MALLAREDDY UNIVERSITY

DIGITAL NOTES
ON
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS
[MR22-1CS0208]

B.TECH III YEAR / II SEM(2024-25)

DEPARTMENT OF CSE- AI&ML

MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

(UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100,
Telangana, India
 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

SYLLABUS
III Year B.Tech – II Semester L/T/P/C

3/0/2/4

(MR22-1CS0208)Design and Analysis of Algorithms

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To analyze performance of algorithms.
 To choose the appropriate data structure and algorithm design method for a specified
application.
 To understand how the choice of data structures and algorithm design methods impacts
the performance of programs.
 To solve problems using algorithm design methods such as the greedy method, divide and
conquer,dynamic programming, backtracking and branch and bound.
 To understand the differences between tractable and intractable problems and to introduce P
and NPclasses.

UNIT- I
Introduction: Characteristics of an Algorithm, Specification of Algorithms - Pseudo-Code
Conventions, Performance analysis- Space complexity, Time Complexity, Asymptotic notations- Big
oh notation, omega notation, theta notation and little oh notation, Algorithm Design Techniques.
Divide and Conquer: Divide and Conquer General method, Applications of Divide and Conquer -
Binary search algorithm, Analysis of Binary search, Merge sort algorithm, Analysis of Merge sort,
Quick sort algorithm, Analysis of Quick sort.

UNIT-II
Disjoint set operations: Disjoint set data structure, Simple algorithm for Union and Find,
Collapsing rule for Find, Representation of Disjoint sets using Arrays, Connected components,
Articulation point, Finding articulation points, Bi-connected components.
Backtracking- General method of Backtracking, Applications of Backtracking - The N-queen
problem, Sum of subset problem, Graph coloring by backtracking, Hamiltonian cycles problem.

UNIT-III
Greedy method: General method - Greedy algorithm, Example, Components of Greedy
Algorithm, Applications of Greedy method - Job sequencing with deadlines- Greedy Job Algorithm,
Knapsack problem- Greedy Knapsack algorithm - Fractional Knapsack problem, Spanning tress-
Minimum cost spanning trees(MST)-Types of MST- Prims Algorithm, Kruskals Algorithm , Single
source shortest path problem- DIJKSTRA’S Algorithm.
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UNIT–IV
Dynamic Programming: General method of Dynamic Programming- Principle of Optimality,
Applications of Dynamic Programming - 0/1 Knapsack problem- Set method- Tabulation method,
All pairs shortest path problem – Floyd Warshall Algorithm, Traveling sales person problem,
Matrix chained multiplication.

UNIT-V
Branch and Bound:
General method of Branch and Bound , Applications of Branch and Bound- Travelling sales
personproblem, 0/1 Knapsack problem-LC branch and Bound solution(LCBB).
NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problems:
Basic concepts, P- class and NP- class problems, Deterministic and Non deterministic algorithms,
NP- Hard and NP-Complete classes, NP-Hard problems.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Fundamentals of Computer Algorithms, Ellis Horowitz, Satraj
Sahni andRajasekharan,Universities press
2. Design and Analysis of Algorithms, P. h. Dave,2ndedition, Pearson Education.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Introduction to the Design And Analysis of Algorithms A Leviton Pearson Education
2. Design and Analysis of Algorithms, S. Sridhar, Oxford Univ. Press
3. Design and Analysis of Algorithms, Aho , Ulman and Hopcraft , Pearson Education.

COURSE OUTCOMES
 Ability to analyze the performance of algorithms.
 Ability to choose appropriate algorithm design techniques for solving problems.
 Ability to understand how the choice of data structures and the algorithm design methods to
impact the performance of programs.
 Describes the dynamic-programming paradigm and explain when an algorithmic design
situation calls for it. Recite algorithms that employ this paradigm. Synthesize dynamic
programming algorithms, and analyze them.
 Describes the greedy paradigm and explain when an algorithmic design situation calls for it.
Recite algorithms that employ this paradigm. Synthesize greedy algorithms, and analyze them.
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INDEX
UNIT TOPIC PAGE NO

Introduction: Characteristics of an Algorithm, Specification of

Algorithms - Pseudo-Code Conventions, Performance analysis-
01-08
Space complexity, Time Complexity, Asymptotic notations- Big
oh notation, omega notation, theta notation and little oh notation,
Algorithm Design Techniques.

I
Divide and Conquer: Divide and Conquer General method,
Applications of Divide and Conquer - Binary search algorithm, 09-23
Analysis of Binary search, Merge sort algorithm, Analysis of
Merge sort, Quick sort algorithm, Analysis of Quick sort.

Disjoint set operations: Disjoint set data structure, Simple

algorithm for Union and Find, Collapsing rule for Find, 24-41
Representation of Disjoint sets using Arrays, Connected
components, Articulation point, Finding articulation points, Bi-
connected components.
II

Backtracking- General method of Backtracking, Applications of

Backtracking - The N-queen problem, Sum of subset problem, 42-61

Graph coloring by backtracking, Hamiltonian cycles problem.

Greedy method: General method - Greedy algorithm, Example,

Components of Greedy Algorithm, Applications of Greedy
method - Job sequencing with deadlines- Greedy Job Algorithm,
62-72
Knapsack problem- Greedy Knapsack algorithm - Fractional
III
Knapsack problem, Spanning tress- Minimum cost spanning
trees(MST)-Types of MST- Prims Algorithm, Kruskals
Algorithm , Single source shortest path problem- DIJKSTRA’S
Algorithm.
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Dynamic Programming: General method of Dynamic
Programming- Principle of Optimality, Applications of
73-86
Dynamic Programming - 0/1 Knapsack problem- Set method-
IV Tabulation method, All pairs shortest path problem – Floyd
Warshall Algorithm, Traveling sales person problem, Matrix
chained multiplication.

Branch and Bound:

General method of Branch and Bound , Applications of Branch
87-104
and Bound- Travelling sales person problem, 0/1 Knapsack
problem-LC branch and Bound solution(LCBB).
V

NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problems:

Basic concepts, P- class and NP- class problems, Deterministic
105-111
and Non deterministic algorithms, NP- Hard and NP-Complete
classes, NP-Hard problems.
 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION:
Algorithm:
An Algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions, each of which has a clear meaning and can
be performed with a finite amount of effort in a finite length of time. No matter what the input
values may be, an algorithm terminates after executing a finite number of instructions. In
addition every algorithm must satisfy the following criteria:

 Input: there are zero or more quantities, which are externally supplied;
 Output: at least one quantity is produced
 Definiteness: each instruction must be clear and unambiguous;
 Finiteness: if we trace out the instructions of an algorithm, then for all cases the algorithm
will terminate after a finite number of steps;
 Effectiveness: every instruction must be sufficiently basic that it can in principle be carried
out by a person using only pencil and paper. It is not enough that each operation be
definite, but it must also be feasible.

In formal computer science, one distinguishes between an algorithm, and a program. A program
does not necessarily satisfy the fourth condition. One important example of such a program for a
computer is its operating system, which never terminates (except for system crashes) but
continues in a wait loop until more jobs areentered.

We represent algorithm using a pseudo language that is a combination of the constructs of a

programming language together with informal English statements.

Psuedo code for expressing algorithms:

Algorithm Specification: Algorithm can be described in three ways.
1. Natural language like English: When this way is choused care should be taken, we should
ensure that each & every statement is definite.

2. Graphic representation called flowchart: This method will work well when the algorithm
is small& simple.

3. Pseudo-code Method: In this method, we should typically describe algorithms as program,

which resembles language like Pascal & algol.

Pseudo-Code Conventions:

1. Comments begin with // and continue until the end of line.

2. Blocks are indicated with matching braces {and}.

3. An identifier begins with a letter. The data types of variables are not explicitly declared.

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4. Compound data types can be formed with records. Here is an example,
Node. Record
{
data type – 1 data-1;
.
.
.
data type – n data – n;
node * link;
}

Here link is a pointer to the record type node. Individual data items of a record can
be accessed with  and period.

5. Assignment of values to variables is done using the assignment statement.

<Variable>:= <expression>;

6. There are two Boolean values TRUE and FALSE.

 Logical Operators AND, OR, NOT

Relational Operators <, <=,>,>=, =, !=

7. The following looping statements are employed.

For, while and repeat-until

While Loop:
While < condition > do
{
<statement-1>
.
.
.

<statement-n>
}
For Loop:
For variable: = value-1 to value-2 step step do

{
<statement-1>
.
.
.
<statement-n>
}
repeat-until:

repeat
<statement-1>
.
.
.
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<statement-n>
until<condition>

8. A conditional statement has the following forms.

 If <condition> then <statement>

 If <condition> then <statement-1>
Else <statement-1>

Case statement:

Case
{
: <condition-1> : <statement-1>
.
.
.
: <condition-n> : <statement-n>
: else : <statement-n+1>
}

9. Input and output are done using the instructions read & write.

10. There is only one type of procedure:

Algorithm, the heading takes the form,

Algorithm <Name> (<Parameter lists>)

 As an example, the following algorithm fields & returns the maximum of ‘n’ given
numbers:

1. Algorithm Max(A,n)
2. // A is an array of size n
3. {
4. Result := A[1];
5. for I:= 2 to n do
6. if A[I] > Result then
7. Result :=A[I];
8. return Result;
9. }

In this algorithm (named Max), A & n are procedure parameters. Result & I are Local
variables.

Algorithm:

1. Algorithm selection sort (a,n)

2. // Sort the array a[1:n] into non-decreasing
order. 3.{
4. for I:=1 to n do
5. {
6. j:=I;
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7. for k:=i+1 to n do
8. if (a[k]<a[j])
9. t:=a[I];
10. a[I]:=a[j];
11. a[j]:=t;
12. }
13. }

Performance Analysis:
The performance of a program is the amount of computer memory and time
needed to run a program. We use two approaches to determine the performance of
a program. One is analytical, and the other experimental. In performance analysis
we use analytical methods, while in performance measurement we conduct
experiments.

Time Complexity:
The time needed by an algorithm expressed as a function of the size of a problem is
called the time complexity of the algorithm. The time complexity of a program is the
amount of computer time it needs to run to completion.
The limiting behavior of the complexity as size increases is called the asymptotic time
complexity. It is the asymptotic complexity of an algorithm, which ultimately determines
the size of problems that can be solved by the algorithm.

The Running time of a program

When solving a problem we are faced with a choice among algorithms. The basis for this
can be any one of the following:
i. We would like an algorithm that is easy to understand code and debug.
ii. We would like an algorithm that makes efficient use of the computer’s
resources, especially, one that runs as fast as possible.

Measuring the running time of a program

The running time of a program depends on factors such as:

1. The input to the program.
2. The quality of code generated by the compiler used to create the object
program.
3. The nature and speed of the instructions on the machine used to execute the
program,
4. The time complexity of the algorithm underlying the program.
Statement S/e Frequency Total

1. Algorithm Sum(a,n) 0 - 0
2.{ 0 - 0
3. S=0.0; 1 1 1
4. for I=1 to n do 1 n+1 n+1
5. s=s+a[I]; 1 n n
6. return s; 1 1 1
7. } 0 - 0

The total time will be 2n+3

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Space Complexity:
The space complexity of a program is the amount of memory it needs to run to
completion. The space need by a program has the following components:
Instruction space: Instruction space is the space needed to store the compiled
version of the program instructions.
Data space: Data space is the space needed to store all constant and variable
values. Data space has two components:
 Space needed by constants and simple variables in program.
 Space needed by dynamically allocated objects such as arrays and class
instances.
Environment stack space: The environment stack is used to save information
needed to resume execution of partially completed functions.
Instruction Space: The amount of instructions space that is needed depends on
factors such as:
 The compiler used to complete the program into machine code.
 The compiler options in effect at the time of compilation
 The target computer.

The space requirement s(p) of any algorithm p may therefore be written as,
S(P) = c+ Sp(Instance characteristics)
Where ‘c’ is a constant.

Example 2:

Algorithm sum(a,n)
{
s=0.0;
for I=1 to n do
s= s+a[I];
return s;
}

 The problem instances for this algorithm are characterized by n,the number of
elements to be summed. The space needed d by ‘n’ is one word, since it is of type
integer.
 The space needed by ‘a’a is the space needed by variables of tyepe array of floating
point numbers.
 This is atleast ‘n’ words, since ‘a’ must be large enough to hold the ‘n’ elements to be
summed.
 So,we obtain Ssum(n)>=(n+s)
[ n for a[],one each for n,I a& s]

Complexity of Algorithms
The complexity of an algorithm M is the function f(n) which gives the running time
and/or storage space requirement of the algorithm in terms of the size ‘n’ of the input
data. Mostly, the storage space required by an algorithm is simply a multiple of the data
size ‘n’. Complexity shall refer to the running time of thealgorithm.
The function f(n), gives the running time of an algorithm, depends not only on the
size ‘n’ of the input data but also on the particular data. The complexity function f(n) for
certain cases are:
1. Best Case: The minimum possible value of f(n) is called the best case.

2. Average Case : The expected value of f(n).

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3. Worst Case: The maximum value of f(n) for any key possible input.

Asymptotic Notations:
The following notations are commonly use notations in performance analysis and
used to characterize the complexity of an algorithm:

1. Big–OH (O)
2. Big–OMEGA (Ω),
3. Big–THETA (Θ) and
4. Little–OH (o)

Big–OH O (Upper Bound)

f(n) = O(g(n)), (pronounced order of or big oh), says that the growth rate of f(n) is less
than or equal (<) that of g(n).

Big–OMEGA Ω (Lower Bound)

f(n) = Ω (g(n)) (pronounced omega), says that the growth rate of f(n) is greater than or
equal to (>) that of g(n).

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Big–THETA Θ (Same order)
f(n) = Θ (g(n)) (pronounced theta), says that the growth rate of f(n) equals (=) the
growth rate of g(n) [if f(n) = O(g(n)) and T(n) = Θ (g(n)].

little-o notation
Definition: A theoretical measure of the execution of an algorithm, usually the time or memory needed,
given the problem size n, which is usually the number of items. Informally, saying some equation f(n) =
o(g(n)) means f(n) becomes insignificant relative to g(n) as n approaches infinity. The notation is read, "f
of n is little oh of g of n".
Formal Definition: f(n) = o(g(n)) means for all c > 0 there exists some k > 0 such that 0 ≤ f(n) < cg(n) for
all n ≥ k. The value of k must not depend on n, but may depend on c.

