ticket.‖

Express the following propositions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may
be.
1. ―Bea does not drive over the speed limit and does not receive a speeding ticket.‖
Answer:

2. ―Whenever Bea drives over the speed limit, she is pulled over by the traffic enforcer.‖
Answer:

3. ―Bea receives a speeding ticket only if she drives over the speed limit along the highway or if
she is pulled over by the traffic enforcer.‖
Answer:

References:
Anfmann, R., et al., (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World. Phils. Ed., Rex Books Store, Inc.
Manila, Phils
Nocon, RC, Nocon, EG. (2018). Essestial Mathematics for the Modern World. First Ed. C&E Publishing,
Inc. Quezon City, Phils
https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic01-propLogic.pdf
https://buenavistanhs.weebly.com/uploads/7/2/2/8/7228051/general_math_lm_for_shs.pdf
https://press.rebus.community/programmingfundamentals/chapter/logical-operators/
https://fmhelp.filemaker.com/help/18/fmp/en/index.html#page/FMP_Help/logical-operators.html

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Appendix:
Underline the correct connector to be used in the following given sets of sentences:
(ANSWERS)

1. I accidentally step on my friend‟s foot.

I said sorry to him. (not, then, or)
2. Shylo is good in reading.

She excels in her classes. (and, then, or)

3. Lino have to study hard.
Lino will pass his exams. (and, then, or)
4. I will do the Laundry.
I will go to bed. (not, then, or)
5. My mom have forgotten to pay the water bill.
We do not have water supply at home. (and, then, or)

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Topic 6.3: Truth Tables

Time Frame: 1hr.

Introduction:

Mathematics normally uses a two-valued logic: every statement is either true or false. You
use truth tables to determine how the truth or falsity of a complicated statement depends on
the truth or falsity of its components.
Complex, compound statements can be
composed of simple statements linked together
with logical connectives (also known as "logical
operators") similarly to how algebraic operators
like addition and subtraction are used in
combination with numbers and variables in
algebra. Conjunction (AND), disjunction (OR), negation (NOT), implication (IF...THEN), and
biconditionals (IF AND ONLY IF), are all different types of connectives.

Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students are expected to:

 Perform Operations on Mathematical Expression Correctly;

 Construct the truth tables;
 Differentiate a tautology from a contradiction.

Pretest:
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:
Construct the truth table for the following compound propositions. Assume all variables denote
propositions.

p q (~p) (~q) q v (~p) (q v (~p)) ^ (~q) r

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Learning Activities:
Try this;
Given the sentences below, group them whether it is TRUE, FALSE or UNDETERMINED
The Philippines is compose of three main islands.
Filipinos are warm and friendly.
Everyone who goes to Church is Honest.
You are a rich person when you go abroad.
Faith Healers are considered the Best doctors
A loyal friend always smiles at you.
A Penguin is a bird.
Mammals don‟t lay eggs.
TRUE FALSE UNDETERMINED

What you have just answered are probable propositions and you have just discovered its truth
value.
Truth Tables
Example 1:

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Solution. There are three primitive propositions involved, and so the truth table for the
compound proposition has 8 rows.

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Self Evaluation:
Name: Score:
Course/year/section: Date:
Direction: Answer the following questions briefly and concise.
1. How will you relate the concept of Tautology in your daily life?

2. How will you relate the concept of Contradiction in your daily life?

3. Cite Sample Events in your life that shows the concepts of tautology and contradiction.

Review of Concepts:
A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a compound
statement depends on the truth or falsity of the simple statements
from which it's constructed. So we'll start by looking at truth
tables for the five logical connectives. Here's the table for negation:
This table is easy to understand.
A tautology is a formula which is "always true" --- that is, it is true for
every assignment of truth values to its simple components. You can
think of a tautology as a rule of logic.

The opposite of a tautology is a contradiction, a formula which is

"always false". In other words, a contradiction is false for every
assignment of truth values to its simple components.

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Posttest:
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:
Construct the truth table for the following compound propositions. Assume all variables denote
propositions.

p q r ~p ~q q ^ (~r) (~p) ^ (q^(~r))

References:
Anfmann, R., et al., (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World. Phils. Ed., Rex Books Store, Inc.
Manila, Phils
Nocon, RC, Nocon, EG. (2018). Essestial Mathematics for the Modern World. First Ed. C&E Publishing,
Inc. Quezon City, Phils
https://buenavistanhs.weebly.com/uploads/7/2/2/8/7228051/general_math_lm_for_shs.pdf
https://brilliant.org/wiki/truth-tables/
http://sites.millersville.edu/bikenaga/math-proof/truth-tables/truth-tables.html

Appendix:
Answer to the given Activity Above.
TRUE FALSE UNDETERMINED
Philippines is compose of Faith Healers are Filipinos are warm
three giant islands. considered the Best and friendly.
doctors
A Penguin is a bird. Mammals don‟t lay eggs. Everyone who goes
to Church is Honest.
You are a rich person
when you go abroad.
A loyal friend always
smiles at you.

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GE MATH
MODULE 7
Data: Gathering, Organizing,
Representing, Interpreting

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR

MARIA FE C. GUERRA
FLORIA C. DIALDE
RICKY T. OSORIO
RHEA MAE C. BABAS
GINA C. BOTOY
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY
JHOAN G. ANDUYAN
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD
JULIUS G. CAADAN
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA

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1. Title: Data Management

2. Topic: Data: Gathering, Organizing, Representing, Interpreting

3. Time Frame: 2 hrs.

4. Introduction
Statistics is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis,
interpretation, and presentation of data. In applying statistics to a scientific,
industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to begin with a statistical population
or a statistical model to be studied. Populations can be diverse groups of people
or objects such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a
crystal". Statistics deals with every aspect of data, including the planning of data
collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Define data and statistics.
2. Explain the difference between a population and a sample.
3. Describe four basic methods of sampling.
4. Construct a frequency distribution for a data set.
5. Draw a stem and leaf plot for a data set.

6. Learning Activities

Elementary Statistical Terms

Data are measurements or observations that are gathered for an event under
study.

Statistics is the branch of mathematics that involves collecting, organizing,

summarizing, and presenting data and drawing general conclusions from that data.

Statistics can be divided into two areas:

 descriptive statistics – consists of methods for organizing, displaying and
describing data using tables, graphs, and summary measures.
 inferential statistics – consists of methods that use sample results to help
make decisions or predictions about a population.

Example: Determine if the following is of descriptive or inferential statistics

1. The average salary of a random sample of 50 high school teachers in 2010
was Php 15,400.00.
2. The average Filipino viewer watches 151 hours of TV show per month.
3. The average satisfaction rating of a library services by 26 users is 4.6 on a
scale of 1 to 5.
4. A study has concluded that the average financial loans of public school
teachers has decreased from the year 2017 to 2018.

Solution:
1. Descriptive Statistics
2. Descriptive Statistics
3. Descriptive Statistics
4. Inferential Statistics

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When statistical studies are performed, we usually begin by identifying the

population for the study.

A population consists of all subjects under study. (i.e. all colleges in the
Philippines). Population consists of all elements – individuals, items, or objects –
whose characteristics are being studied. The population that is being studied is
also called target population.

More often than not, it‘s not realistic to gather data from every member of a
population.

A unit is a single entity (usually a person or an object) whose characteristics are of

interest.

The population can be:

 real – all units really exist (students of SSCT, daily production of breads,…)
 hypothetical – is generally defined, but really exists just a particular part of
it (physical or chemical measurements).

A sample is a representative subgroup or subset of a population. A sample from

a statistical population is a proportion (a subset) of the population selected for
study.

A survey that includes every member of the population is called census. The
technique of collecting information from a proportion of the population is called
sample survey.