Different time complexities

Suppose ‘M’ is an algorithm, and suppose ‘n’ is the size of the input data. Clearly
the complexity f(n) of M increases as n increases. It is usually the rate of increase of
f(n) we want to examine. This is usually done by comparing f(n) with some standard
functions. The most common computing times are:

O(1), O(log2 n), O(n), O(n. log2 n), O(n2), O(n3), O(2n), n! and nn

Classification of Algorithms

If ‘n’ is the number of data items to be processed or degree of polynomial or the size of
the file to be sorted or searched or the number of nodes in a graph etc.

1 Next instructions of most programs are executed once or at most only a few
times. If all the instructions of a program have this property, we say that its
running time is a constant.

Log n When the running time of a program is logarithmic, the program gets
slightly slower as n grows. This running time commonly occurs in
programs that solve a big problem by transforming it into a smaller
problem, cutting the size by some constant fraction., When n is a million,
log n is a doubled. Whenever n doubles, log n increases by a constant, but
log n does not double until n increases to n2.

n When the running time of a program is linear, it is generally the case that a
small amount of processing is done on each input element. This is the
optimal situation for an algorithm that must process n inputs.
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n log n This running time arises for algorithms that solve a problem by breaking it
up into smaller sub-problems, solving then independently, and then
combining the solutions. When n doubles, the running time more than
doubles.

n2 When the running time of an algorithm is quadratic, it is practical for use

only on relatively small problems. Quadratic running times typically arise
in algorithms that process all pairs of data items (perhaps in a double nested
loop) whenever n doubles, the running time increases fourfold.

n3 Similarly, an algorithm that process triples of data items (perhaps in a

triple–nested loop) has a cubic running time and is practical for use only on
small problems. Whenever n doubles, the running time increases eight fold.

2n Few algorithms with exponential running time are likely to be appropriate

for practical use, such algorithms arise naturally as “brute–force” solutions
to problems. Whenever n doubles, the running time squares.

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Divide and Conquer

General Method:

Divide and conquer is a design strategy which is well known to breaking down efficiency
barriers. When the method applies, it often leads to a large improvement in time
complexity. For example, from O (n2) to O (n log n) to sort the elements.

Divide and conquer strategy is as follows: divide the problem instance into two or more
smaller instances of the same problem, solve the smaller instances recursively, and
assemble the solutions to form a solution of the original instance. The recursion stops
when an instance is reached which is too small to divide. When dividing the instance, one
can either use whatever division comes most easily to hand or invest time in making the
division carefully so that the assembly is simplified.

Divide and conquer algorithm consists of two parts:

Divide : Divide the problem into a number of sub problems. The sub problemsare
solved recursively.
Conquer: The solution to the original problem is then formed from the solutionsto
the sub problems (patching together the answers).

Traditionally, routines in which the text contains at least two recursive calls are called
divide and conquer algorithms, while routines whose text contains only one recursive call
are not. Divide–and–conquer is a very powerful use of recursion.
Control Abstraction of Divide and Conquer
A control abstraction is a procedure whose flow of control is clear but whose primary
operations are specified by other procedures whose precise meanings are left undefined.
The control abstraction for divide and conquer technique is DANDC(P), where P is the
problem to be solved.

DANDC (P)
{
if SMALL (P) then return S (p);
else
{
divide p into smaller instances p1, p2, …. Pk, k 1;
apply DANDC to each of these sub problems;
return (COMBINE (DANDC (p1) , DANDC (p2),…., DANDC (pk));
}
}

SMALL (P) is a Boolean valued function which determines whether the input size is
small enough so that the answer can be computed without splitting. If this is so function
‘S’ is invoked otherwise, the problem ‘p’ into smaller sub problems. These sub
problems p1, p2, . . . , pk are solved by recursive application of DANDC.

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If the sizes of the two sub problems are approximately equal then the computing time
of DANDC is:
g (n)
T (n) = n small

2 T(n/2) f
otherwise
(n)

Where, T (n) is the time for DANDC on ‘n’ inputs

g (n) is the time to complete the answer directly for small inputs andf (n)
is the time for Divide and Combine

Binary Search:

If we have ‘n’ records which have been ordered by keys so that x1 < x2 < … < xn . When
we are given a element ‘x’, binary search is used to find the corresponding element from
the list. In case ‘x’ is present, we have to determine a value ‘j’ such that a[j] = x
(successful search). If ‘x’ is not in the list then j is to set to zero (un successful search).

In Binary search we jump into the middle of the file, where we find key a[mid], and
compare ‘x’ with a[mid]. If x = a[mid] then the desired record has been found.If x <
a[mid] then ‘x’ must be in that portion of the file that precedes a[mid], if there at all.
Similarly, if a[mid] > x, then further search is only necessary in that past of the file
which follows a[mid]. If we use recursive procedure of finding the middle key a[mid] of
the un-searched portion of a file, then every un-successful comparison of‘x’ with a[mid]
will eliminate roughly half the un-searched portion from consideration.

Since the array size is roughly halved often each comparison between ‘x’ and a[mid],
and since an array of length ‘n’ can be halved only about log2n times before reaching a
trivial length, the worst case complexity of Binary search is about log2n
low and high are integer variables such that each time through the loop either ‘x’ is
found or low is increased by at least one or high is decreased by at least one. Thus we
have two sequences of integers approaching each other and eventually low will become
greater than high causing termination in a finite number of steps if ‘x’ is not present.

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Example for Binary Search

Let us illustrate binary search on the following 9 elements:

Index 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Elements -15 -6 0 7 9 23 54 82 101

The number of comparisons required for searching different elements is as follows:

1. Searching for x = 101 low high mid

1 9 5
6 9 7
8 9 8
9 9 9

found
Number of comparisons = 4

2. Searching for x = 82
low high mid
1 9 5
6 9 7
8 9 8
Number of comparisons = 3 found

3. Searching for x = 42
low high mid
1 9 5
6 9 7
6 6 6
Number of comparisons = 4 7 6 not found

4. Searching for x = -14

low high mid

1 9 5
1 4 2
Number of comparisons = 3 1 1 1
2 1 not found

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Continuing in this manner the number of element comparisons needed to find each of nine
elements is:

Index 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Elements -15 -6 0 7 9 23 54 82 101
Comparisons 3 2 3 4 1 3 2 3 4

No element requires more than 4 comparisons to be found. Summing the comparisons

needed to find all nine items and dividing by 9, yielding 25/9 or approximately 2.77
comparisons per successful search on the average.

There are ten possible ways that an un-successful search may terminate depending upon
the value of x.

If x < a[1], a[1] < x < a[2], a[2] < x < a[3], a[5] < x < a[6], a[6] < x < a[7] or
a[7] < x < a[8] the algorithm requires 3 element comparisons to determine that ‘x’ is not
present. For all of the remaining possibilities BINSRCH requires 4 element comparisons.
Thus the average number of element comparisons for an unsuccessful search is:

(3 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4) / 10 = 34/10 = 3.4

The time complexity for a successful search is O(log n) and for an unsuccessful
search is Θ(log n).

Successful searches un-successful searches

Θ(1), Θ(log n), Θ(log n) Θ(log n)
Best average worst best, average and worst

Analysis for worst case

Let T (n) be the time complexity of Binary search

The algorithm sets mid to [n+1 / 2]

Therefore,
T(0) = 0
T(n) = 1 if x = a [mid]
= 1 + T([(n + 1) / 2] – 1) if x < a [mid]
= 1 + T(n – [(n + 1)/2]) if x > a [mid]

Let us restrict ‘n’ to values of the form n = 2 K – 1, where ‘k’ is a non-negative integer.
The array always breaks symmetrically into two equal pieces plus middle element.

T(0) = 0
T(2k – 1) = 1 if x = a [mid]
= 1 + T(2K - 1 – 1) if x < a [mid]
= 1 + T(2k - 1 – 1) if x > a [mid]

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In the worst case the test x = a[mid] always fails, so

w(0) = 0
w(2k – 1) = 1 + w(2k - 1 – 1)
This is now solved by repeated substitution:=

1 + [1 + w(2k - 2 –1)]

= 1 + [1 + [1 + w(2k - 3 –1)]]
= ........
= ........
= i + w(2k - i – 1)

For i < k, letting i = k gives w(2k –1) = K + w(0) = kBut

as 2 K – 1 = n, so K = log2(n + 1), so
w(n) = log2(n + 1) = O(log n)

for n = 2K–1, concludes this analysis of binary search.

Although it might seem that the restriction of values of ‘n’ of the form 2 K–1 weakens the
result. In practice this does not matter very much, w(n) is a monotonic increasing
function of ‘n’, and hence the formula given is a good approximation even when ‘n’ is not
of the form 2K–1.

Merge Sort:

Merge sort algorithm is a classic example of divide and conquer. To sort an array,
recursively, sort its left and right halves separately and then merge them. The time
complexity of merge mort in the best case, worst case and average case is O(n log n) and
the number of comparisons used is nearly optimal.

This strategy is so simple, and so efficient but the problem here is that there seemsto be
no easy way to merge two adjacent sorted arrays together in place (The result must be
build up in a separate array).

The fundamental operation in this algorithm is merging two sorted lists. Because the lists
are sorted, this can be done in one pass through the input, if the output is put ina third list.

Algorithm
Algorithm MERGESORT (low, high)
// a (low : high) is a global array to be sorted.
{
if (low < high)
{
mid := (low + high)/2 //finds where to split the set

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MERGESORT(low, mid); //sort one subset
MERGESORT(mid+1, high); //sort the other subset
MERGE(low, mid, high); // combine the results
}
}

Algorithm MERGE (low, mid, high)

// a (low : high) is a global array containing two sorted subsets
// in a (low : mid) and in a (mid + 1 : high).
// The objective is to merge these sorted sets into single sorted
// set residing in a (low : high). An auxiliary array B is used.
{
h :=low; i := low; j:= mid + 1; while
((h < mid) and (J < high)) do
{
if (a[h] < a[j]) then
{
b[i] := a[h]; h := h + 1;
}
else
{
b[i] :=a[j]; j := j + 1;
}
i := i + 1;
}
if (h > mid) then
for k := j to high do
{
b[i] := a[k]; i := i + 1;
}
else
for k := h to mid do
{
b[i] := a[K]; i := i + l;
}
for k := low to high do
a[k] := b[k];
}
Example

For example let us select the following 8 entries 7, 2, 9, 4, 3, 8, 6, 1 to illustrate

merge sort algorithm:

7, 2, 9, 4 | 3, 8, 6, 1  1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9

7, 2 | 9, 4  2, 4, 7, 9 3, 8 | 6, 1  1, 3, 6, 8

7 | 2  2, 7 9 | 4  4, 9 3 | 8  3, 8 6 | 1  1, 6

15
7 7 2 2 9 9 4 4 3 3 8 8 6 6 1 1
 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
Tree Calls of MERGESORT(1, 8)

The following figure represents the sequence of recursive calls that are produced by
MERGESORT when it is applied to 8 elements. The values in each node are the values of
the parameters low and high.

1, 8

1, 4 5, 8

1, 2 3, 4 5, 6 7, 8

1, 1 2, 2 3, 3 4, 4 5, 5 6, 6 7, 7 8, 8

Tree Calls of MERGE()

The tree representation of the calls to procedure MERGE by MERGESORT is as

follows:

1, 1, 2 3, 3, 4 5, 5, 6 7, 7, 8

1, 2, 4 5, 6, 8

1, 4, 8

Analysis of Merge Sort

We will assume that ‘n’ is a power of 2, so that we always split into even halves, sowe
solve for the case n = 2k.

For n = 1, the time to merge sort is constant, which we will be denote by 1. Otherwise, the
time to merge sort ‘n’ numbers is equal to the time to do two recursive merge sorts of
size n/2, plus the time to merge, which is linear. The equation says this exactly:

T(1) = 1
T(n) = 2 T(n/2) + n

This is a standard recurrence relation, which can be solved several ways. We will solve
by substituting recurrence relation continually on the right–hand side.

We have, T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
Since we can substitute n/2 into this main equation

2 T(n/2) = 2 (2 (T(n/4)) + n/2)

= 4 T(n/4) + n
We have,
T(n/2) = 2 T(n/4) + n
T(n) = 4 T(n/4) + 2n

Again, by substituting n/4 into the main equation, we see that

4T (n/4) = 4 (2T(n/8)) + n/4

= 8 T(n/8) + n
So we have,
T(n/4) = 2 T(n/8) + n
T(n) = 8 T(n/8) + 3n

Continuing in this manner, we obtain:

T(n) = 2k T(n/2k) + K. n

As n = 2k, K = log2 n, substituting this in the above equation

T (n) 2log2n  k   log n . n

T 
k 2
2
2
= n T(1) + n log n
= n log n + n

Representing this in O notation:

T(n) = O(n log n)

We have assumed that n = 2k. The analysis can be refined to handle cases when ‘n’ is
not a power of 2. The answer turns out to be almost identical.

Although merge sort’s running time is O(n log n), it is hardly ever used for main memory
sorts. The main problem is that merging two sorted lists requires linear extra memory and
the additional work spent copying to the temporary array and back, throughout the
algorithm, has the effect of slowing down the sort considerably. The Best and worst case
time complexity of Merge sort is O(n log n).

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Quick Sort

The main reason for the slowness of Algorithms like SIS is that all comparisons and
exchanges between keys in a sequence w1, w2, . . . . , wn take place between adjacent
pairs. In this way it takes a relatively long time for a key that is badly out of place to work
its way into its proper position in the sorted sequence.

In essence, the quick sort algorithm partitions the original array by rearranging it into
two groups. The first group contains those elements less than some arbitrary chosen value
taken from the set, and the second group contains those elements greater than or equal to
the chosen value.

The chosen value is known as the pivot element. Once the array has been rearrangedin this
way with respect to the pivot, the very same partitioning is recursively applied to each of
the two subsets. When all the subsets have been partitioned and rearranged, the original
array is sorted.

The function partition() makes use of two pointers ‘i’ and ‘j’ which are moved toward
each other in the following fashion:

 Repeatedly increase the pointer ‘i’ until a[i] >= pivot.

 Repeatedly decrease the pointer ‘j’ until a[j] <= pivot.

 If j > i, interchange a[j] with a[i]

 Repeat the steps 1, 2 and 3 till the ‘i’ pointer crosses the ‘j’ pointer. If ‘i’
pointer crosses ‘j’ pointer, the position for pivot is found and place pivot
element in ‘j’ pointer position.

The program uses a recursive function quicksort(). The algorithm of quick sort
function sorts all elements in an array ‘a’ between positions ‘low’ and ‘high’.

 It terminates when the condition low >= high is satisfied. This condition will
be satisfied only when the array is completely sorted.

 Here we choose the first element as the ‘pivot’. So, pivot = x[low]. Now it
calls the partition function to find the proper position j of the element x[low]
i.e. pivot. Then we will have two sub-arrays x[low], x[low+1], . . . .
. . . x[j-1] and x[j+1], x[j+2], x[high].

 It calls itself recursively to sort the left sub-array x[low], x[low+1], . . . . .

. . x[j-1] between positions low and j-1 (where j is returned by the
partition function).

 It calls itself recursively to sort the right sub-array x[j+1], x[j+2], . . . . . .

. . . x[high] between positions j+1 and high.

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MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Example

Select first element as the pivot element. Move ‘i’ pointer from left to right in search of an
element larger than pivot. Move the ‘j’ pointer from right to left in search of an element
smaller than pivot. If such elements are found, the elements are swapped. This process
continues till the ‘i’ pointer crosses the ‘j’ pointer. If ‘i’ pointer crosses ‘j’ pointer, the
position for pivot is found and interchange pivot and element at ‘j’ position.

Let us consider the following example with 13 elements to analyze quick sort:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Remarks

38 08 16 06 79 57 24 56 02 58 04 70 45
pivot i j swap i & j
04 79
i j swap i & j

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
02 57
j i
swap pivot
(24 08 16 06 04 02) 38 (56 57 58 79 70 45)
&j
swap pivot
pivot j, i &j
(02 08 16 06 04) 24
pivot, swap pivot
i
j &j
02 (08 16 06 04)
pivot i j swap i & j
04 16
j i
swap pivot
(06 04) 08 (16)
&j
pivot,
j i
swap pivot
(04) 06
&j
04
pivot,
j, i
16
pivot,
j, i
(02 04 06 08 16 24) 38
(56 57 58 79 70 45)
pivot i j swap i & j
45 57
j i
swap pivot
(45) 56 (58 79 70 57)
&j
45
pivot, swap pivot
&j
j, i
(58 79 57)
pivot i 70 j swap i & j

57 79
j i
swap pivot
(57) 58 (70 79)
&j
57
pivot,
j, i
(70 79)
pivot, swap pivot
i
j &j
70
79
pivot,
j, i
(45 56 57 58 70 79)
02 04 06 08 16 24 38 45 56 57 58 70 79

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
Analysis of Quick Sort:

Like merge sort, quick sort is recursive, and hence its analysis requires solving a
recurrence formula. We will do the analysis for a quick sort, assuming a random pivot(and
no cut off for small files).

We will take T (0) = T (1) = 1, as in merge sort.

The running time of quick sort is equal to the running time of the two recursive calls plus
the linear time spent in the partition (The pivot selection takes only constant time). This
gives the basic quick sort relation:

T (n) = T (i) + T (n – i – 1) + C n - (1)

Where, i = |S1 | is the number of elements in S1.

Worst Case Analysis

The pivot is the smallest element, all the time. Then i=0 and if we ignore T(0)=1, which is
insignificant, the recurrence is:

T (n) = T (n – 1) + C n n > 1 - (2)

Using equation – (1) repeatedly, thus

T (n – 1) = T (n – 2) + C (n – 1)

T (n – 2) = T (n – 3) + C (n – 2)

------- -

T (2) = T (1) + C (2)

Adding up all these equations yields

n
T (n) T (1)
 i
i
2
= O (n2) - (3)

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
Best and Average Case Analysis

The number of comparisons for first call on partition: Assume left_to_right moves over k
smaller element and thus k comparisons. So when right_to_left crosses left_to_right it has
made n-k+1 comparisons. So, first call on partition makes n+1 comparisons. The average
case complexity of quicksort is

T(n) = comparisons for first call on quicksort

+
{Σ 1<=nleft,nright<=n [T(nleft) + T(nright)]}n = (n+1) + 2 [T(0) +T(1) + T(2) +
----- + T(n-1)]/n

nT(n) = n(n+1) + 2 [T(0) +T(1) + T(2) + ------------- + T(n-2) + T(n-1)]

(n-1)T(n-1) = (n-1)n + 2 [T(0) +T(1) + T(2) + ------------- + T(n-2)] \

Subtracting both sides:

nT(n) –(n-1)T(n-1) = [ n(n+1) – (n-1)n] + 2T(n-1) = 2n + 2T(n-1) nT(n)

= 2n + (n-1)T(n-1) + 2T(n-1) = 2n + (n+1)T(n-1)
T(n) = 2 + (n+1)T(n-1)/n
The recurrence relation obtained is:
T(n)/(n+1) = 2/(n+1) + T(n-1)/n

Using the method of subsititution:

T(n)/(n+1) = 2/(n+1) + T(n-1)/n

T(n-1)/n = 2/n + T(n-2)/(n-1)
T(n-2)/(n-1) = 2/(n-1) + T(n-3)/(n-2)
T(n-3)/(n-2) = 2/(n-2) + T(n-4)/(n-3)
. .
. .
T(3)/4 = 2/4 + T(2)/3
T(2)/3 = 2/3 + T(1)/2 T(1)/2 = 2/2 + T(0)
Adding both sides:
T(n)/(n+1) + [T(n-1)/n + T(n-2)/(n-1) + ----------------------- + T(2)/3 + T(1)/2]
= [T(n-1)/n + T(n-2)/(n-1) + ----------------------+ T(2)/3 + T(1)/2] + T(0) +
[2/(n+1) + 2/n + 2/(n-1) + -------------------+2/4 + 2/3]
Cancelling the common terms:
T(n)/(n+1) = 2[1/2 +1/3 +1/4+----------------------- +1/n+1/(n+1)]
T(n) = (n+1)2[ 2 k n 1 1/ k
=2(n+1) [ ]
=2(n+1)[log (n+1) – log 2]
=2n log (n+1) + log (n+1)-2n log 2 –log 2
T(n)= O(n log n)

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

UNIT-II

Sets and Disjoint Set Union:

Disjoint Set Union: Considering a set S={1,2,3…10} (when n=10), then elements can
be partitioned into three disjoint sets s1={1,7,8,9},s2={2,5,10} and s3={3,4,6}.
Possible tree representations are:

1 5 3

7 8 9 2 10 4 6

In this representation each set is represented as a tree. Nodes are linked from the child to parent
rather than usual method of linking from parent to child.

The operations on these sets are:

1. Disjoint set union
2. Find(i)
3. Min Operation
4. Delete
5. Intersect
1. Disjoint Set union:
If Si and Sj are two disjoint sets, then their union S i U Sj = all the elements x
such that x is in Si or Sj. Thus S1 U S2 ={1,7,8,9,2,5,10}.
2. Find(i):
Given the element I, find the set containing i. Thus, 4 is in set S3, 9 is in S1.

UNION operation:
Union(i,j) requires two tree with roots i and j be joined. S 1 U S2 is
obtained by making any one of the sets as sub tree of other.

1
5

7 8 9 5 1
2 1

2 1 7 8 9

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Simple Algorithm for Union:

Algorithm Union(i,j)
{
//replace the disjoint sets with roots i and j, I not equal to j by their
union Integer i,j;
P[j] :=i;
}

Example:
Implement following sequence of operations Union(1,3),Union(2,5),Union(1,2)
Solution:
Initially parent array contains zeros.

0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6

1. After performing union(1,3)operation Parent[3]:=1

0 0 1 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6

2. After performing union(2,5)operation Parent[5]:=2

0 0 1 0 2 0
1 2 3 4 5 6

3. After performing union(1,2)operation Parent[2]:=1

0 1 1 0 2 0
1 2 3 4 5 6

3 2

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Process the following sequence of union operations

Union(1,2),Union(2,3) Union(n-1,n)
Degenerate Tree:

n-1

The time taken for n-1 unions is O(n).

Find(i) operation: determines the root of the tree containing

element i. Simple Algorithm for Find:

Algorithm Find(i)

{
j:=i; while(p[j]>0)
doj:=p[j]; return j;
}

Find Operation: Find(i) implies that it finds the root node of ith node, in other words it
returns the name of the set i.

Example: Consider the Union(1,3)

Find(1)=0
Find(3)=1, since its parent is 1. (i.e, root is 1)

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Example:
Considering

3 2

5
Array Representation
P[i] 0 1 1 2
i 1 2 3 5

Find(5)
=1
Find(2)
=1
Find(3)
=1
The root node represents all the nodes in the tree. Time Complexity of ‘n’ find
operations isO(n2).
To improve the performance of union and find algorithms by avoiding the
creation ofdegenerate tree. To accomplish this, we use weighting rule for
Union(i,j).

Connected components
In graph theory, a connected component (or just component) of an undirected graph
is a subgraph in which any two vertices are connected to each other by paths, and which is
connected to no additional vertices in the super graph. For example, the graph shown in the
illustration has three connected components. A vertex with no incident edges is itself a
connected component. A graph that is itself connected has exactly one connected component,
consisting of the whole graph.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
A graph with three connected
components.

Biconnected Components:

Let G = (V, E) be a connected undirected graph. Consider the following definitions:

Articulation Point (or Cut Vertex): An articulation point in a connected

graph is a vertex (together with the removal of any incident edges) that, if
deleted, would break the graph into two or more pieces..

Bridge: Is an edge whose removal results in a disconnected graph.

Biconnected: A graph is biconnected if it contains no articulation points. In

a biconnected graph, two distinct paths connect each pair of vertices. A
graph that is not biconnected divides into biconnected components. This is
illustrated in the following figure:

Biconnected
Components

Articulation Point
Bridge

Articulation Points and Bridges

Biconnected graphs and articulation points are of great interest in the

design of network algorithms,
because these are the “critical" points, whose failure will result in the
network becoming disconnected.

Let us consider the typical case of vertex v, where v is not a leaf and v is
not the root. Let w1, w2, . . . . . . . wk be the children of v. For each child
there is a subtree of the DFS tree rooted at this child. If for some child, there
is no back edge going to a proper ancestor of v, then if we remove v, this
subtree becomes disconnected from the rest of the graph, and hence v is an
articulation point.

L (u) = min {DFN (u), min {L (w) w is a child of u}, min {DFN
(w) (u, w) is a back edge}}.

L (u) is the lowest depth first number that can be reached from ‘u’ using a
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
path of descendents followed by at most one back edge. It follows that, If ‘u’
is not the root then ‘u’ is an articulation point iff ‘u’ has a child ‘w’ such
that:

L (w) ≥ DFN (u)

Algorithm for finding the Articulation points:

Pseudocode to compute DFN and L.

Algorithm Art (u, v)

// u is a start vertex for depth first search. V is its parent if any in the depth first
// spanning tree. It is assumed that the global array dfn is initialized to zero
and that // the global variable num is initialized to 1. n is the number of
vertices in G.
{
dfn [u] := num; L [u] := num; num
:= num + 1; for each vertex
wadjacent from u do
{
if (dfn [w] = 0) then
{
Art (w, u); // w
is unvisited. L [u] := min (L
[u], L[w]);
}
else if (w v) then L [u] := min (L [u], dfn [w]);
}
}

Algorithm for finding the Biconnected Components:

Algorithm BiComp (u, v)

// u is a start vertex for depth first search. V is its parent if any in the depth first
// spanning tree. It is assumed that the global array dfn is initially zero and that the
// global variable num is initialized to 1. n is the number of vertices in G.
{
dfn [u] := num; L [u] := num; num
:= num + 1; for each vertex
wadjacent from u do
{
if ((v w) and (dfn [w]
< dfn[u])) then
add (u, w)to the
top of a stack s;
if (dfn [w] = 0) then
{
if (L [w] > dfn [u]) then
{
write (“New
bicomponen
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
t”);repeat
{
Delete an edge from
thetop of stack s; Let
this edge be (x, y);
Write (x, y);
} until (((x, y) = (u, w)) or ((x, y) = (w, u)));
}
BiComp (w, u); // w is unvisited. L [u] := min (L [u], L [w]);
}
else if (w v) then L [u] : = min (L [u], dfn [w]);
}
}
Example:

For the following graph identify the articulation points and Biconnected components:

86
11

11 57
24

2 4 62 7 9
33

33 810
4 1 0 5 9 6 2
10 95
7 5

86 79

810
Graph Depth First Spanning Tree

To identify the articulation points, we use:

L (u) = min {DFN (u), min {L (w) w is a child of u}, min {DFN (w)
wis a vertex to which there is back edge from u}}

L (1) = min {DFN (1), min {L (4)}} = min {1, L (4)} = min {1, 1} = 1

L (4) = min {DFN (4), min {L (3)}} = min {2, L (3)} = min {2, 1} = 1

L (3) = min {DFN (3), min {L (10), L (9), L (2)}} =

= min {3, min {L (10), L (9), L (2)}} = min {3, min {4, 5, 1}} = 1

L (10) = min {DFN (10)} = 4

L (9) = min {DFN (9)} = 5

L (2) = min {DFN (2), min {L (5)}, min {DFN (1)}}

= min {6, min {L (5)}, 1} = min {6, 6, 1} = 1
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

L (5) = min {DFN (5), min {L (6), L (7)}} = min {7, 8, 6} = 6

L (6) = min {DFN (6)} = 8
L (7) = min {DFN (7), min {L (8}, min {DFN (2)}}
= min {9, L (8) , 6} = min {9, 6, 6} = 6

L (8) = min {DFN (8), min {DFN (5), DFN (2)}}

= min {10, min (7, 6)} = min {10, 6} = 6

Therefore, L (1: 10) = (1, 1, 1, 1, 6, 8, 6, 6, 5, 4)

Finding the Articulation Points:

Vertex 1: Vertex 1 is not an articulation point. It is a root node. Root is an

articulation point if it has two or more child nodes.

Vertex 2: is an articulation point as child 5 has L (5) = 6 and DFN

(2) = 6, So, the condition L (5) = DFN (2) is true.