A sample that represents the characteristics of the population as closely as

possible is called a representative sample.

A sample can be
 random – A sample drawn in such a way that each element of the
population has a chance of being selected. If all samples of the same size
selected from a population have the same chance of being selected, we call
it simple random sampling. Such a sample is called a simple random
sample.
 non-random – The elements of the sample are not selected randomly but
with a view of obtaining a representative sample.

Example: Determine the population and sample in the following:

1. In a recent survey, 250 college students at SSCT were asked if they smoked
cigarettes regularly. 35 of the students said yes.
2. A recent survey of 2625 elementary school children found that 28% of the
children could be classified malnourished.
3. The average weight of every sixth person entering the mall within 3 hour period
was 146 lb.
4. In a certain locality, a survey of 1353 households found that 18% of the
households own a computer.

Solution:
1. Population: All college students at SSCT
Sample: 250 college students

2. Population: All school children in a certain elementary school

Sample: 2625 elementary school children

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3. Population: All persons entering the mall with 3 hour period

Sample: Every 6th person entering the mall within 3 hour period

4. Population: All households in a certain locality

Sample: 1353 housholds

A parameter is a numerical description of a population characteristic.

A statistic is a numerical description of a sample characteristic.

Example: Decide whether the numerical value describes a population parameter

or a sample statistic.
1. A recent survey of a sample of 450 college students reported that the average
weekly income for students is Php 325.00.
2. The average weekly income for all students is Php 405.00.
3. A recent survey by the alumni of a university indicated that the average salary
of 10,000 of all its 300,000 graduates was Php 125,000.00.
4. The average salary of 20 out of 30 employees at a certain store is Php
33,000.00.

Solution:
1. This is a sample statistic because the average weekly income is based on a
sample.
2. This is a population parameter because the average weekly income is based
on a population.
3. This is a population parameter because the average salary is based on a
population.
4. This is a sample statistic because the average salary is based on a sample.

Main Types of Data (variables)

A variable is a characteristic under study that assumes different values for

different elements. The value of variable for an element is called an observation or
measurement.

A data set is a collection of observations on one or more variables. The number

of observations we call a sample size and denote usually 𝑛.
We distinguish two basic types of data (variables)

 qualitative or categorical data – A variable that cannot assume a numerical

value but can be classified into two or more non-numeric categories is called
a qualitative or categorical variable, the data collected on such a variable
are called qualitative data.
Examples: color of cars (black, red, green,. . . ), marital status of
people (unmarried, married, divorced, widow–widower), sex (male,
female), etc.

 quantitative or numerical data – A variable that can be measured

numerically is called a quantitative variable. The data collected on a
quantitative variable are called quantitative data.
o discrete variable – usually integer numbers
Examples: number of typographical errors in newspapers, number of
persons in a family, number of cars owned by families, etc.

o continuous variable – real numbers

Examples: height, weight, survival time, etc.

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Example: Read the following examples and decide if it is qualitative or

quantitative. If quantitative, determine if it is discrete or continuous.
1. It is light green in color.
2. It tastes sour.
3. One leaf is 9 cm long.
4. It makes a loud pop sound.
5. The mass of the computer is 1.5 kg.

Solution:
1. Qualitative
2. Qualitative
3. Quantitative; Discrete
4. Qualitative
5. Quantitative; Continuous

Levels of Measurement
The level of measurement determines which statistical calculations are
meaningful. The four levels of measurement are: nominal, ordinal, interval, and
ratio.
1. Nominal Level
In this level of measurement, the numbers in the variable are used only to
classify the data. In this level of measurement, words, letters, and alpha-
numeric symbols can be used. Suppose there are data about people belonging
to three different gender categories. In this case, the person belonging to the
female gender could be classified as F, the person belonging to the male
gender could be classified as M, and transgendered classified as T. This type
of assigning classification is nominal level of measurement.
Examples: City of birth, Gender, Ethnicity, Car brands, Marital status

2. Ordinal Level
This level of measurement depicts some ordered relationship among the
variable‘s observations. Suppose a student scores the highest grade of 100 in
the class. In this case, he would be assigned the first rank. Then, another
classmate scores the second highest grade of 92; she would be assigned the
second rank. A third student scores 81 and he would be assigned the third
rank, and so on. The ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of he
measurements.
Examples: Top 5 Olympic medallists, Language ability (e.g., beginner,
intermediate, fluent), Likert-type questions (e.g., very dissatisfied to very
satisfied)

3. Interval Level
The interval level of measurement not only classifies and orders the
measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each interval
on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval.
For example, an interval level of measurement could be the measurement of
anxiety in a student between the score of 10 and 11, this interval is the same
as that of a student who scores between 40 and 41. A popular example of this
level of measurement is temperature in centigrade, where, for example, the
distance between 940C and 960C is the same as the distance between 100 0C
and 1020C.

Examples: Test scores (e.g., IQ or exams), Personality inventories,

Temperature in Fahrenheit or Celsius

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4. Ratio Level
In this level of measurement, the observations, in addition to having equal
intervals, can have a value of zero as well. The zero in the scale makes this
type of measurement unlike the other types of measurement, although the
properties are similar to that of the interval level of measurement. In the ratio
level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the scale have an
equivalent distance between them.

Examples: Height, Age, Weight, Temperature in Kelvin

Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the
population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of
obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number,
and then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include.1
For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals, labelled 0 to 999,
use groups of three digits from the random number table to pick your sample. So,
if the first three numbers from the random number table were 094, select the
individual labelled ―94‖, and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the
sampling error to be calculated and reduces selection bias. A specific advantage
is that it is the most straightforward method of probability sampling. A disadvantage
of simple random sampling is that you may not select enough individuals with your
characteristic of interest, especially if that characteristic is uncommon. It may also
be difficult to define a complete sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them,
especially if different forms of contact are required (email, phone, post) and your
sample units are scattered over a wide geographical area.

2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals
are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size 𝑛 from
a population of size 𝑥, you should select every 𝑥/𝑛𝑡𝑕 individual for the sample. For
example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select
every 1000/100 = 10𝑡𝑕 member of the sampling frame.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and
it is easy to administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are
underlying patterns in the order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that
the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the underlying pattern. As
a hypothetical example, if a group of students were being sampled to gain their
opinions on college facilities, but the total list of all students was arranged such
that the sex of students alternated between male and female, choosing an even
interval (e.g. every 20th student) would result in a sample of all males or all
females. Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be easily corrected,
this may not always be the case.

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3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all
share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the
measurement of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we want to
ensure representation from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke
outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex, to ensure equal representation
of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by taking equal sample
sizes from each stratum. In stratified sampling, it may also be appropriate to
choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum.

For example, in a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there
are three hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500
nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be appropriate
to choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from
hospital A, 20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic
and accurate estimation of the health outcomes of nurses across the county,
whereas simple random sampling would over-represent nurses from hospitals A
and B. The fact that the sample was stratified should be taken into account at the
analysis stage.

Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results

by reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate
characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of which are not always
available), and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to stratify by.

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit,
rather than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as
clusters, which are randomly selected to be included in the study. Clusters are
usually already defined, for example individual GP practices or towns could be
identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen
clusters are then included in the study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection
of individuals from each cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion. Clustering
should be taken into account in the analysis.

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling, especially
where a study takes place over a wide geographical region. Disadvantages include
an increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters are not representative of the
population, resulting in an increased sampling error.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because

participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful
results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias, because those
who volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to
(volunteer bias), and the sample may not be representative of other characteristics,
such as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling
methods.

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2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are

given a quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For example, an
interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20 adult women, 10
teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview them about their
television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would proportionally represent the
characteristics of the underlying population.

While this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and potentially
representative, the chosen sample may not be representative of other
characteristics that weren‘t considered (a consequence of the non-random nature
of sampling).

3. Judgment (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the

judgment of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate. Researchers
may implicitly thus choose a ―representative‖ sample to suit their needs, or
specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics. This approach is
often used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions and in qualitative
research.

Judgment sampling has the advantage of being time- and cost-effective to perform
while resulting in a range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative research).
However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgment by the
researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not necessarily be
representative.

4. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-reach

groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them,
so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying
out a survey of risk behaviors amongst intravenous drug users, participants may
be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.

Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to identify.

However, by selecting friends and acquaintances of subjects already investigated,
there is a significant risk of selection bias (choosing a large number of people with
similar characteristics or views to the initial individual identified).

Bias in sampling

There are five important potential sources of bias that should be considered when
selecting a sample, irrespective of the method used. Sampling bias may be
introduced when:

1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from

2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if they are difficult to
contact
4. There are low response rates
5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example, if it excludes
people who have recently moved to an area)

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Organizing and Graphing Data

Organizing and Graphing Categorical Data

After categorical data has been sampled it should be summarized to provide the
following information:
1. Which values have been observed? (red, green, blue, brown, orange, yellow)
2. How often did every value occur?

Categorical data is usually summarized in a table giving the following information:

• categories observed
• frequency, or number of measurements for each category
• relative frequency, or proportion of measurements for each category
• percentage of measurements for each category

Definition: The relative frequency for a particular category is the fraction or

proportion of the frequency that the category appears in the the data set. It is
calculated as
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦
Relative frequency of a category = 𝑥 100%
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

Example:
Sum of all frequencies = sample size = number of observations=n=200

relative
category frequency percentage
frequency
wood 50 0.25 25 %
tiles 10 0.05 5%
linoleum 20 0.1 10 %
carpet 120 0.6 60 %
Total 200 1 100%

Such a table is called the frequency distribution table for categorical data. Once
the data is summarized in a frequency distribution table, the data can be displayed
in a bar chart or pie chart. The bar chart (bar graph) will effectively show the
frequencies in the different categories whereas the pie chart will show the
relationship between the parts and the whole.

Bar Graph - a graph made of bars whose heights represent the frequencies of
respective categories is called a bar graph. Instead of frequencies a bar graph
might display the relative frequencies or percentages of the categories.
• For every category the x-axis is marked with a tick.
• Each category is represented by a bar, which AREA is proportional to the
corresponding frequency (relative frequency).
• label the y-axis.

Remark: The width of each bar should be the same, so the height is proportional
to the corresponding frequency.

Example: Suppose the frequency distribution of the mainly used flooring

products is:
frequency relative frequency
wood 50 0.25
tiles 10 0.05
linoleum 20 0.1
carpet 120 0.6

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Pie Charts - provide an alternative kind of graph for categorical data. It is a circle
divided into portions that represent the relative frequencies or percentages of a
population or sample belonging to different categories is called a pie-chart. The
size of the slice representing a particular category is proportional to the
corresponding frequency (relative frequency) that fall within this category.

How to create a pie chart:

• Draw a circle
• Calculate the slice size ( angle )
slice size=category relative frequency · 360
(fraction of the circle for the category)
• use protractor to mark the angles

frequency relative angle

frequency
wood 50 0.25 90
tiles 10 0.05 18
linoleum 20 0.1 36
carpet 120 0.6 216

Example: On the M&M‘s webpage the following information on the distribution of

colors in peanut
M&M‘s is provided
color brown yellow blue red orange green
percent 12% 15% 12% 23% 23% 15%

In order if this distribution is a ‖true‖ description of what is in a bag, someone

bought a bag with 200 peanut M&M‘s and wants to describe the colors of the
contents. Color is a categorical variable, so a relative frequency table shall be
obtained.

color count rel. freq. percentage

brown 50 0.25 25 %
yellow 28 0.14 14 %
red 14 0.07 7%
blue 52 0.26 26 %
orange 36 0.18 18 %
green 20 0.1 10 %
Total 200 1 100 %

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And a bar chart would look like this:

For the pie chart the angles of the slices have to be determined

color count Relative frequency angle

brown 50 0.25 90⁰
yellow 28 0.14 50.4⁰
red 14 0.07 25.2⁰
blue 52 0.26 93.6⁰
orange 36 0.18 64.8⁰
green 20 0.1 36⁰
Total 200 1 360⁰

This results in the following pie chart

Organizing and Graphing Quantitative Data

Graphs from this section display the data for a quantitative variable in a fashion so
that the distribution of the data becomes apparent.

Relative Frequency Histograms - The most common graph for describing

numerical continuous data is the histogram. It visualizes the distribution of the

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underlying variable, that is: how many measurements are found where on the
measurement scale.

How a histogram looks like:

Definition: A relative frequency histogram for a quantitative data set is a bar graph
in which the height of the bar shows ―how often‖ (measured as a relative frequency)
measurements fall in a particular interval. The classes or intervals are plotted along
the horizontal axis.

The first step into creating a histogram, is finding the frequency distribution of the
variable of interest.

Definition: A frequency distribution for quantitative data lists all the classes and
the number of values that belong to each class.

How to obtain a frequency distribution:

1. Decide which class intervals (preferably of equal length) to use for the frequency
distribution. Each class is given through its lower boundary and its upper
boundary.
The class width= upper boundary - lower boundary.
The number of class intervals used should be approximately the square root of
the sample size, but not lower than 4 and not larger than 20.
Use sensible interval boundaries:
The intervals should have if possible the same width and the boundaries should
be rounded numbers (if possible whole numbers or tenth, or multiples).

2. Create a frequency table for the class intervals using the method of left
inclusion. List the class intervals and the frequency of values falling within this
interval.
Also give the relative frequencies for each class interval.

These relative frequencies can now be displayed in a histogram. To obtain the

histogram from the frequency distribution, follow the following steps:
1. Mark the boundaries of the class intervals on a horizontal axis.
2. Use the relative frequency on the vertical axis.
3. Draw a bar for each class interval, with heights according to the relative
frequency of the corresponding class interval.

Example: Histogram for acceptance rates:

1. The sample size is 25, the square root is 5, but we will use 4 class intervals,
because of the range is about 10 - 50, which is easily divided into intervals
[10,20),[20,30),[30,40),[40,50)

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2.
class intervals frequency relative frequency
[10,20) 4 0.16
[20,30) 8 0.32
[30,40) 10 0.40
[40,50) 3 0.12

3. This graph uses the frequency (relative frequency is a better choice the intervals
have the same width!)

It shows: center, range,

concentration, nature of
distribution (unimodal,
bimodal, multimodal),
unusual values, skewed to
the right/left.

Features to check for in a histogram

1. center, where is the ‖middle‖ of the data?
2. range, the data fall between which values
3. number of peaks: unimodal (just one peak), bimodal (often occurs if you have
observation from two groups (men, women)(two peaks), multimodal(more than 2
peaks)
4. symmetry: if you can draw a vertical line so that the part to the left is a mirror
image of the part to the right, then it is symmetric.
5. nonsymmetric graphs are skewed. If the upper tail of the histogram stretches out
farther than the lower tail, then is the histogram positively skewed, or skewed to
the right.
6. Is the lower tail longer than the upper tail the histogram is negatively skewed.
7. Check for outliers.

7. Practice Exercises

1. For the studies described, identify the population, sample, population

parameters, and sample statistics:
a. In a USA Today Internet poll, readers responded voluntarily to the
question ―Do you consume at least one caffeinated beverage every
day?‖
b. Astronomers typically determine the distance to galaxy (a galaxy is a
huge collection of billions of stars) by measuring the distances to just a
few stars within it and taking the mean (average) of these distance
measurements.