Vertex 3: is an articulation point as child 10 has L (10) = 4 and DFN

(3) =3, So, the condition L (10) > DFN (3) is true.

Vertex 4: is not an articulation point as child 3 has L (3) = 1 and

DFN (4) = 2, So, the condition L (3) > DFN (4) is false.

Vertex 5: is an articulation point as child 6 has L (6) = 8, and DFN

(5) = 7, So, the condition L (6) > DFN (5) is true.

Vertex 7: is not an articulation point as child 8 has L (8) = 6, and

DFN (7) = 9, So, the condition L (8) > DFN (7) is false.

Vertex 6, Vertex 8, Vertex 9 and Vertex 10 are leaf nodes.

Therefore, the articulation points are {2, 3, 5}.

Example:
For the following graph identify the articulation points and Biconnected components:

4 1 1
1

2 2 3 3
2 3 7 8

4 5 5 6 4 6

5 6
7 7

G ra p h 8 8

D F S s p a n ni n g T re e

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
L (u) = min {DFN (u), min {L (w) w is a child of u}, min {DFN (w)
wis a vertex to which there is back edge from u}}

L (1) = min {DFN (1), min {L (2)}} = min {1, L (2)} = min {1, 2} = 1
L (2) = min {DFN (2), min {L (3)}} = min {2, L (3)} = min {2, 3} = 2
L (3) = min {DFN (3), min {L (4), L (5), L (6)}} = min {3, min {6, 4, 5}} = 3
L (4) = min {DFN (4), min {L (7)} = min {6, L (7)} = min {6, 6} = 6
L (5) = min {DFN (5)} = 4
L (6) = min {DFN (6)} = 5
L (7) = min {DFN (7), min {L (8)}} = min {7, 6} = 6
L (8) = min {DFN (8), min {DFN (4)}} = min {8, 6} = 6
Therefore, L (1: 8) = {1, 2, 3, 6, 4, 5, 6, 6}
Finding the Articulation Points:

Check for the condition if L (w) > DFN (u) is true, where w is any

child ofu. Vertex 1: Vertex 1 is not an articulation point.

It is a root node. Root is an articulation point if it has two or morechild
nodes.

Vertex 2: is an articulation point as L (3) = 3 and DFN (2) = 2.

So, the condition is true

Vertex 3: is an articulation Point as:

I. L (5) = 4 and DFN (3) = 3

II. L (6) = 5 and DFN (3) = 3 and

III. L (4) = 6

and DFN (3) = 3 So, the

Condition true in above cases

Vertex 4: is an articulation point as

L(7) = 6 and DFN (4) = 6. So, the

condition is true

Vertex 7: is not an articulation point as L (8) = 6 and DFN (7) = 7.

So, the condition is False

Vertex 5, Vertex 6 and Vertex 8 are leaf

nodes. Therefore, the articulation points are

{2, 3, 4}.
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

BACKTRACKING

General Method:

Backtracking is used to solve problem in which a sequence of objects is chosen from a

specified set so that the sequence satisfies some criterion. The desired solution is
expressed as an n-tuple (x1, , xn) where each xi Є S, S being a finite set.

The solution is based on finding one or more vectors that maximize, minimize, or satisfy a
criterion function P (x1, , xn). Form a solution and check at every step
if this has any chance of success. If the solution at any point seems not promising, ignore
it. All solutions requires a set of constraints divided into two categories: explicit and
implicit constraints.

Definition 1: Explicit constraints are rules that restrict each x i to take on values only from
a given set. Explicit constraints depend on the particular instance I of
problem being solved. All tuples that satisfy the explicit constraints define a
possible solution space for I.

Definition 2: Implicit constraints are rules that determine which of the tuples in the
solution space of I satisfy the criterion function. Thus, implicit constraints
describe the way in which the xi’s must relate to each other.

 For 8-queens problem:

Explicit constraints using 8-tuple formation, for this problem are S= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8}.

The implicit constraints for this problem are that no two queens can be the same
(i.e., all queens must be on different columns) and no two queens can be on the
same diagonal.

Backtracking is a modified depth first search of a tree. Backtracking algorithms determine

problem solutions by systematically searching the solution space for the given problem
instance. This search is facilitated by using a tree organization for the solution space.

Backtracking is the procedure whereby, after determining that a node can lead to nothing
but dead end, we go back (backtrack) to the nodes parent and proceed with the search on
the next child.

A backtracking algorithm need not actually create a tree. Rather, it only needs tokeep
track of the values in the current branch being investigated. This is the way we implement
backtracking algorithm. We say that the state space tree exists implicitly in the algorithm
because it is not actually constructed.

State space is the set of paths from root node to other nodes. State space tree is the tree
organization of the solution space. The state space trees are called static trees. This
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
terminology follows from the observation that the tree organizations are independent of the
problem instance being solved. For some problems it is advantageous to use different tree
organizations for different problem instance. In this case the tree organization is
determined dynamically as the solution space is being searched. Tree organizations that
are problem instance dependent are called dynamic trees.
Terminology:

Problem state is each node in the depth first search tree.

Solution states are the problem states ‘S’ for which the path from the root node to ‘S’
defines a tuple in the solution space.

Answer states are those solution states for which the path from root node to sdefines a
tuple that is a member of the set of solutions.

Live node is a node that has been generated but whose children have not yet been
generated.

E-node is a live node whose children are currently being explored. In other words, anE-
node is a node currently being expanded.

Dead node is a generated node that is not to be expanded or explored any further.All
children of a dead node have already been expanded.

Branch and Bound refers to all state space search methods in which all children ofan E-
node are generated before any other live node can become the E-node.

Depth first node generation with bounding functions is called backtracking. State
generation methods in which the E-node remains the E-node until it is dead, lead to branch
and bound methods.

N-Queens Problem:

Let us consider, N = 8. Then 8-Queens Problem is to place eight queens on an 8 x 8

chessboard so that no two “attack”, that is, no two of them are on the same row, column,
or diagonal.
All solutions to the 8-queens problem can be represented as 8-tuples (x1, . . . . , x8), where
xi is the column of the ith row where the ith queen is placed.

The explicit constraints using this formulation are Si = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, 1 < i <
8. Therefore the solution space consists of 88 8-tuples.

The implicit constraints for this problem are that no two x i’s can be the same (i.e., all
queens must be on different columns) and no two queens can be on the same diagonal.
This realization reduces the size of the solution space from 88 tuples to 8! Tuples.

The promising function must check whether two queens are in the same column or
diagonal:
Suppose two queens are placed at positions (i, j) and (k, l) Then:
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

 Column Conflicts: Two queens conflict if their xi values are identical.

 Diag 45 conflict: Two queens i and j are on the same 450 diagonal if:

i – j = k – l.

This implies, j – l = i – k
 Diag 135 conflict:
i + j = k + l. This implies, j – l = k – i

Therefore, two queens lie on the same diagonal if and only if:

j-l = i–k

Where, j be the column of object in row i for the i th queen and l be the column ofobject
in row ‘k’ for the kth queen.

To check the diagonal clashes, let us take the following tile configuration:

*
*
In this example, we have:
*
* i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
* xi 2 5 1 8 4 7 3 6
*
*
Let us consider for thecase whether the queens on 3rd row
*
and 8th row are conflicting or not. In this case (i, j) = (3, 1)
and (k, l) = (8, 6). Therefore:

j - l = i – k 1 - 6 =3 – 8
5=5

In the above example we have, j - l = i – k , so the two queens are attacking. This is not
a solution.

Example:

Suppose we start with the feasible sequence 7, 5, 3, 1.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

*
*
*
*

Step 1:
Add to the sequence the next number in the sequence 1, 2, . . . , 8 not yet used.

Step 2:
If this new sequence is feasible and has length 8 then STOP with a solution. If the
new sequence is feasible and has length less then 8, repeat Step 1.

Step 3:
If the sequence is not feasible, then backtrack through the sequence until we find
the most recent place at which we can exchange a value. Go back to Step 1.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

7 5 3 1
j - l = 1 – 2 = 1
7 5 3 1* 2*
i – k  = 4 – 5 = 1
7 5 3 1 4
j - l = 7 – 2 = 5
7* 5 3 1 4 2*
i – k  = 1 – 6 = 5
j - l = 3 – 6 = 3
7 5 3* 1 4 6*
i – k  = 3 – 6 = 3
7 5 3 1 4 8
j - l = 4 – 2 = 2
7 5 3 1 4* 8 2*
i – k  = 5 – 7 = 2
j - l = 4 – 6 = 2
7 5 3 1 4* 8 6*
i – k  = 5 – 7 = 2
7 5 3 1 4 8 Backtrack
7 5 3 1 4 Backtrack
7 5 3 1 6
j - l = 1 – 2 = 1
7* 5 3 1 6 2*
i – k  = 7 – 6 = 1
7 5 3 1 6 4
7 5 3 1 6 4 2
j - l = 3 – 8 = 5
7 5 3* 1 6 4 2 8*
i – k =3 – 8 = 5
7 5 3 1 6 4 2 Backtrack
7 5 3 1 6 4 Backtrack
7 5 3 1 6 8
7 5 3 1 6 8 2
7 5 3 1 6 8 2 4 SOLUTION

* indicates conflicting queens.

On a chessboard, the solution will look like:

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

4 – Queens Problem:

Let us see how backtracking works on the 4-queens problem. We start with the root node
as the only live node. This becomes the E-node. We generate one child. Let us assume that
the children are generated in ascending order. Let us assume that the children are generated
in ascending order. Thus node number 2 of figure is generated and the path is now (1).
This corresponds to placing queen 1 on column 1. Node 2 becomes the E-node. Node 3 is
generated and immediately killed. The next node generated is node 8 and the path becomes
(1, 3). Node 8 becomes the E-node. However, it gets killed as all its children represent
board configurations that cannot lead to an answer node. We backtrack to node 2 and
generate another child, node 13. The path is now (1, 4). The board configurations as
backtracking proceeds is as follows:

1 1 1 1
. . 2 2 2

. . . . 3

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 1 1 1
2 . . . 2 2
3 3
. . . . . . 4
(e) (f) (g) (h)

The above figure shows graphically the steps that the backtracking algorithm goes
through as it tries to find a solution. The dots indicate placements of a queen, which
were tried and rejected because another queen was attacking.

In Figure (b) the second queen is placed on columns 1 and 2 and finally settles on
column 3. In figure (c) the algorithm tries all four columns and is unable to place the
next queen on a square. Backtracking now takes place. In figure (d) the second
queen is moved to the next possible column, column 4 and the third queen is placed
on column 2. The boards in Figure (e), (f), (g), and (h) show the remaining steps that
the algorithm goes through until a solution is found.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Complexity Analysis:


n
n 1  1
1  n  n2  n3  ...............................  nn
n 1

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
8 1
For the instance in which n = 8, the state space tree contains: 8 1 = 19,
173, 961 nodes
8 1

Sum of Subsets:

Given positive numbers wi, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, and m, this problem requires finding all subsetsof
wi whose sums are ‘m’.

All solutions are k-tuples, 1 ≤ k ≤ n.

Explicit constraints:

 xi Є {j | j is an integer and 1 ≤ j ≤n}.

Implicit constraints:

 No two xi can be the same.

 The sum of the corresponding w i’s be m.

 xi < xi+1 , 1 ≤ i < k (total order in indices) to avoid generating multiple

instances of the same subset (for example, (1, 2, 4) and (1, 4, 2) represent
the same subset).

A better formulation of the problem is where the solution subset is represented by ann-
tuple (x1, ................. , xn) such that xi Є {0, 1}.

The above solutions are then represented by (1, 1, 0, 1) and (0, 0, 1, 1). For

both the above formulations, the solution space is 2n distincttuples.

For example, n = 4, w = (11, 13, 24, 7) and m = 31, the desired subsets are(11,
13, 7) and (24, 7).
The following figure shows a possible tree organization for two possible formulations of
the solution space for the case n = 4.
x 1 =1 1 x 1 =4
x 1 =2 x 1 =3
2 3 4 5
x 2 =4
x 2 =2 x 2 =3 x 2 =4
x 2 =3 x 2 =4
6 7 8 9 10 11
x 3 =3 S
x 3 =4 x 3 =4 x 3 =4
12 13 14 15
S
x 4 =4
16

A p o s s ib le s o lut io n s p ac e org a n is at io n f or t h e
s u m of t h e s u b s et s pro ble m.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
The tree corresponds to the variable tuple size formulation. The edges are labeled such
that an edge from a level i node to a level i+1 node represents a value for xi. At each node,
the solution space is partitioned into sub - solution spaces. All paths from the root node to
any node in the tree define the solution space, since any such path corresponds to a
subset satisfying the explicit constraints.

The possible paths are (1), (1, 2), (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 3, 4), (1, 2, 4), (1, 3, 4), (2), (2, 3), and so
on. Thus, the left mot sub-tree defines all subsets containing w1, the nextsub-tree defines
all subsets containing w2 but not w1, and so on.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Graph Coloring (for planar graphs):

Let G be a graph and m be a given positive integer. We want to discover whether the
nodes of G can be colored in such a way that no two adjacent nodes have the same color,
yet only m colors are used. This is termed the m-colorabiltiy decision problem. The m-
colorability optimization problem asks for the smallest integer m for which the graph G
can be colored.

Given any map, if the regions are to be colored in such a way that no two adjacent regions
have the same color, only four colors are needed.

For many years it was known that five colors were sufficient to color any map, but no map
that required more than four colors had ever been found. After several hundred years, this
problem was solved by a group of mathematicians with the help of a computer. They
showed that in fact four colors are sufficient for planar graphs.

The function m-coloring will begin by first assigning the graph to its adjacency matrix,
setting the array x [] to zero. The colors are represented by the integers 1, 2, . . . , m and the
solutions are given by the n-tuple (x1, x2, . . ., xn), where xi is the color of node i.