2. Identify whether the statement describes inferential statistics or descriptive

statistics:
a. The average age of the students in a statistics class is 21 years.
b. The chances of winning the California Lottery are one chance in
twenty-two million.
c. There is a relationship between smoking cigarettes and getting
emphysema.
d. From past figures, it is predicted that 39% of the registered voters in
California will vote in the June primary.

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3. Determine whether the data are qualitative or quantitative:

a. the colors of automobiles on a used car lot
b. the numbers on the shirts of a girl‘s soccer team
c. the number of seats in a movie theatre
d. a list of house numbers on your street
e. the ages of a sample of 350 employees of a large hospital

4. Identify the data set‘s level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio):
a. hair color of women on a high school tennis team
b. numbers on the shirts of a girl‘s volleyball team
c. ages of students in a statistics class
d. temperatures of 22 selected refrigerators
e. number of milligrams of tar in 28 cigarettes
f. number of pages in your statistics book
g. marriage status of the faculty in SSCT Del Carmen
h. the ratings of a movie ranging from ―poor‖ to ―good‖ to ―excellent‖
i. the annual salaries for all teachers in Siargao
j. list of zip codes for municipalities in Siargao

5. Identify the sampling technique used (random, cluster, stratified,

convenience, systematic):
a. Every fifth person boarding a plane is searched thoroughly.
b. At a local community College, five math classes are randomly selected
out of 20 and all of the students from each class are interviewed.
c. A researcher randomly selects and interviews fifty male and fifty
female teachers.
d. A researcher for an airline interviews all of the passengers on five
randomly selected flights.
e. Based on 12,500 responses from 42,000 surveys sent to its alumni, a
major university estimated that the annual salary of its alumni was
92,500.

6. The pie chart on the right, which is not drawn to scale, shows the distribution
of various types of land in a district. Calculate:
a. the area of woodland as a fraction of the total area shown,
b. the angle of the urban sector,
c. the total area of the district

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7. The bar graph below shows the takings of a small business.

a. On which day was the smallest amount of money collected?

b. On which day was the largest amount of money collected?
c. Find the total money collected for the week.

8. References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

Ben-Shlomo Y, Brookes S, Hickman M. 2013. Lecture Notes: Epidemiology, Evidence-based

Medicine and Public Health (6th ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1a-
epidemiology/methods-of-sampling-population

http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/sampling.html

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GE MATH
MODULE 8
Measures of Central
Tendency

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR

MARIA FE C. GUERRA
FLORIA C. DIALDE
RICKY T. OSORIO
RHEA MAE C. BABAS
GINA C. BOTOY
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY
JHOAN G. ANDUYAN
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD
JULIUS G. CAADAN
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA

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1. Title: Data Management

2. Topic: Measures of Central Tendency

3. Time Frame: 3 hrs.

4. Introduction
A measure of central tendency is a descriptive statistic that describes the average,
or typical value of a set of scores. Questions like: ―What is the average price of
gasoline in Siargao area?‖, ―How well did you do on Math test?‖ are asking for a
statistic that describes a large set of data and there are three common measures
which can address this query, the measures of central tendency: mean, median,
and mode.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Determine the measures of central tendency
2. Find the mean, median and mode in a given data set

6. Learning Activities

Measures of Central Tendency

The measures of central tendency locate the distribution by various points. Use
these measures when you want to show how an average or most commonly
indicated response. These measures are the mean, median, and mode.

The Mean
The mean of a set of numerical observation is the familiar arithmetic average. To write the
formula for the mean in a mathematical fashion we have to introduce some notation.

Introduction of notation:
x = the variable for which we have sample data
n = sample size = number of observations
x1 = the first sample observation
x2 = the second sample observation
xn = the nth sample observation

For example, we might have a sample of n = 4 observations on x = battery lifetime (hr):

x1 = 5.9, x2 = 7.3, x3 = 6.6, x4 = 5.7

The sum of x1, x2, ..., xn can be denoted by

x1 + x2 + ... + xn

but this is cumbersome.

The Greek letter Σ is traditionally used in mathematics to denote summation. In particular

will denote the sum of x1,···,xn.

For the example above∑𝑖=1

4 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 5.9 + 7.3 + 6.6 + 5.7 = 25.5

Definition:
The sample mean of a numerical sample x1, x2, ..., xn denoted by 𝑥 is
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑥1+𝑥2+⋯+𝑥𝑛 ∑𝑛 𝑥𝑖
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛 = 𝑖=1
𝑛

Thus, the mean battery life in the example above will be denoted

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When To Use the Mean?

You should use the mean when the data are interval- or ratio-scaled. Many people will
use the mean with ordinally-scaled data too and the data are not skewed. The mean is
preferred because it is sensitive to every score. If you change one score in the data set,
the mean will change.

Example:
1. Your 5 test scores in GE Math are 95, 83, 92, 81, 75. What is the mean?

2. The following are the test scores of all eight students in a 65-item quarterly exam in
Math: 53, 32, 61, 27, 39, 44, 49, 57.
Find the mean scores of these students.

3. The table below gives the range of ages of male students of SSCT for the last 20
years. Find the average age of these students.

Age of males Number of students

14≤x<18 94,000
18≤x<20 1,551,000
20≤x<22 1,420,000
22≤x<25 1,091,000
25≤x<30 865,000
30≤x<35 521,000
Total 5,542,000

Solution:
1. Sum up all the tests and divide by the total number of tests.

Mean = (95+83+92+81+75)/5 = 85.2

2. Sum up all the test scores and divide by the total number of test takers

53 + 32 + 61 + 27 + 39 + 44 + 49 + 57 362
𝑥= = = 45.25
8 8

Thus, the mean score of these students is 45.25.

3. When you are given a range of data, you need to find midpoints.

To find a midpoint, sum the two endpoints on the range and divide by 2.

For instance, for 14≤x<18, the midpoint is (14+18)/2=16.

Hence, the midpoints are 16, 19, 21, 23.5, 27.5, 32.5.

The total number of students is 5,542,000.

The average age is therefore computed as:

16(94,000)+19(1,551,000)+21(1,420,000)+23.5(1,091,000)+27.5(865,000)+32.5(521,000)
𝐴𝑣𝑒. 𝐴𝑔𝑒 =
5,542,000

𝐴𝑣𝑒. 𝐴𝑔𝑒 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟒

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Values that are very small or very large relative to the majority of the values in a data set
are called outliers or extreme values.

Example:
The table below lists the populations of teachers (in thousands) of the five provinces of
Caraga from year 2010 to 2020. Find the average number of teachers in the region.
Provinces Population (thousands)
Surigao del Norte 5894
Agusan del Sur 3421
Dinagat Islands 627
Surigao del Sur 1212
Agusan del Norte 33,872

Solution:
Notice that the population of teachers in Agusan del Norte is very large compared to the
populations of the other four provinces. Hence, it is an outlier. We will see how the
inclusion of this outlier affects the value of the mean.

If we do not include the population of Agusan del Norte (the outlier) the mean population
of the remaining four provinces (Agusan del Sur, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur,
Dinagat Islands) is
5894  3421 627 1212
Mean   2788.5 thousand
4
Hence, the average number of teachers in the region for 2010-2020 is almost 2,789.

Now, to see the impact of the outlier on the value of the mean, we include the population
of Agusan del Norte and find the mean population of all five provinces. This mean is

5894  3421 627 1212  33,872

Mean   9005.2 thousand
5
Thus, the average number of teachers in the region for 2010-2020 is about 9005.

Obviously, average number of teachers for the two scenarios changes because the mean
is easily affected by extreme values.

The Median
Another number to describe the center of a sample is the median. The median is the value
that divides the ordered sample in two sets of the same size, so that 50% of the data is
less than this number (and 50% is greater than this number).

Definition:
The median is the value of the middle term in a data set that has been ranked in increasing
order.

How do you find the median?

1. First, if possible or feasible, arrange the data from smallest value to largest value.

2. The location of the median can be calculated using this formula: (n+1)/2.

3. If (n+1)/2 is a whole number then that value gives the location. Just report the value
of that location as the median.

4. If (n+1)/2 is not a whole number then the first whole number less than the location
value and the first whole number greater than the location value will be used to
calculate the median. Take the data located at those 2 values and calculate the
average, this is the median.

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Value of Median for Ungrouped Data:

 n 1
Median  Value of the th term in a ranked data set
 
 2 


Example:
The following data give the weight lost (in pounds) by a sample of five members of a health
club at the end of two months of membership: 10, 5, 19, 8, 3
Find the median.

Solution:
First, we rank the given data in increasing order as follows: 3, 5, 8, 10, 19

There are five observations in the data set. Consequently, n = 5 and

n 1 5 1
Position of the middle term   3
2 2

Thus, the median is the value of the third term in the ranked data: 3, 5, 8, 10, 19

Hence, the median weight loss for this sample of five members of this health club is 8
pounds.

Example: From a 10-point quizzes from Statistics, the following scores were recorded:
9, 6, 7, 10, 9, 4, 9, 2, 9, 10, 7, 8, 5, 6, 7, 8

Solution:
As you can see there are 16 data points.

Now arrange the data points in order from smallest to largest:

2, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10

Calculate the location of the median: (16+1)/2=8.5.

Remember that if (n+1)/2 is not a whole number, the first whole number less than the
location value and the first whole number greater than the location value will be used to
calculate the median.

So, the data values to be used for the computation of the median are the 8th and 9th value
in the data set. In this case, 7 and 8.

Calculate the average of these values to find the median.

𝟕+𝟖
Thus, 𝑴𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 = = 𝟕. 𝟓
𝟐

The Mode
The mode is the most frequent number in a collection of data.

Example: Determine the mode for the following data sets:

1. 3, 10, 8, 8, 7, 8, 10, 3, 3, 3
2. 2, 5, 1, 5, 1, 2
3. 5, 7, 9, 1, 7, 5, 0, 4

Solution:
1. The mode is 3, because 3 has a frequency of 4.
2. The data has no mode because 1, 2, and 5 all have a frequency of 2.
3. The data set has two modes 5 and 7. This is said to be bimodal.

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Comparing mean and median

1. The mean is the balance point of the distribution. If you would try to balance a
histogram on a pin, you would have to position the pin at the mean in order to succeed.
2. The median is the point where the distribution is cut into two parts of the same area.
3. In a symmetric distribution mean and median are equal.
4. In a positively skewed distribution the mean is greater than the median.
5. In a negatively skewed distribution the mean is smaller than the median.

7. Practice Exercises

1. In a 10-item test in Mathematics, the following data were obtained. Find the
mean, median, and mode of theses test scores.
Score Number of Students
10 3
9 10
8 9
7 8
6 10
5 2

2. The mean of a set of 5 numbers is 30. If two consecutive integers are added to
the set, the mean of the set of numbers becomes 35. Find the larger of the
consecutive integers that was added to the original set.

8. References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

https://academic.macewan.ca/burok/Stat141/notes/organize.pdf

https://math.usask.ca/~longhai/teaching/2019/stat245/rdemo/slides/ch02.pdf

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GE MATH
MODULE 9
Measures of Variation

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR

MARIA FE C. GUERRA
FLORIA C. DIALDE
RICKY T. OSORIO
RHEA MAE C. BABAS
GINA C. BOTOY
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY
JHOAN G. ANDUYAN
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD
JULIUS G. CAADAN
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA

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1. Title: Data Management

2. Topic: Measures of Variation

3. Time Frame: 3 hrs.

4. Introduction

To introduce the idea of variability/variation/dispersion, consider this example. Two

vending machines A and B drop candies when a quarter is inserted. The number
of pieces of candy one gets is random. The following data are recorded for six trials
at each vending machine:

Vending Machine A
Pieces of candy from vending machine A:
1, 2, 3, 3, 5, 4
mean = 3, median = 3, mode = 3

Vending Maching B
Pieces of candy from vending machine B:
2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4
mean = 3, median = 3, mode = 3

The dot plot for the pieces of candy from vending machine A and vending
machine B is displayed in the figure below:

They have the same center, but what about their spreads?

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Determine the measures of variation
2. Solve basic exercises on the measures of variation

6. Learning Activities

Measures of Variation or Dispersion

Measure of variation is a single value that is used to describe the spread
of the scores in a distribution. The term variation is also known as variability or
dispersion. There are several ways of describing the variation of scores:
absolute measures of variation and relative measures of variation

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Measures of Dispersion Properties

Range (R) is the difference  used when the score distribution is
between the highest score and normal
the lowest score.  used when the data are in interval
or in ratio level of measurement
Interpretation: If the range is  used when quick answer is
large, the scores are more needed rough estimation of
dispersed. On the other hand, if variation or dispersion
the range is small, the scores are  easily affected by extreme scores
less dispersed or less scattered quick and easy to understand
or homogeneous  only two scores are needed to
compute the value of range
 very easy to compute
Inter-quartile Range (IQR)  used when the data are in ordinal
refers to the distance between level of measurement
the third quartile and the first  used when the frequency
quartile. distribution is irregular or skewed
 reduces the influence of the
Interpretation: The larger the extreme scores
value of IQR, the more dispersed  considers only the middle 50% of
the scores are from the median the scores in the distribution
value, or the smaller the value of  not easy to calculate as compared
IQR, the more clustered the to
scores are from the median the range
value.  the point of dispersion of the
scores is the median value
Quartile deviation (QD) refers  used when the data are in ordinal
to the average deviation of the level of measurement
third quartile and the first quartile  used when the score distribution is
from the value of the median irregular or skewed
 reduces the influence of the
Interpretation: The larger the extreme scores
value of QD, the more dispersed  considers only the middle 50% of
the scores are from the median the scores in the distribution
value; or the smaller the value of  not easy to calculate as compared
QD, the more clustered the to the range
scores are from the median  the point of dispersion of the
value. scores is the median value
Standard deviation (s) refers to  used when the data are in interval
the average distance that or in ratio level of measurement
deviates from the mean value.  used when the frequency
distribution is regular, symmetrical,
Interpretation: or normal
 the most important measure of
1. If the value of standard variation or dispersion
deviation is large, on the  the most commonly used measure
average, the scores in the of variation, particularly in
distribution will be far from research shows variation of the
the mean. Therefore, the individual scores about the mean
scores are spread out
around the mean value.
The distribution is also
known as heterogeneous.
2. If the value of standard
deviation is small, on the

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average, the scores in the

distribution will be close to
the mean. Hence, the
scores are less dispersed
or the scores in the
distribution are
homogeneous.

Absolute Measures of Variation

There are five types of absolute measures of variation which are very
important in analyzing the variation of scores of the students in certain
assessment procedures. These are the range, inter-quartile range and quartile
deviation, and variance and standard deviation

1. Range
Range (R) is the difference between the highest score and the lowest
score in a distribution, Range is the simplest and the crudest measure of
variation simplest because only the highest score and the lowest score are
needed to be considered; crudest because only the extreme scores are
needed to be utilized, without considering the other scores.