A recursive backtracking algorithm for graph coloring is carried out by invoking the
statement mcoloring(1);

Algorithm mcoloring (k)

// This algorithm was formed using the recursive backtracking schema. The graph is
// represented by its Boolean adjacency matrix G [1: n, 1: n]. All assignments of
// 1, 2, ............ , m to the vertices of the graph such that adjacent vertices are assigned
// distinct integers are printed. k is the index of the next vertex to color.
{
repeat
{ // Generate all legal assignments for x[k].
NextValue (k); // Assign to x [k] a
legal color. If (x [k] = 0) then return; // No new
color possibleIf (k = n) then // at most m colors
have been
// used to color the n vertices.
write (x [1: n]);
else mcoloring (k+1);
} until (false);
}

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Example:

Color the graph given below with minimum number of colors by

backtracking using state space tree

x1
1 3
2

1 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 x2

1 3 1 2 2 x3
3 1 2 2 3 1 3
4 3
Gra p h
x4
2 3 2 2 3 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 2

A 4- n o d e gra p h a n d a l l p o s s ib le 3-c o lorin gs

Hamiltonian Cycles:

Let G = (V, E) be a connected graph with n vertices. A Hamiltonian cycle

(suggested by William Hamilton) is a round-trip path along n edges of G that
visits every vertex once and returns to its starting position. In other vertices of
G are visited in the order v1, v2, . . . . . , vn+1, then the edges (vi, vi+1) are
in E, 1 < i < n, and the vi are distinct expect for v1 and vn+1, which are equal.
The graph G1 contains the Hamiltonian cycle 1, 2, 8, 7, 6,
5, 4, 3, 1. The graph G2 contains no Hamiltonian cycle.

1 2 3 4 1 2 3

8 7 6 5 5 4

Graph G1 Graph G2

Two graphs to illustrate Hamiltonian cycle

The backtracking solution vector (x1, . . . . . xn) is defined so that xi represents

the ith visited vertex of the proposed cycle. If k = 1, then x 1 can be any of the n
vertices. To avoid printing the same cycle n times, we require that x1 = 1. If 1
< k < n, then xk can be any vertex v that is distinct from x1, x2, . . . , xk–1
and v is connected by an edge to kx-1. The

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

vertex xn can only be one remaining vertex and it must be connected to both
xn-1 and x1.

Using NextValue algorithm we can particularize the recursive backtracking

schema to find all Hamiltonian cycles. This algorithm is started by first
initializing the adjacency matrix G[1: n, 1: n], then setting x[2: n] to zero and
x[1] to 1, and then executing Hamiltonian(2).

The traveling salesperson problem using dynamic programming asked for a

tour that has minimum cost. This tour is a Hamiltonian cycles. For the simple
case of a graph all of whose edge costs are identical, Hamiltonian will find a
minimum-cost tour if a tour exists.
Algorithm NextValue (k)
// x [1: k-1] is a path of k – 1 distinct vertices . If x[k] = 0, then no vertex has as yet been
// assigned to x [k]. After execution, x[k] is assigned to the next highest numberedvertex
// which does not already appear in x [1 : k – 1] and is connected by an edge to x [k – 1].
// Otherwise x [k] = 0. If k = n, then in addition x [k] is connected to x [1].
{
repeat
x { [k] := (x [k] +1) mod (n+1); // Next vertex. If (x
[k] = 0) then return;
If (G [x [k – 1], x [k]] 0) then
{ // Is there an edge?
for j := 1 to k – 1 do if (x [j] = x [k]) then break;
// check for distinctness.
If (j = k) then // If true, then the vertex is distinct.
If((k < n) or ((k = n) and G [x [n], x [1]] 0))
then return;

}
} until (false);
}
Algorithm Hamiltonian (k)
// This algorithm uses the recursive formulation of backtracking to find all the Hamiltonian
// cycles of a graph. The graph is stored as an adjacency matrix G [1: n, 1: n]. All cycles
begin
// at node 1.
{
repeat
{ // Generate values for x [k].
NextValue (k); //Assign a legal
Nextvalue to x [k]. if (x [k] = 0) then return;
if (k = n) then
write(x [1: n]);
else Hamiltonian
(k + 1)
} until (false)

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

UNIT-III

GREEDY METHOD
GENERAL METHOD

Greedy is the most straight forward design technique. Most of the problems have n inputs
and require us to obtain a subset that satisfies some constraints. Any subsetthat satisfies
these constraints is called a feasible solution. We need to find a feasible solution that either
maximizes or minimizes the objective function. A feasible solution that does this is called
an optimal solution.

The greedy method is a simple strategy of progressively building up a solution, one element
at a time, by choosing the best possible element at each stage. At each stage, a decision is
made regarding whether or not a particular input is in an optimal solution. This is done by
considering the inputs in an order determined by some selection procedure. If the inclusion
of the next input, into the partially constructed optimal solution will result in an infeasible
solution then this input is not added to the partial solution. The selection procedure itself is
based on some optimization measure. Several optimization measures are plausible for a
given problem. Most of them, however, will result in algorithms that generate sub-optimal
solutions. This version of greedy technique is called subset paradigm. Some problems like
Knapsack, Job sequencing with deadlines and minimum cost spanning trees are based on
subset paradigm.

For the problems that make decisions by considering the inputs in some order, each decision
is made using an optimization criterion that can be computed using decisions already made.
This version of greedy method is ordering paradigm. Some problems likeoptimal storage on
tapes, optimal merge patterns and single source shortest path are based on ordering
paradigm.

CONTROL ABSTRACTION

Algorithm Greedy (a, n)

// a(1 : n) contains the ‘n’ inputs
{
solution := ; // initialize the solution to empty
for i:=1 to n do
{
x := select (a);
if feasible (solution, x) then
solution := Union (Solution, x);
}
return solution;
}

Procedure Greedy describes the essential way that a greedy based algorithm will look, once
a particular problem is chosen and the functions select, feasible and union are properly
implemented.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

The function select selects an input from ‘a’, removes it and assigns its value to ‘x’.
Feasible is a Boolean valued function, which determines if ‘x’ can be included into the
solution vector. The function Union combines ‘x’ with solution and updates the objective
function.

KNAPSACK PROBLEM:

Let us apply the greedy method to solve the knapsack problem. We are given ‘n’
objects and a knapsack. The object ‘i’ has a weight wi and the knapsack has a capacity ‘m’.
If a fraction xi, 0 < xi < 1 of object i is placed into the knapsack then a profit of pi xi is
earned. The objective is to fill the knapsack that maximizes the total profit earned.

Since the knapsack capacity is ‘m’, we require the total weight of all chosen objects to be at
most ‘m’.
The profits and weights are positive numbers.

If the objects are already been sorted into non-increasing order of p[i] / w[i] then the
algorithm given below obtains solutions corresponding to this strategy.

Algorithm GreedyKnapsack (m, n)

// P[1 : n] and w[1 : n] contain the profits and weights respectively of
// Objects ordered so that p[i] / w[i]> p[i + 1] / w[i + 1].
// m is the knapsack size and x[1: n] is the solution vector.
{
for i := 1 to n do x[i] := 0.0 // initialize x
U := m;
for i := 1 to n do
{
if (w(i) > U) then break;
x [i] := 1.0; U := U – w[i];
}
if (i < n) then x[i] := U / w[i];
}

Running time:

The objects are to be sorted into non-decreasing order of pi / wi ratio. But if we disregard
the time to initially sort the objects, the algorithm requires only O(n) time.

Example:

Consider the following instance of the knapsack problem: n = 3, m = 20, (p 1 , p2, p3) =(25,
24, 15) and (w1, w2, w3) = (18, 15, 10).

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
1. First, we try to fill the knapsack by selecting the objects in some order:

x1 x2 x3 wi xi pi xi
1/2 1/3 1/4 18 x 1/2 + 15 x 1/3 + 10 x 1/4 25 x 1/2 + 24 x 1/3 + 15 x 1/4 =
= 16.5 24.25

2. Select the object with the maximum profit first (p = 25). So, x1 = 1 and profit earned is
25. Now, only 2 units of space is left, select the object with next largest profit (p = 24).
So, x2 = 2/15

x1 x2 x3 wi xi pi xi
1 2/15 0 18 x 1 + 15 x 2/15 = 20 25 x 1 + 24 x 2/15 = 28.2

3. Considering the objects in the order of non-decreasing weights w i.

x1 x2 x3 wi xi pi xi
0 2/3 1 15 x 2/3 + 10 x 1 = 20 24 x 2/3 + 15 x 1 = 31

4. Considered the objects in the order of the ratio pi / wi .

p1/w1 p2/w2 p3/w3

25/18 24/15 15/10
1.4 1.6 1.5

Sort the objects in order of the non-increasing order of the ratio pi / xi. Select the object
with the maximum pi / xi ratio, so, x2 = 1 and profit earned is 24. Now, only 5 units of
space is left, select the object with next largest pi / xi ratio, so x3 = ½ and theprofit earned
is 7.5.
x1 x2 x3 wi xi pi xi
0 1 1/2 15 x 1 + 10 x 1/2 = 20 24 x 1 + 15 x 1/2 = 31.5

This solution is the optimal solution.

JOB SEQUENCING WITH DEADLINES:

When we are given a set of ‘n’ jobs. Associated with each Job i, deadline d i > 0 and profit Pi
> 0. For any job ‘i’ the profit pi is earned iff the job is completed by its deadline. Only one
machine is available for processing jobs. An optimal solution is the feasible solution with
maximum profit.

Sort the jobs in ‘j’ ordered by their deadlines. The array d [1 : n] is used to store the
deadlines of the order of their p-values. The set of jobs j [1 : k] such that j [r], 1 ≤ r ≤ k are
the jobs in ‘j’ and d (j [1]) ≤ d (j[2]) ≤ . . . ≤ d (j[k]). To test whether J U {i} is feasible, we
have just to insert i into J preserving the deadline ordering and then verify
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
that d [J[r]] ≤ r, 1 ≤ r ≤ k+1.

Example:

Let n = 4, (P1, P2, P3, P4,) = (100, 10, 15, 27) and (d1 d2 d3 d4) = (2, 1, 2, 1). The
feasible solutions and their values are:

S. No Feasible Solution Procuring Value Remarks

sequence
1 1,2 2,1 110
2 1,3 1,3 or 3,1 115
3 1,4 4,1 127 OPTIMA
L
4 2,3 2,3 25
5 3,4 4,3 42
6 1 1 100
7 2 2 10
8 3 3 15
9 4 4 27

The algorithm constructs an optimal set J of jobs that can be processed by their
deadlines.

Algorithm GreedyJob (d, J, n)

// J is a set of jobs that can be completed by their deadlines.
{
J := {1};
for i := 2 to n do
{
if (all jobs in J U {i} can be completed by their dead lines)then J
:= J U {i};
}
}

Minimum Spanning Trees (MST):

A spanning tree for a connected graph is a tree whose vertex set is the same as the vertex set
of the given graph, and whose edge set is a subset of the edge set of the given graph. i.e.,
any connected graph will have a spanning tree.

Weight of a spanning tree w (T) is the sum of weights of all edges in T. The Minimum
spanning tree (MST) is a spanning tree with the smallest possible weight.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

G:

A gra p h G: T hre ( ma p o s s ib s p a n n in t re e fro gra p G:

e of ny le) g s m h

2 2
4
G: 3 5 3
6
1 1

A w e ig ht e d gra p h G: T h e min i ma l s p a n n in g t re e fro m w e ig ht e d gra p h G:

Here are some examples:

To explain further upon the Minimum Spanning Tree, and what it applies to, let's
consider a couple of real-world examples:

1. One practical application of a MST would be in the design of a network. For

instance, a group of individuals, who are separated by varying distances, wish to
be connected together in a telephone network. Although MST cannot do anything
about the distance from one connection to another, it can be used to determine the
least cost paths with no cycles in this network, thereby connecting everyone at a
minimum cost.
2. Another useful application of MST would be finding airline routes. The vertices of the
graph would represent cities, and the edges would represent routes between the cities.
Obviously, the further one has to travel, the more it will cost, so MST can be applied
to optimize airline routes by finding the least costly paths with nocycles.

To explain how to find a Minimum Spanning Tree, we will look at two algorithms: the
Kruskal algorithm and the Prim algorithm. Both algorithms differ in their methodology, but
both eventually end up with the MST. Kruskal's algorithm uses edges, and Prim’s algorithm
uses vertex connections in determining the MST.

Kruskal’s Algorithm

This is a greedy algorithm. A greedy algorithm chooses some local optimum (i.e.
picking an edge with the least weight in a MST).

Kruskal's algorithm works as follows: Take a graph with 'n' vertices, keep on adding the
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

shortest (least cost) edge, while avoiding the creation of cycles, until (n - 1) edges have
been added. Sometimes two or more edges may have the same cost. The order in which the
edges are chosen, in this case, does not matter. Different MSTs may result, but they will all
have the same total cost, which will always be the minimum cost.

The algorithm for finding the MST, using the Kruskal’s method is as follows:

Algorithm Kruskal (E, cost, n, t)

// E is the set of edges in G. G has n vertices. cost [u, v] is the
// cost of edge (u, v). ‘t’ is the set of edges in the minimum-cost spanning tree.
// The final cost is returned.
{
Construct a heap out of the edge costs using heapify; for
i := 1 to n do parent [i] := -1;
// Each vertex is in a different set.
i := 0; mincost := 0.0;
while ((i < n -1) and (heap not empty)) do
{
Delete a minimum cost edge (u, v) from the heap andre-
heapify using Adjust;
j := Find (u); k := Find (v);if
(j k) then
{
i := i + 1;
t [i, 1] := u; t [i, 2] := v; mincost
:=mincost + cost [u, v]; Union (j,
k);
}
}
if (i n-1) then write ("no spanning tree");
else return mincost;
}

Running time:

 The number of finds is at most 2e, and the number of unions at most n-1. Including
the initialization time for the trees, this part of the algorithm has a complexity that is
just slightly more than O (n + e).

 We can add at most n-1 edges to tree T. So, the total time for operations on T isO(n).

Summing up the various components of the computing times, we get O (n + e log e) as

asymptotic complexity

Example 1:

10 50
1 2
45 40 3
30 35

4 25 5
55 67
20 15
6
 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
Arrange all the edges in the increasing order of their costs:

Cost 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Edge (1, 2) (3, 6) (4, 6) (2, 6) (1, 4) (3, 5) (2, 5) (1, 5) (2, 3) (5, 6)

The edge set T together with the vertices of G define a graph that has up to n connected
components. Let us represent each component by a set of vertices in it. These vertex sets are
disjoint. To determine whether the edge (u, v) creates a cycle, we need to check whether u
and v are in the same vertex set. If so, then a cycle is created. If not then no cycle is created.
Hence two Finds on the vertex sets suffice. When an edge is included in T, two
components are combined into one and a union isto be performed on the two sets.