Range for Ungrouped Data

R = highest score – lowest score

Range for Grouped Data

R = HSUB – LSLB

where,
R – range
HS – upper boundary of the highest score
LS – lower boundary of the lowest score

2. Inter-quartile Range (IQR) and Quartile Deviation (QD)

Inter-quartile range is the difference between the third quartile and the first
quartile.
IQR = Q3 - QI

Quartile Deviation indicates the distance we need to go above and below

the median to approximately include the middle 50% of the scores. It is
based on the range of the middle 50% of the scores, instead of the range
of the entire set.
𝑄3−𝑄1
The formula in computing the value of the quartile deviation is 𝑄𝐷 = ,
𝑁
where QD is the quartile deviation value, Q1, is the value of the first quartile,
and Q3 is the value of the third quartile.

3. Variance and Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is the most important measure of variation or dispersion.
It is the average distance of all the scores that deviates from the mean
value. It show variation about the mean. It is also known as the square root
of the variance.

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Variance is one of the most important measures of variation. It shows

variation about the mean.

Population Variance Sample Variance

∑(𝑋−𝜇)2 ∑(𝑥−𝑥)2
𝜎2 = 𝑠2 =
𝑁 𝑛−1

Steps in Solving Variance of Ungrouped Data

1. Solve for the mean value.
2. Subtract the mean value from each score.
3. Square the difference between the mean and each score.
4. Find the sum of step 4.
5. Solve for the population variance or sample variance using the formula
of ungrouped data.
Population Standard Deviation
∑(𝑋−𝜇)2
𝜎=√
𝑁

Sample Standard Deviation

∑(𝑥−𝑥)
𝑠=√
𝑛−1

Steps in Solving Standard Deviation of Ungrouped Data

1. Solve for the mean value.
2. Subtract the mean value from each score.
3. Square the difference between the mean and each score.
4. Find the sum of step 4.
5. Solve for the population standard deviation or sample standard deviation
using the formula of ungrouped data.
Note: If the variance is already solved, take the square root of the
variance to get the value of the standard deviation.

Example: Below are the scores of 10 students in Mathematics quiz consists

of 20 items. Compute the population and sample variance and the
population and sample standard deviation.
𝑥 𝑥−𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥)2
6 -7 49
8 -5 35
9 -4 16
10 -3 9
13 0 0
15 2 4
16 3 9
16 3 9
17 4 16
20 7 29
∑ = 30 ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = 186
X = 13

Population Variance
∑(𝑋−𝜇)2 186
𝜎2 = = = 18.6
𝑁 10

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Sample Variance
∑(𝑥−𝑥)2 186 186
𝑠2 = = = = 20.67
𝑛−1 10−1 9

Population Standard Deviation

∑(𝑋−𝜇)2 186
𝜎=√ = √ = √18.6 = 4.31
𝑁 10
Sample Standard Deviation
∑(𝑥−𝑥) 186 186
𝑠=√ =√ =√ = √20.67 = 4.55
𝑛−1 10−1 9

Relative Measures of Variation

Coefficient of Variation shows a variation relative to the mean. It is

used to compare two or more groups of distribution of scores. Usually
expressed in percent, the smaller the value of the coefficient of variation,
the more homogeneous the scores are. On the other hand, the higher the
value of the coefficient of variation, the more dispersed the scores are in
that particular distribution.

The formula in computing the coefficient of variation is:

𝒔
𝑪𝑽 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒙

where, s – standard deviation and 𝑥 – mean value

Example: Find the coefficient of variation of the given data below:

Section A Section B Section C
10 10 10
10 13 10
10 15 11
14 15 11
14 15 12
16 15 12
17 16 12
18 16 15
18 16 17
19 16 20
19 17 20
20 20 20
∑ 𝑥 = 185 ∑ 𝑥 = 184 ∑ 𝑥 = 170
n = 12 n = 12 n = 12
𝑥 = 15.42 𝑥 = 15.33 𝑥 = 14.17
s = 3.75 s = 2.35 s = 4.04

Solution:
𝒔
𝑪𝑽𝑨 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 3.75 ∗ 100% = 0.2432 ∗ 100% = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟑𝟐%
𝒙 15.42

𝒔
𝑪𝑽𝑩 = 𝒙 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎% =
2.35 ∗ 100% = 0.1533 ∗ 100% = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟑%
15.33

𝒔
𝑪𝑽𝑪 = 𝒙 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎% =
4.04 ∗ 100% = 0.2851 ∗ 100% = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟏%
14.17

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Interpretation:

The CVA is 24.32%, CVB is 15.33% and CVC is 28.51%, which means
that the scores in Section B are less scattered than the scores in Section A
amd Section C. In other words, the scores in Section B are more
homogeneous than the scores in Section A and Section C.

Another way to interpret the three score distributions is that the

scores in Section C are more spread out than the scores in Section A and
Section B or the scores in Section C are more heterogeneous than the
scores in Section A and Section B.

Measures of Skewness
Measure of skewness describes the degree of departure of the
scores from the symmetry. The skewness of a score distribution only tells
about the performance of the students, but not reasons about their
performance. The skewness coefficient (Sk) can be solved using the
formula:
𝟑(𝒙−𝒙
)
𝑺𝒌 =
𝒔

where 𝑥 - mean value, 𝑥- median value, and s – standard deviation.

Skewness can be classified according to the skewness coefficient. Below

are the classifications of skewness and the summary of their properties.

Positively Skewed Negatively Skewed Normal Distribution

Sk > 0 Sk <0 Sk = 0
Skewed to the right; this Skewed to the left; meaning, The scores are normally
means that the thin end tail of the thin end tail of the curve distributed
the curve goes to the right goes to the left part of the
part of the distribution. distribution.

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

Most of the scores are low; Most of the scores are high;
It is symmetrical to the
hence, most of the students hence, most of the students
mean, the end tails of
got scores below the mean got scores above the mean
the curve can be
value. value. extended indefinitely in
both side and
asymptotic to the
horizontal line.
Mean value is greater than Mean value is less than the The value of the mean,
the median and the mode median and the mode values. median, and mode are
values. equal.
Example. Mean =43, Median =
Example: Mean = 50, Median 47, and Mode 50.
= 47, and Mode = 43.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Poor performance of the Outstanding performance of Most of the students got

students, this could be the students; the performance a score within the mean
attributed to the following: of the students could be value; hence, most of
1. Ineffective methods of attributed to the following: the students have
teaching and 1. The group of students average performance.
instruction; are intelligent; About 68.26% of the
2. Students are not ready 2. There is enough time to students in the group
to take the finish the examination; have average
examination; 3. Very easy test items; performance
3. Test items are very 4. Effective instruction;
difficult; and and
4. The time given to 5. Students prepared
answer the test is not themselves for the
enough examination.

Example: Find the coefficient of skewness of the scores of 30 Grade IV

pupils in a 45 item test in Mathematics. The mean is 38.50, the median is
35.25, and the standard deviation is 2.50.

Given:
𝑥 = 38.50; 𝑥 = 35.25; 𝑠 = 2.50

𝟑(𝒙 − 𝒙) 3(38.50 − 35.25) 3(3.25) 9.75

𝑺𝒌 = = = = = 𝟑. 𝟗
𝒔 2.50 2.50 2.50

Interpretation: Since value of Sk = 3.90 is positive, then the score

distribution is positively skewed. Hence, most of the scores are low; thus,
the students performed poorly in the said examination.

Example 2. Find the coefficient of skewness of the scores of 30 Grade VI

pupils in a 45-item test in MAKABAYAN. The mean is 39.50, the median is
42.50, and the standard deviation is 3.25.

Given:
𝑥 = 39.50; 𝑥 = 42.50; 𝑠 = 3.25

𝟑(𝒙 − 𝒙) 3(39.50 − 42.50) 3(−3) −9

𝑺𝒌 = = = = = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟐
𝒔 3.25 3.25 3.25

Interpretation: Since value of Sk = -0.92 is negative, then the score

distribution is negatively skewed. Hence, most of the scores are above the
mean; thus, the students performed well in the said examination.

7. Practice Exercises

1. The IQs of 5 members of 2 families A and B are:

Family A: 108, 112, 127, 118 and 113
Family B: 120, 110, 118, 120 and 110
a. Find the mean IQ of the two families.
b. Find the range of the IQ of both families.
c. Which of the two families has consistent IQ?

2. If the range of the set of scores is 14, and the highest score is 31, what is the
lowest score?

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

3. The reaction times for a random sample of nine subjects to a stimulant were
recorded as 2.5, 3.6, 3.1, 4.3, 2.9, 2.3, 2.6, 4.1 and 3.4 seconds. Calculate the
standard deviation.

4. Lucy and Dena are training for a bike race and recorded their mileage for a
week. Find the measures of variation of each person‘s mileage. Which
measures of variation show the girls‘ similarities in their training? the
differences? Explain.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Lucy 7 mi 3 mi 5 mi 8 mi 6 mi 10 mi 9 mi
Dena 6 mi 4 mi 6 mi 8 mi 11 mi 9 mi 7 mi

8. References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

http://www.glencoe.com/sites/pdfs/impact_math/ls8_c1_measures_of_variation.p
df

https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/standard-score.php

https://online.stat.psu.edu/stat500/lesson/1/1.5/1.5.3

GE Math– Mathematics in the Modern World 9

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

GE MATH
MODULE 10
Normal Distribution

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR

MARIA FE C. GUERRA
FLORIA C. DIALDE
RICKY T. OSORIO
RHEA MAE C. BABAS
GINA C. BOTOY
EDILMAR P. MASUHAY
JHOAN G. ANDUYAN
JONATHAN C. MACABODBOD
JULIUS G. CAADAN
ROSEMARIE C. ARCAYA

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

1. Title: Data Management

2. Topic: Normal Distribution

3. Time Frame: 5 hrs.

4. Introduction

The normal distribution is probably the most important distribution in all of

probability and statistics. Many populations have distributions that can be fit very
closely by an appropriate normal (or Gaussian, bell) curve. Some examples are
height, weight, and other physical characteristics, scores on various tests, etc.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Define normal distribution
2. Find the area under the normal curve
3. Solve basic application problems involving the standard normal distribution

6. Learning Activities

Normal Distribution
Knowing the standard deviation is particularly important when the
distribution of the scores falls on a normal distribution. When a standardized test
is administered to a very large number of students the distribution of scores is
typically similar, with many students scoring close to the mean, and fewer scoring
much higher or lower than the mean.
When the distribution of scores looks like the bell shape shown in Figure 1
and Figure 2 (Bell shaped curve of normal distribution) it is called a normal
distribution. A normal distribution is symmetric, and the mean, median and mode
are all the same.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Normal curve distributions are very important in education and psychology

because of the relationship between the mean, standard deviation, and
percentiles.

In all normal distributions, 50% of the scores fall below the mean and 50%
fall above it. For every normal distribution, for instance in Figure 3, 34% of the
scores fall between the mean and one standard deviation of the mean.

Figure 3

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Example 1. Intelligence tests often are constructed to have a mean of 100 and
standard deviation of 15 and we illustrate that in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4

In this example, 34% of the scores are between 100 and 115 and as well,
34% of the scores lie between 85 and 100. This means that 68% of the scores are
between -1 and +1 standard deviations of the mean (i.e. 85 and 115). Note than
only 14% of the scores are between +1 and +2 standard deviations of the mean
and only 2 per cent fall above +2 standard deviations of the mean.

In a normal distribution, a student who scores the mean value is always in

the fiftieth (50th) percentile because the mean and median are the same. A score
of +1 standard deviation above the mean (e.g. 115 in the example above) is the
84% (50% and 34% of the scores were below 115).

Remarks: Let us evaluate the area under the normal curve between the mean and
the standard deviation, as indicated in Figure 5 below. The percentage of cases
that fall between the mean value and the value of the mean, plus the value of one
standard deviation unit in the normal distribution of scores is 34.13%; whereas, the
percentage of cases that fall between the mean value and the value of the mean,
minus the value of one standard deviation is 34.13%.

Figure 5

Hence, the percentage of the distribution of ±1 standard deviation from the

mean is 68.26%; +2 standard deviation from the mean value is 95.44%: and +3
standard deviation from the mean is 99.72%. When you add the percentages of
the baseline between four standard deviation units above and four standard
deviation units below, we get the sum of 99.98%. There are still scores beyond ±4
standard deviation from the mean which is equal to 0.02% to make the areas under
the normal curve equal to 100%.

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Probability and the Normal Curve

The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution. This has
several implications for probability.
 The total area under the normal curve is equal to 1.
 The probability that a normal random variable X equals any particular value
is 0.
 The probability that X is greater than 𝒂 equals the area under the normal
curve bounded by 𝒂 and plus infinity (as indicated by the non-shaded area
in the figure below).
 The probability that X is less than 𝒂 equals the area under the normal curve
bounded by 𝒂 and minus infinity (as indicated by the shaded area in the
figure below).

Figure 6

Additionally, every normal curve (regardless of its mean or standard

deviation) conforms to the following "rule".
 About 68% of the area under the curve falls within 1 standard deviation of
the mean.
 About 95% of the area under the curve falls within 2 standard deviations of
the mean.
 About 99.7% of the area under the curve falls within 3 standard deviations
of the mean.

Find an area under a normal curve from z = 0 to z = ?

Figure 7

How to find the area under a curve (between 0 and any z-score)
You can look up numbers in the z-table, like 0.92 or 1.32. The values you get from
the table give you how to calculate percentages for the area under a curve in
decimal form. For example, a table value of .6700 is equivalent to an area of 67%.

Note on using the table: In order to look up a z-score in the table, you have to
split up your z-value at the tenths place. For example, to look up 1.32 you would
look up 1.3 and then look at .02.

Look in the z-table for the given z-score by finding the intersection. For example,
if you are asked to find the area between 0 and 0.46, look up 0.46.* The table

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below illustrates the result for 0.46 (0.4 in the left hand column and 0.06 in the top
row. the intersection is .1772).

Example 1: Determine the following

1. Percent of population between 0 and 0.45
2. Percent of population z between −1 and 2
Note: Refer to Table 1 in page 10 for the area under the normal curve.

Solution:
1. Start at the row for 0.4, and read along
until 0.45: there is the value 0.1736.

And 0.1736 is 17.36%

So, 17.36% of the population are

between 0 and 0.45 standard
deviations from the mean.
Figure 8
2. From −1 to 0 is the same as from 0 to +1:
At the row for 1.0, first column 1.00, there is the value 0.3413.

From 0 to +2 is:
At the row for 2.0, first column 2.00, there is the value 0.4772.

Add the two to get the total between −1

and 2:
0.3413 + 0.4772 = 0.8185

And 0.8185 is 81.85%

So, 81.85% of the population are

between −1 and +2 standard Figure 9
deviations from the mean.

Standard Scores (z-score)

To get more exact information about John Michael's performance, collect
the raw score, the mean, and the standard deviation. Determine how far below or
above the mean in standard deviation units is the obtained raw score.