Edge Cost Spanning Forest Edge Sets Remarks

1 2 3 4 5 6 {1}, {2}, {3},

{4}, {5}, {6}

(1, 2) 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 {1, 2}, {3}, {4}, The vertices 1 and

{5}, {6} 2 are in different
sets, so the edge is
combined

(3, 6) 15 1 2 3 4 5 {1, 2}, {3, 6}, The vertices 3 and

{4}, {5} 6 are in different
6 sets, so the edge is
combined

(4, 6) 20 1 2 3 5 {1, 2}, {3, 4, 6}, The vertices 4 and

{5} 6 are in different
4 6 sets, so the edge is
combined

(2, 6) 25 1 2 5 {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}, The vertices 2 and

{5} 6 are in different
4 3 sets, so the edge is
combined
6
The vertices 1 and
(1, 4) 30 Reject 4 are in the same
set, so the edge is
Rejected

(3, 5) 35 1 2 The vertices 3 and

5 are in the same

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4 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} set, so the edge is

5 3
combined
6

MINIMUM-COST SPANNING TREES: PRIM'S ALGORITHM

A given graph can have many spanning trees. From these many spanning trees, wehave to
select a cheapest one. This tree is called as minimal cost spanningtree.

Minimal cost spanning tree is a connected undirected graph G in which each edge is labeled
with a number (edge labels may signify lengths, weights other than costs). Minimal cost
spanning tree is a spanning tree for which the sum of the edge labels is as small as possible

The slight modification of the spanning tree algorithm yields a very simple algorithm for
finding an MST. In the spanning tree algorithm, any vertex not in the tree but connected to
it by an edge can be added. To find a Minimal cost spanning tree, wemust be selective -
we must always add a new vertex for which the cost of the new edge is as small as possible.

This simple modified algorithm of spanning tree is called prim's algorithm for finding an
Minimal cost spanning tree.

Prim's algorithm is an example of a greedy algorithm.

Algorithm Prim (E, cost, n, t)

// E is the set of edges in G. cost [1:n, 1:n] is the cost
// adjacency matrix of an n vertex graph such that cost [i, j] is
// either a positive real number or if no edge (i, j) exists.
// A minimum spanning tree is computed and stored as a set of
// edges in the array t [1:n-1, 1:2]. (t [i, 1], t [i, 2]) is an edge in
// the minimum-cost spanning tree. The final cost is returned.
{
Let (k, l) be an edge of minimum cost in E;
mincost := cost [k, l];
t [1, 1] := k; t [1, 2] := l;
for i :=1 to n do // Initialize near
if (cost [i, l] < cost [i, k]) then near [i] := l;
else near [i] := k;
near [k] :=near [l] := 0;
for i:=2 to n - 1 do // Find n - 2 additional edges for t.
{
Let j be an index such that near [j] 0 and
cost [j, near [j]] is minimum;
t [i, 1] := j; t [i, 2] := near [j]; mincost :=
mincost + cost [j, near [j]];near [j] := 0
for k:= 1 to n do // Update near[].
if ((near [k] 0) and (cost [k, near [k]] > cost [k, j]))
then near [k] := j;
}
return mincost;
}

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Example:
Considering the following graph, find the minimal spanning tree using prim’s algorithm.

8
1 4 4
9

4 3 5
1
2 3 3
4

The minimal spanning tree obtained as:

Vertex 1 Vertex 2 1 4
2 4
4 1 3 5
3 4 3
5 3 2 3

1 2

The cost of Minimal spanning tree = 11.

The steps as per the algorithm are as follows:

Algorithm near (J) = k means, the nearest vertex to J is k.

The algorithm starts by selecting the minimum cost from the graph. The minimum cost edge
is (2, 4).

K = 2, l = 4
Min cost = cost (2, 4) = 1

T [1, 1] = 2

T [1, 2] = 4

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The Single Source Shortest-Path Problem: DIJKSTRA'S ALGORITHMS:

In the previously studied graphs, the edge labels are called as costs, but here we think them
as lengths. In a labeled graph, the length of the path is defined to be the sum of the lengths
of its edges.

In the single source, all destinations, shortest path problem, we must find a shortest path
from a given source vertex to each of the vertices (called destinations) in the graph to which
there is a path.

Dijkstra’s algorithm is similar to prim's algorithm for finding minimal spanning trees.
Dijkstra’s algorithm takes a labeled graph and a pair of vertices P and Q, and finds the

shortest path between then (or one of the shortest paths) if there is more than one. The
principle of optimality is the basis for Dijkstra’s algorithms.

Dijkstra’s algorithm does not work for negative edges at all.

The figure lists the shortest paths from vertex 1 for a five vertex weighted digraph.

8 0 1

4 2 1 3
1 2 5

2 4 5
3 1 3 4

3 4 3
1
4 1 2

Graph
6 1 3 4 5

Shortest Paths

Algorithm:

Algorithm Shortest-Paths (v, cost, dist, n)

// dist [j], 1 < j < n, is set to the length of the shortest path
// from vertex v to vertex j in the digraph G with n vertices.
// dist [v] is set to zero. G is represented by its
// cost adjacency matrix cost [1:n, 1:n].
{
for i :=1 to n do
{
S [i] := false; // Initialize S.
dist [i] :=cost [v, i];
}
S[v] := true; dist[v] := 0.0; // Put v in S.
for num := 2 to n – 1 do
{
Determine n - 1 paths from v.
Choose u from among those vertices not in S such that dist[u] is minimum;
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
S[u] := true; // Put u is S.
for (each w adjacent to u with S [w] = false) do
if (dist [w] > (dist [u] + cost [u, w]) then // Update distances
dist [w] := dist [u] + cost [u, w];
}
}

Running time:

Depends on implementation of data structures for dist.

 Build a structure with n elements A

 at most m = E  times decrease the value of an item mB
 ‘n’ times select the smallest value nC
 For array A = O (n); B = O (1); C = O (n) which gives O (n2) total.
 For heap A = O (n); B = O (log n); C = O (log n) which gives O (n + m log n)
total.

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UNIT-IV
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
Dynamic programming is a name, coined by Richard Bellman in 1955. Dynamic
programming, as greedy method, is a powerful algorithm design technique that can be
used when the solution to the problem may be viewed as the result of a sequence of
decisions. In the greedy method we make irrevocable decisions one at a time, using a
greedy criterion. However, in dynamic programming we examine the decision sequence to
see whether an optimal decision sequence contains optimal decision subsequence.

When optimal decision sequences contain optimal decision subsequences, we can

establish recurrence equations, called dynamic-programming recurrence equations, that
enable us to solve the problem in an efficient way.

Dynamic programming is based on the principle of optimality (also coined by Bellman).

The principle of optimality states that no matter whatever the initial state and initial
decision are, the remaining decision sequence must constitute an optimal decision
sequence with regard to the state resulting from the first decision. The principle implies
that an optimal decision sequence is comprised of optimal decision subsequences. Since
the principle of optimality may not hold for some formulations of some problems, it is
necessary to verify that it does hold for the problem being solved. Dynamic programming
cannot be applied when this principle does not hold.

The steps in a dynamic programming solution are:

 Verify that the principle of optimality holds

 Set up the dynamic-programming recurrence equations

 Solve the dynamic-programming recurrence equations for the value of the

optimal solution.

 Perform a trace back step in which the solution itself is constructed.

Dynamic programming differs from the greedy method since the greedy method produces
only one feasible solution, which may or may not be optimal, while dynamic programming
produces all possible sub-problems at most once, one of which guaranteed to be optimal.
Optimal solutions to sub-problems are retained in a table, thereby avoiding the work of
recomputing the answer every time a sub-problem is encountered

The divide and conquer principle solve a large problem, by breaking it up into smaller
problems which can be solved independently. In dynamic programming this principle is
carried to an extreme: when we don't know exactly which smaller problems to solve, we
simply solve them all, then store the answers away in a table to be used later in solving
larger problems. Care is to be taken to avoid recomputing previously computed values,
otherwise the recursive program will have prohibitive complexity. In some cases, the
solution can be improved and in other cases, the dynamic programming technique is
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

the best approach.

Two difficulties may arise in any application of dynamic programming:
It may not always be possible to combine the solutions of smaller problems to form the
solution of a larger one.
The number of small problems to solve may be un-acceptably large.
There is no characterized precisely which problems can be effectively solved with
dynamic programming; there are many hard problems for which it does not seen to be
applicable, as well as many easy problems for which it is less efficient than standard
algorithms.

All pairs shortest paths:

In the all pairs shortest path problem, we are to find a shortest path between every pair of
vertices in a directed graph G. That is, for every pair of vertices (i, j), we are to find a
shortest path from i to j as well as one from j to i. These two paths are the same when G
is undirected.

When no edge has a negative length, the all-pairs shortest path problem may be solved by
using Dijkstra’s greedy single source algorithm n times, once with each of the n vertices
as the source vertex.

The all pairs shortest path problem is to determine a matrix A such that A (i, j) is the
length of a shortest path from i to j. The matrix A can be obtained by solving n single-
source problems using the algorithm shortest Paths. Since each application of this
procedure requires O (n2) time, the matrix A can be obtained in O (n3) time.

The dynamic programming solution, called Floyd’s algorithm, runs in O (n 3) time. Floyd’s
algorithm works even when the graph has negative length edges (provided there are no
negative length cycles).

The shortest i to j path in G, i ≠ j originates at vertex i and goes through some

intermediate vertices (possibly none) and terminates at vertex j. If k is an intermediate
vertex on this shortest path, then the subpaths from i to k and from k to j must be
shortest paths from i to k and k to j, respectively. Otherwise, the i to j path is not of
minimum length. So, the principle of optimality holds. Let Ak (i, j) represent the length of
a shortest path from i to j going through no vertex of index greater than k, we obtain:

Ak (i, j) = {min {min {Ak-1 (i, k) + Ak-1 (k, j)}, c (i, j)}
1<k<n

Algorithm All Paths (Cost, A, n)

// cost [1:n, 1:n] is the cost adjacency matrix of a graph which
// n vertices; A [I, j] is the cost of a shortest path from vertex
// i to vertex j. cost [i, i] = 0.0, for 1 < i < n.
{
for i := 1 to n do
for j:= 1 to n do

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A [i, j] := cost [i, j]; // copy cost into A.

for k := 1 to n do
for i := 1 to n do
for j := 1 to n do
A [i, j] := min (A [i, j], A [i, k] + A [k, j]);
}

Complexity Analysis: A Dynamic programming algorithm based on this recurrence

involves in calculating n+1 matrices, each of size n x n. Therefore, the algorithm has a
complexity of O (n3).

Example 1:

Given a weighted digraph G = (V, E) with weight. Determine the length of the
shortest path between all pairs of vertices in G. Here we assume that there are no
cycles with zero or negative cost.

6
1 2 0 4 11

4 Cost adjacency matrix (A0) = 6 0 2 
3 1 1 2  
3  0  

3


General formula: min {Ak-1 (i, k) + Ak-1 (k, j)}, c (i, j)}
1<k<n

Solve the problem for different values of k = 1, 2 and 3

Step 1: Solving the equation for, k = 1;

A1 (1, 1) = min {(Ao (1, 1) + Ao (1, 1)), c (1, 1)} = min {0 + 0, 0} = 0

A1 (1, 2) = min {(Ao (1, 1) + Ao (1, 2)), c (1, 2)} = min {(0 + 4), 4} = 4
A1 (1, 3) = min {(Ao (1, 1) + Ao (1, 3)), c (1, 3)} = min {(0 + 11), 11} = 11
A1 (2, 1) = min {(Ao (2, 1) + Ao (1, 1)), c (2, 1)} = min {(6 + 0), 6} = 6
A 1 (2, 2) = min {(A o (2, 1) + A o (1, 2)), c (2, 2)} = min {(6 + 4), 0)} = 0
A 1 (2, 3) = min {(A o (2, 1) + A o (1, 3)), c (2, 3)} = min {(6 + 11), 2} = 2
A 1 (3, 1) = min {(A o (3, 1) + A o (1, 1)), c (3, 1)} = min {(3 + 0), 3} = 3
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A 1 (3, 2) = min {(Ao (3, 1) + A o (1, 2)), c (3, 2)} = min {(3 + 4), } =7
A1 (3, 3) = min {(Ao (3, 1) + Ao (1, 3)), c (3, 3)} = min {(3 + 11), 0} = 0

0 4 11
 
A(1) = 2 
6 0
3 7 0 

Step 2: Solving the equation for, K = 2;

A2 (1, 1) = min {(A1(1, 2) + A1 (2, 1), c (1, 1)} = min {(4 + 6), 0} = 0
A2 (1, 2) = min {(A1(1, 2) + A1 (2, 2), c (1, 2)} = min {(4 + 0), 4} = 4
A2 (1, 3) = min {(A1 (1, 2) + A1 (2, 3), c (1, 3)} = min {(4 + 2), 11} = 6
A2(2, 1) = min {(A (2, 2) + A (2, 1), c (2, 1)} = min {(0 + 6), 6} = 6
A2 (2, 2) = min {(A (2, 2) + A (2, 2), c (2, 2)} = min {(0 + 0), 0} = 0
A2 (2, 3) = min {(A (2, 2) + A (2, 3), c (2, 3)} = min {(0 + 2), 2} = 2
A2 (3, 1) = min {(A (3, 2) + A (2, 1), c (3, 1)} = min {(7 + 6), 3} = 3
A2 (3, 2) = min {(A (3, 2) + A (2, 2), c (3, 2)} = min {(7 + 0), 7} = 7
A2 (3, 3) = min {(A (3, 2) + A (2, 3), c (3, 3)} = min {(7 + 2), 0} = 0

0 4 6 
 
A(2) = 2 
6 0
 3 7 0 

Step 3: Solving the equation for, k = 3;

A3 (1, 1) = min {A2 (1, 3) + A2 (3, 1), c (1, 1)} = min {(6 + 3), 0} = 0
A3 (1, 2) = min {A2 (1, 3) + A2 (3, 2), c (1, 2)} = min {(6 + 7), 4} = 4
A3 (1, 3) = min {A2 (1, 3) + A2 (3, 3), c (1, 3)} = min {(6 + 0), 6} = 6
A3 (2, 1) = min {A2 (2, 3) + A2 (3, 1), c (2, 1)} = min {(2 + 3), 6} = 5
A3 (2, 2) = min {A2 (2, 3) + A2 (3, 2), c (2, 2)} = min {(2 + 7), 0} = 0
A3 (2, 3) = min {A2 (2, 3) + A2 (3, 3), c (2, 3)} = min {(2 + 0), 2} = 2
A3 (3, 1) = min {A2 (3, 3) + A2 (3, 1), c (3, 1)} = min {(0 + 3), 3} = 3
A3 (3, 2) = min {A2 (3, 3) + A2 (3, 2), c (3, 2)} = min {(0 + 7), 7} = 7
A3 (3, 3) = min {A2 (3, 3) + A2 (3, 3), c (3, 3)} = min {(0 + 0), 0} = 0

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0 4 6 
 
A(3) = 5 0 2 
 
 3 7 0 

TRAVELLING SALESPERSON PROBLEM:

Let G = (V, E) be a directed graph with edge costs C ij. The variable cij is defined such
that cij > 0 for all I and j and cij = if < i, j> E. Let |V| = n and assume n > 1. A tour of
G is a directed simple cycle that includes every vertex in V. The cost of a tour is the sum
of the cost of the edges on the tour. The traveling sales person problem is to find a tour of
minimum cost. The tour is to be a simple path that starts and endsat vertex 1.