To determine the exact position of each score in the normal distribution use
the z-score formula. z-score is used to convert a raw score to a standard score so
that we can tell how far a raw score is from the mean in standard deviation units
or where the raw score lies. From this, we can determine whether an individual
student performs well in the examination compared to the performance of the
whole class.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

The z-score value indicates the distance between the given raw score and
the mean value in units of the standard deviation. The z-value is positive when the
raw score is above the mean, while the z is negative when the raw score is below
the mean. The formula of z-score is:
𝒙−𝒙
𝒛=
𝒙−𝝁
or 𝒛=
𝝈 𝒔

where,
z – z-value
x – x-raw score
s – sample standard deviation
𝑥 – sample mean
𝜎 – population standard deviation
𝜇 – population mean

The z-score formula is very essential when we compare the performance of

a student in his subjects or the performance of two students from different groups
It can determine the exact location of the scores whether above or below the mean
and how many standard deviation units from the mean.

Example 2: The Harbor View Coffee in Del Carmen‘s daily customer load follows
a normal distribution with mean 45 and standard deviation 8. Determine the
probability that the number of customers tomorrow will be less than 42.

Solution: We first convert the raw score to a z-score. We have

42 − 45
𝑧= = −0.375 = −0.38
8
Next, we use the table to find the probability of z = -0.38. From the table, it is
equivalent to 0.1480. However, the problem calls us to find the probability that the
number of customers will be less than 42. This means that we must find the
probability of values to the left of z = -0.38. Since, the probability of z = -0.38 is
equivalent to 0.1480, the probability of those less than z = -0.38 is computed as:

𝑃(𝑥 < 42) = 0.5 − 0.1480 = 0.352

That is, there is about a 35% chance that there will be fewer than 42
customers tomorrow.

Example 3: A study was done to determine the stress levels that students have
while taking exams. The stress level was found to be normally distributed with a
mean stress level of 8.2 and a standard deviation of 1.34. What is the probability
that at your next exam, you will have a stress level between 9 and 10?

Solution:

The stress level between 9 and 10 can be represented as:

𝑃(9 < 𝑥 < 10)

Convert x = 9 to z-score:
9 − 8.2
𝑧= = 0.5970 ≈ 0.60
1.34

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Convert x = 10 to z-score:
10 − 8.2
𝑧= = 1.34
1.34
Now we want,

𝑃(0.60 < 𝑧 < 1.34)

This is the "in between" type hence we subtract, Figure 10

𝑃(0.60 < 𝑧 < 1.34) = 𝑃(𝑧 < 1.34) − 𝑃(𝑧 < 0.60)

𝑃(0.60 < 𝑧 < 1.34) = (0.5 + 0.4099) − (0.5 + 0.2257)

𝑃(0.60 < 𝑧 < 1.34) = 0.9099 − 0.7257
𝑃(0.60 < 𝑧 < 1.34) = 0.1842

Hence, there is about an 18% chance that the stress level will be between
nine and ten.

Example 4: How well did Sarah perform in her 100-item Physics coursework
compared to the other 50 students? Which students came in the top 10% of the
class? Refer to the table below.

Standard
Subject Score (x) Mean (𝑥)
deviation (s)
Physics 70 60 15

Solution:
To answer this question, we can re-phrase it as: What percentage (or number) of
students scored lower than Sarah and what percentage (or number) of students
scored higher than Sarah? First, let's reiterate that Sarah scored 70 out of 100, the
mean score was 60, and the standard deviation was 15.

In terms of z-scores, this gives us:

x−x 70 − 60 10
z= = = = 0.66667 … ≈ 0.67
s 15 15
The z-score is 0.67, but now we need to work out the percentage (or number) of
students that scored higher and lower than Sarah. To do this, we need to refer to
the standard normal distribution table. That is, z = 0.67 is has a probability of

Hence, the percentage (or number) of students scored lower than Sarah is
represented as:
𝑃(𝑧 < 0.67) = 0.5 + 0.2486 = 0.7486

In other words, around 75% of the class got a lower mark than Sarah (roughly 37
students since there is no such thing as part of a student). This also means that
about 25% of the class scored higher than Sarah.

Going back to our question, "How well did Sarah perform in her 100-item Physics
coursework compared to the other 50 students?", clearly we can see that Sarah
did better than a large proportion of students, with 74.86% of the class
scoring lower than her. However, Sarah's score was not one of the best marks.
It wasn't even in the top 10% of scores in the class.

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Further, the situation also calls us to determine which students came in the top
10% of the class. A better way of phrasing this would be to ask: What mark would
a student have to achieve to be in the top 10% of the class and qualify for the
advanced Physics class?

To answer the question, we need to find the mark (which we call "X") on our frequency
distribution that reflects the top 10% of marks. Since the mean score was 60 out of 100,
we immediately know that the mark will be greater than 60. We are interested in the area
to the right of the mean score of 60 that reflects the top 10% of marks. As a decimal, the
top 10% of marks would be those marks above 0.9 (i.e., 100% - 90% = 10% or 1 - 0.9 =
0.1).

Thus, we should convert our frequency distribution into a standard normal

distribution. As such, our mean score of 60 becomes 0 and the score (X) we are
looking for, 0.9, becomes our z-score, which is currently unknown. Note the
changes to the labelling of the x-axis.

Figure 11

The next step involves finding out the value for our z-score. To do this, we refer
back to the standard normal distribution table.

Figure 12

We know the percentage we are trying to find, the top 10% of students,
corresponds to 0.9. As such, we first need to find the value 0.9 in standard normal
distribution table. When looking at the table, you may notice that the two closest
values to 0.9 is 0.8997 (or 0.5 + 0.3997) and 0.9015 (or 0.5 + 0.4015). We are
certain that between these values lies 0.9.

From the table, 0.8997 is equivalent to z = 1.28 and 0.9015 is equivalent to z =

1.29. Hence, the x-value of 0.9 is between z = 1.28 and z = 1.29. Taking the
average of these values, x = 0.9 is equivalent to z = 1.285. In other words, the top
10% of students is defined as P ( z > 1.285 ) = 0.1.

Figure 13

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Standard z-score
Score (X) Mean (µ)
Deviation (s) (z)
? 60 15 1.285

Now that we have the key information (that is, the mean score, µ, the standard
deviation, s, and z-score, z), we can answer our question directly, namely:

What mark would a student have to achieve to be in the top 10% of the
class and qualify for the advanced Physics class?

First, let us reiterate the facts:

To find x, we have,

𝒙−𝒙
𝒛=
𝒔
𝑥 − 60
1.285 =
15

1.285 ∗ 15 = 𝑥 − 60

19.275 = 𝑥 − 60

19.275 + 60 = 𝑥

𝟕𝟗. 𝟐𝟕𝟓 = 𝒙

𝒙 = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟐𝟖

Therefore, students that scored above 79.28 marks out of 100 came in the
top 10% of the Physics class, qualifying for the advanced Physics class as a
result.

7. Practice Exercises

Answer the following comprehensively. Write your answers in a separate sheet of

paper.
1. 95% of students at school weigh between 62 kg and 90 kg. Assuming
this data is normally distributed, what are the mean and standard
deviation?

2. 68% of the marks in a test are between 51 and 64. Assuming this data
is normally distributed, what are the mean and standard deviation?

3. The Jam Bites pack tea in bags marked as 250 g. A large number of
packs of tea were weighed and the mean and standard deviation were
calculated as 255 g and 2.5 g respectively. Assuming this data is
normally distributed, what percentage of packs are underweight?

4. The mean June midday temperature in Del Carmen is 36°C and the
standard deviation is 3°C. Assuming this data is normally distributed,
how many days in June would you expect the midday temperature to be
between 39°C and 42°C?

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Table 1. Areas Under the Standard Normal Curve (probability values to the right of z)
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990

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8. References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

http://www.glencoe.com/sites/pdfs/impact_math/ls8_c1_measures_of_variation.p
df

https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/standard-score.php

https://online.stat.psu.edu/stat500/lesson/1/1.5/1.5.3

https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/normal-
distributions/find-the-area-under-a-normal-curve/

GE Math– Mathematics in the Modern World 11