Let g (i, S) be the length of shortest path starting at vertex i, going through all vertices in
S, and terminating at vertex 1. The function g (1, V – {1}) is the length of an optimal
salesperson tour. From the principal of optimality it follows that:
g1, V - 1  min c1k  g  k, V   1, k  -- 1
2 k n

Generalizing equation 1, we obtain (for i S)

g  i, S   minci j  g i, S   j   -- 2
j S

The Equation can be solved for g (1, V – 1}) if we know g (k, V – {1, k}) for all
choices of k.

Example :

For the following graph find minimum cost tour for the traveling salesperson
problem:

1 2
0 10 15 20
The cost adjacency matrix = 5 10  
0 9 
6 12
13 0
 
8 9 0 
3 4 8

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
Let us start the tour from vertex 1:
g (1, V – {1}) = min {c1k + g (k, V – {1, K})} - (1)
2<k<n

More generally writing:

g (i, s) = min {cij + g (J, s – {J})} - (2)

Clearly, g (i, ) = ci1 , 1 ≤ i ≤ n. So,

g (2, ) = C21 = 5

g (3, ) = C31 = 6

g (4, ) = C41 = 8

Using equation – (2) we obtain:

g (1, {2, 3, 4}) = min {c12 + g (2, {3, 4}, c13 + g (3, {2, 4}), c14 + g (4, {2, 3})}

g (2, {3, 4}) = min {c23 + g (3, {4}), c24 + g (4, {3})}
= min {9 + g (3, {4}), 10 + g (4, {3})}

g (3, {4}) = min {c34 + g (4, )} = 12 + 8 = 20

g (4, {3}) = min {c43 + g (3, )} = 9 + 6 = 15

Therefore, g (2, {3, 4}) = min {9 + 20, 10 + 15} = min {29, 25} = 25

g (3, {2, 4}) = min {(c32 + g (2, {4}), (c34 + g (4,{2})}

g (2, {4}) = min {c24 + g (4, )} = 10 + 8 = 18

g (4, {2}) = min {c42 + g (2, )} = 8 + 5 = 13

Therefore, g (3, {2, 4}) = min {13 + 18, 12 + 13} = min {41, 25} = 25

g (4, {2, 3}) = min {c42 + g (2, {3}), c43 + g (3, {2})}

g (2, {3}) = min {c23 + g (3, } = 9 + 6 = 15

g (3, {2}) = min {c32 + g (2, } = 13 + 5 = 18

Therefore, g (4, {2, 3}) = min {8 + 15, 9 + 18} = min {23, 27} =23

g (1, {2, 3, 4}) = min {c12 + g (2, {3, 4}), c13 + g (3, {2, 4}), c14 + g (4, {2, 3})}
= min {10 + 25, 15 + 25, 20 + 23} = min {35, 40, 43} = 35

The optimal tour for the graph has length = 35

The optimal tour is: 1, 2, 4, 3, 1.

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0/1 – KNAPSACK:

We are given n objects and a knapsack. Each object i has a positive weight w i and a
positive value Vi. The knapsack can carry a weight not exceeding W. Fill the
knapsack so that the value of objects in the knapsack is optimized.

A solution to the knapsack problem can be obtained by making a sequence of

decisions on the variables x1, x2, . . . . , xn. A decision on variable x i involves
determining which of the values 0 or 1 is to be assigned to it. Let us assume that

decisions on the xi are made in the order x n, xn-1, x1. Following a decision on
xn, we may be in one of two possible states: the capacity remaining in m – wn and a
profit of pn has accrued. It is clear that the remaining decisions x n-1, , x1 must be
optimal with respect to the problem state resulting from the decision on xn.
Otherwise, xn, , x1 will not be optimal. Hence, the principal of optimality holds.

Fn (m) = max {fn-1 (m), fn-1 (m - wn) + pn} -- 1

For arbitrary fi (y), i > 0, this equation generalizes to:

Fi (y) = max {fi-1 (y), fi-1 (y - wi) + pi} -- 2

Equation-2 can be solved for fn (m) by beginning with the knowledge f o (y) = 0
for all y and fi (y) = - , y < 0. Then f1, f2, . . . fn can be successively computed
using equation–2.

When the wi’s are integer, we need to compute fi (y) for integer y, 0 < y < m. Since fi
(y) = - for y < 0, these function values need not be computed explicitly. Since
each fi can be computed from fi - 1 in Θ (m) time, it takes Θ (m n) time to
compute fn. When the wi’s are real numbers, fi (y) is needed for real numbers y
such that 0 < y < m. So, fi cannot be explicitly computed for all y in this range. Even
when the wi’s are integer, the explicit Θ (m n) computation of fn may not be the
most efficient computation. So, we explore an alternative method for both cases.

The fi (y) is an ascending step function; i.e., there are a finite number of y’s, 0 = y1
< y2 < . . . . < yk, such that fi (y1) < fi (y2) < . . . . . < fi (yk); fi (y) = - , y < y1; fi
(y) = f (yk), y > yk; and fi (y) = fi (yj), yj < y < yj+1. So, we need to compute only fi
(yj), 1 < j < k. We use the ordered set Si = {(f (yj), yj) | 1 < j < k} to represent fi
(y). Each number of Si is a pair (P, W), where P = fi (yj) and W = yj. Notice that S0
=
{(0, 0)}. We can compute Si+1 from Si by first computing:

Si1= {(P, W) | (P – p i, W – w i) Si }

Now, Si+1 can be computed by merging the pairs in Si and Si to1gether. Note that if
Si+1 contains two pairs (P j, Wj) and (Pk, Wk) with the property that Pj < Pk and Wj
> Wk, then the pair (Pj, Wj) can be discarded because of equation-2. Discarding or
purging rules such as this one are also known as dominance rules. Dominated tuples
get purged. In the above, (Pk, Wk) dominates (Pj, Wj).

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Example 1:

Consider the knapsack instance n = 3, (w 1, w 2, w 3) = (2, 3, 4), (P 1, P 2, P 3) = (1,

2,5) and M = 6.

Solution:

Initially, fo (x) = 0, for all x and fi (x) = -  if x

< 0. Fn (M) = max {fn-1 (M), fn-1 (M - wn) + pn}

F3 (6) = max (f2 (6), f2 (6 – 4) + 5} = max {f2 (6), f2 (2) + 5}

F2 (6) = max (f1 (6), f1 (6 – 3) + 2} = max {f1 (6), f1 (3) + 2}

F1 (6) = max (f0 (6), f0 (6 – 2) + 1} = max {0, 0 + 1} = 1

F1 (3) = max (f0 (3), f0 (3 – 2) + 1} = max {0, 0 + 1} = 1

Therefore, F2 (6) = max (1, 1 + 2} = 3

F2 (2) = max (f1 (2), f1 (2 – 3) + 2} = max {f1 (2), -  + 2}

F1 (2) = max (f0 (2), f0 (2 – 2) + 1} = max {0, 0 + 1} = 1

F2 (2) = max {1, -  + 2} = 1

Finally, f3 (6) = max {3, 1 + 5} = 6

Other Solution: SET METHOD

For the given data we have:

S0 = {(0, 0)}; S0 = {(11, 2)}

S1 = (S0 U S01) = {(0, 0), (1, 2)}

X - 2 = 0 => x = 2. y – 3 = 0 => y = 3
X - 2 = 1 => x = 3. y – 3 = 2 => y = 5

S11 = {(2, 3), (3, 5)}

S2 = (S1 U S1 1) = {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 5)}

X – 5 = 0 => x = 5. y –4=0 => y =4

X – 5 = 1 => x = 6. y –4=2 => y =6
X – 5 = 2 => x = 7. y –4=3 => y =7
X – 5 = 3 => x = 8. y –4=5 => y =9

S21 = {(5, 4), (6, 6), (7, 7), (8, 9)}

S3 = (S2 U S21) = {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 5), (5, 4), (6, 6), (7, 7), (8, 9)}

By applying Dominance rule,

S3 = (S2 U S21) = {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 3), (5, 4), (6, 6)}

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From (6, 6) we can infer that the maximum Profit  pi xi = 6 and weight  xi wi = 6

If cost exceeds 105, remove that tuples

S3 = {(0.36, 65), (0.437, 80), (0.54, 85), (0.648, 100)}

Matrix chain multiplication

The problem
Given a sequence of matrices A1 , A2, A3 , ..., An , find the best way (using the minimal number
of multiplications) to compute their product.
• Isn’t there only one way? ((· · · ((A 1 · A 2 ) · A 3) · · ·) · A n)
• No, matrix multiplication is associative.
e.g. A1 · (A 2 · (A 3 · (· · · (A n− 1 · A n ) · · ·))) yields the same matrix.
• Different multiplication orders do not cost the same:
– Multiplying p × q matrix A and q × r matrix B takes p · q · r multiplications; result is a
p × r matrix.
– Consider multiplying 10 × 100 matrix A1 with 100 × 5 matrix A2 and 5 ×50 matrix A3.
– (A 1 · A 2) · A 3 takes 10 · 100 · 5 + 10 · 5 · 50 = 7500 multiplications.
– A1 · (A2 · A3) takes 100 · 5 · 50 + 10 · 50 · 100 = 75000 multiplications.

Notation

• In general, let Ai be pi−1 × p i matrix.

• Let m(i, j) denote minimal number of multiplications needed to compute Ai · Ai+1 · · · A j
• We want to compute m(1, n).

Recursive algorithm

• Assume that someone tells us the position of the last product, say k. Then we have to
compute recursively the best way to multiply the chain from i to k, and from k + 1 to j,
and add the cost of the final product. This means that

m(i, j) = m(i, k) + m(k + 1, j) + pi−1 · pk · pj

• If noone tells us k, then we have to try all possible values of k and pick the best solution.
• Recursive formulation of m(i, j):
. 0 If i= j
m(i,j) =
mini≤k<j{m(i,k)+m(k+1,j)+pi−1·pk·pj} If i < j

• To go from the recursive formulation above to a program is pretty straightforward:

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Matrix-chain(i, j)
IF i = j THEN return 0
m=∞
FOR k = i TO j − 1 DO
q = Matrix-chain(i, k) + Matrix-chain(k + 1, j) +pi−1 · pk · p j
IF q < m THEN m = q
OD
Return m
END Matrix-chain

Return Matrix-chain(1, n)

• Running
time: Σ
n−1
T (n) = (T (k) + T (n− k) + O(1))
k=1
Σ
n−1
= 2· T (k) + O(n)
k=1

≥ 2 · T (n − 1)
≥ 2 · 2 · T (n − 2)
≥2·2·2...
= 2n
• Exponential is ...
SLOW!

• Problem is that we compute the same result over and over again.
– E x a m p l e : Recursion tree for Matrix-chain(1, 4)
1,4

1,1 2,4 1,2 3,4 1,3 4,4

2,2 3,4 2,3 4,4 1,1 2,2 3,3 4,4 1,1 2,3 1,2 3,3

3,3 4,4 2,2 3,3 2,2 3,3 1,1 2,2

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

For example, we compute Matrix-chain(3, 4) twice.

Dynamic programming with a table and recursion

• Solution is to “remember” the values we have already computed in a table. This is called
memoization. We’ll have a table T[1..n][1..n] such that T[i][j] stores the solution to
problem Matrix-CHAIN(i,j). Initially all entries will be set to ∞.
FOR i = 1 to n
DO FOR j = i
to n DO
T [i][j] = ∞
OD
OD
• The code for MATRIX-CHAIN(i,j) stays the same, except that it now uses the table.
The first thing MATRIX-CHAIN(i,j) does is to check the table to see if T [i][j] is
already computed. Is so, it returns it, otherwise, it computes it and writes it in the
table. Below is the updated code.

Matrix-chain(i, j)
IF T [i][j] < ∞ THEN return T [i][j]
IF i = j THEN T [i][j] = 0, return 0
m=∞
FOR k = i to j − 1 DO
q = Matrix-chain(i, k) + Matrix-chain(k + 1, j)+pi−1 · p k · pj
IF q < m THEN m = q
OD
T [i][j] = m
return m
END Matrix-chain

return Matrix-chain(1, n)

• The table will prevent a subproblem MATRIX-CHAIN(i,j) to be computed more

thanonce.
• Running time:
– Θ(n2) different calls to matrix-chain(i, j).
– The first time a call is made it takes O(n) time, not counting recursive calls.
– When a call has been made once it costs O(1) time to make it again.
𝖴
O(n3) time
– Another way of thinking about it: Θ(n2) total entries to fill, it takes O(n) to fill
one.

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UNIT-V
BRANCH AND BOUND

General method:

Branch and Bound is another method to systematically search a solution space. Just like
backtracking, we will use bounding functions to avoid generating subtrees that do not
contain an answer node. However branch and Bound differs from backtracking in two
important manners:

1. It has a branching function, which can be a depth first search, breadth first
search or based on bounding function.

2. It has a bounding function, which goes far beyond the feasibility test as a
mean to prune efficiently the search tree.

Branch and Bound refers to all state space search methods in which all children of the
E-node are generated before any other live node becomes the E-node

Branch and Bound is the generalization of graph search strategies, BFS and D- search.

 A BFS like state space search is called as FIFO (First in first out) search as
the list of live nodes in a first in first out list (or queue).

 A D search like state space search is called as LIFO (Last in first out)
search as the list of live nodes in a last in first out (or stack).

Definition 1: Live node is a node that has been generated but whose children have not
yet been generated.
Definition 2: E-node is a live node whose children are currently being explored. In other
words, an E-node is a node currently being expanded.
Definition 3: Dead node is a generated node that is not to be expanded or explored any
further. All children of a dead node have already been expanded.
Definition 4: Branch-an-bound refers to all state space search methods in which all
children of an E-node are generated before any other live node can become
the E-node.
Definition 5: The adjective "heuristic", means" related to improving problem solving
performance". As a noun it is also used in regard to "any method or trick
used to improve the efficiency of a problem solving problem". But
imperfect methods are not necessarily heuristic or vice versa. "A heuristic
(heuristic rule, heuristic method) is a rule of thumb, strategy, trick
simplification or any other kind of device which drastically limits search
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
for solutions in large problem spaces. Heuristics do not guarantee optimal
solutions; they do not guarantee any solution at all. A useful heuristic offers
solutions which are good enough most of the time.

Least Cost (LC) search:

In both LIFO and FIFO Branch and Bound the selection rule for the next E-node in rigid
and blind. The selection rule for the next E-node does not give any preference to a node
that has a very good chance of getting the search to an answer node quickly.

The search for an answer node can be speeded by using an “intelligent” ranking function
c( ) for live nodes. The next E-node is selected on the basis of this ranking function.
The node x is assigned a rank using:

c( x ) = f(h(x)) + g( x )

where, c( x ) is the cost of x.

h(x) is the cost of reaching x from the root and f(.) is any non-decreasing
function.

g ( x ) is an estimate of the additional effort needed to reach an answer node from x.

A search strategy that uses a cost function c( x ) = f(h(x) + g( x ) to select the next
E-node would always choose for its next E-node a live node with least c(.) is called a
LC–search (Least Cost search).
BFS and D-search are special cases of LC-search. If g( x ) = 0 and f(h(x)) = level of node x,
then an LC search generates nodes by levels. This is eventually the same as a BFS. If f(h(x)) =
0 andessentially a D-search.
g( x ) > g( y ) whenever y is a child of x, then the search is An LC-
search coupled with bounding functions is called an LC-branch and
bound search We associate a cost c(x) with each node x in the state space
tree. It is not possible to easily compute the function c(x). So we compute
a estimate c( x ) of c(x).

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Control Abstraction for LC-Search:

Let t be a state space tree and c() a cost function for the nodes in t. If x is a node int, then
c(x) is the minimum cost of any answer node in the subtree with root x. Thus, c(t) is the
cost of a minimum-cost answer node in t.

A heuristic c(.) is used to estimate c(). This heuristic should be easy to compute and
generally has the property that if x is either an answer node or a leaf node, then
c(x) = c( x ) .

LC-search uses c to find an answer node. The algorithm uses two functions Least() andAdd() to
delete and add a live node from or to the list of live nodes, respectively.

Least() finds a live node with least c(). This node is deleted from the list of live nodes and
returned.

Add(x) adds the new live node x to the list of live nodes. The list of live nodes be
implemented as a min-heap.

Algorithm LCSearch outputs the path from the answer node it finds to the root node
t. This is easy to do if with each node x that becomes live, we associate a field parent
which gives the parent of node x. When the answer node g is found, the path from g to t
can be determined by following a sequence of parent values starting from the current E-
node (which is the parent of g) and ending at node t.

Listnode = record
{
Listnode * next, *parent; float cost;
}

Algorithm LCSearch(t)
{ //Search t for an answer node
if *t is an answer node then output *t and
return;E := t; //E-node.
initialize the list of live nodes to be
empty;repeat
{
for each child x of E do
{
if x is an answer node then output the path from x to t and
return;Add (x); //x is a new live node.
(x parent) := E; // pointer for path to root
}
if there are no more live nodes then
{
write (“No answer
node”);return;
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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
}
E := Least();
} until (false);
}

The root node is the first, E-node. During the execution of LC search, this list
contains all live nodes except the E-node. Initially this list should be empty.Examine all
the children of the E-node, if one of the children is an answer node, then the algorithm
outputs the path from x to t and terminates. If the child of E is not an answer node, then it
becomes a live node. It is added to the list of live nodes and its parent field set to E. When
all the children of E have been generated, E becomes a dead node. This happens only if
none of E’s children is an answer node. Continue the search further until no live nodes
found. Otherwise, Least(), by definition, correctly chooses the next E-node and the search
continues from here.

LC search terminates only when either an answer node is found or the entire state space
tree has been generated and searched.

Bounding:
A branch and bound method searches a state space tree using any search mechanism in
which all the children of the E-node are generated before another node becomes the E-
node. We assume that each answer node x has a cost c(x) associated with it and that a
minimum-cost answer node is to be found. Three common search strategies are FIFO,
LIFO, and LC. The three search methods differ only in the selection rule used to obtain
the next E-node.

A good bounding helps to prune efficiently the tree, leading to a faster exploration of the
solution space.
A cost function c(.) such that c( x ) < c(x) is used to provide lower bounds on
solutions obtainable from any node x. If upper is an upper bound on the cost of a
minimum-cost solution, then all live nodes x with c(x) > c( x ) > upper. The starting value
for upper can be obtained by some heuristic or can be set to.

As long as the initial value for upper is not less than the cost of a minimum-cost answer
node, the above rules to kill live nodes will not result in the killing of a live node that can
reach a minimum-cost answer node. Each time a new answer node is found, the value of
upper can be updated.

Branch-and-bound algorithms are used for optimization problems where, we deal directly
only with minimization problems. A maximization problem is easily converted to a
minimization problem by changing the sign of the objective function.

To formulate the search for an optimal solution for a least-cost answer node in a state
space tree, it is necessary to define the cost function c(.), such that c(x) is minimum for all
nodes representing an optimal solution. The easiest way to do this is to use the objective
function itself for c(.).

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
 For nodes representing feasible solutions, c(x) is the value of the objective
function for that feasible solution.

 For nodes representing infeasible solutions, c(x) = .

 For nodes representing partial solutions, c(x) is the cost of the minimum-cost
node in the subtree with root x.
Since, c(x) is generally hard to compute, the branch-and-bound algorithm will use an
estimate c( x ) such that c( x ) < c(x) for all x.
FIFO Branch and Bound:

A FIFO branch-and-bound algorithm for the job sequencing problem can begin with
upper = as an upper bound on the cost of a minimum-cost answer node.

Starting with node 1 as the E-node and using the variable tuple size formulation of
Figure 8.4, nodes 2, 3, 4, and 5 are generated. Then u(2) = 19, u(3) = 14, u(4) =
18, and u(5) = 21.

The variable upper is updated to 14 when node 3 is generated. Since c (4) and c(5) are
greater than upper, nodes 4 and 5 get killed. Only nodes 2 and 3 remain alive.
Node 2 becomes the next E-node. Its children, nodes 6, 7 and 8 are generated.
Then u(6) = 9 and so upper is updated to 9. The costgets killed. Node 8 is infeasible and so it is
killed.
Next, node 3 becomes the E-node. Nodes 9 and 10 are now generated. Then u(9) = 8 and so
upper becomes 8. The cost c(10) = 11 > upper, and this node is killed.

The next E-node is node 6. Both its children are infeasible. Node 9’s only child is also
infeasible. The minimum-cost answer node is node 9. It has a cost of 8.

When implementing a FIFO branch-and-bound algorithm, it is not economical to kill

live nodes with c(x) > upper each time upper is updated. This is so because live nodes are
in the queue in the order in which they were generated. Hence, nodes with c(x) > upper
are distributed in some random way in the queue. Instead, live nodes with c(x) > upper can
be killed when they are about to become E-nodes.

The FIFO-based branch-and-bound algorithm with an c(7) = 10 > upper and no

appropriatecalled FIFOBB.

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LC Branch and Bound:

An LC Branch-and-Bound search of the tree of Figure 8.4 will begin with upper =
and node 1 as the first E-node.

When node 1 is expanded, nodes 2, 3, 4 and 5 are generated in that order.

As in the case of FIFOBB, upper is updated to 14 when node 3 is generated and

nodes 4 and 5 are killed as c(4) > upper and c(5) > upper.

Node 2 is the next E-node as c(2) = 0 and c(3) = 5. Nodes 6, 7 and 8 are generated and
upper is updated to 9 when node 6 is generated. So, node 7 is killed as c(7) = 10
> Upper. Node 8 is infeasible and so killed. The only live nodes now are nodes 3 and
6.

Node 6 is the next E-node as c(6) = 0 < c(3) . Both its children are infeasible.

Node 3 becomes the next E-node. When node 9 is generated, upper is updated to 8 as
u(9) = 8. So, node 10 with c(10) = 11 is killed on generation.

Node 9 becomes the next E-node. Its only child is infeasible. No live nodes remain. The
search terminates with node 9 representing the minimum-cost answer node.

The path = 1  3  9 = 5 + 3 = 8

Traveling Sale Person Problem:

By using dynamic programming algorithm we can solve the problem with timecomplexity
of O(n22n) for worst case. This can be solved by branch and bound technique using
efficient bounding function. The time complexity of traveling sale person problem using
LC branch and bound is O(n22n) which shows that there is no change or reduction of
complexity than previous method.

We start at a particular node and visit all nodes exactly once and come back to initial node
with minimum cost.

Let G = (V, E) is a connected graph. Let C(i, J) be the cost of edge <i, j>. cij =  if
<i, j> E and let |V| = n, the number of vertices. Every tour starts at vertex 1 and
ends at the same vertex. So, the solution space is given by S = {1, , 1 |  is a
permutation of (2, 3, . . . , n)} and |S| = (n – 1)!. The size of S can be reduced by
restricting S so that (1, i1, i2, . . . . in-1, 1) S iff <ij, ij+1> E, 0 < j < n - 1 and
i0 = in =1.

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Procedure for solving traveling sale person problem:

1. Reduce the given cost matrix. A matrix is reduced if every row and column is
reduced. A row (column) is said to be reduced if it contain at least one zero and
all-remaining entries are non-negative. This can be done as follows:

a) Row reduction: Take the minimum element from first row, subtract it from
all elements of first row, next take minimum element from the second row
and subtract it from second row. Similarly apply the same procedure for all
rows.
b) Find the sum of elements, which were subtracted from rows.

c) Apply column reductions for the matrix obtained after row reduction.

Column reduction: Take the minimum element from first column, subtract
it from all elements of first column, next take minimum element from the
second column and subtract it from second column. Similarly apply the
same procedure for all columns.

d) Find the sum of elements, which were subtracted from columns.

e) Obtain the cumulative sum of row wise reduction and column wise
reduction.

Cumulative reduced sum = Row wise reduction sum + column wise

reduction sum.

Associate the cumulative reduced sum to the starting state as lower

bound and  as upper bound.

2. Calculate the reduced cost matrix for every node R. Let A is the reduced cost
matrix for node R. Let S be a child of R such that the tree edge (R, S) corresponds
to including edge <i, j> in the tour. If S is not a leaf node, then the reduced cost
matrix for S may be obtained as follows:

a) Change all entries in row i and column j of A to .

b) Set A (j, 1) to .

c) Reduce all rows and columns in the resulting matrix except for rows
and column containing only . Let r is the total amount subtracted to
reduce the matrix.

c) Find cS  cR  A i, j  r, where ‘r’ is the total amount

subtracted to reduce the matrix, cR indicates the lower bound of the
i th node in (i, j) path and c S  is called the cost function.

3. Repeat step 2 until all nodes are visited.

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
Example:

Find the LC branch and bound solution for the traveling sale person problem whose
cost matrix is as follows:
  20 30 10 11
 
15  16 4 2 

3 5  2 4
The cost matrix is  
18  3 
19 6 
16 4 7 16  


Step 1: Find the reduced cost matrix.

Apply row reduction method:

Deduct 10 (which is the minimum) from all values in the 1 st row.

Deduct 2 (which is the minimum) from all values in the 2 nd row.
Deduct 2 (which is the minimum) from all values in the 3rd row.
Deduct 3 (which is the minimum) from all values in the 4 th row.
Deduct 4 (which is the minimum) from all values in the 5th row.

 10 20 0 1 
13 
  14 2 0 
The resulting row wise reduced cost matrix  1 3  0 0 

3 15  0 
16
12 0 3 12  

Row wise reduction sum = 10 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 21



Now apply column reduction for the above matrix:

Deduct 1 (which is the minimum) from all values in the 1 st column.

Deduct 3 (which is the minimum) from all values in the 3rd column.
 10 17 0 1 
12
  11 2 0 
The resulting column wise reduced cost matrix (A) =  0 3  0 2 

3 12  0 
15
11 0 0 12  

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY


Column wise reduction sum = 1 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 0 = 4

Cumulative reduced sum = row wise reduction + column wise reduction sum.
= 21 + 4 = 25.

This is the cost of a root i.e., node 1, because this is the initially reduced cost matrix.

The lower bound for node is 25 and upper bound is .

Starting from node 1, we can next visit 2, 3, 4 and 5 vertices. So, consider to explore
the paths (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4) and (1, 5).

The tree organization up to this point is as follows:

U = 
1 L = 25

i=2 i = 4 i= 5
i=3
2 3 4 5

Variable ‘i’ indicates the next node to visit.

Step 2:

Consider the path (1, 2):

Change all entries of row 1 and column 2 of A to  and also set A(2, 1) to .

      
 
  11 2 0 
0   0 2 
 
 12  0 
15
11  0 12  

Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

      
 
  11 2 0 
Then the resultant matrix is  0   0 2 
 
 12  0 
15
11  0 12  

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

Row reduction sum = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
Column reduction sum = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
Cumulative reduction (r) = 0 + 0 = 0

Therefore, as cS  cR  A 1, 2  r

c S  = 25 + 10 + 0 = 35

Consider the path (1, 3):

Change all entries of row 1 and column 3 of A to  and also set A(3, 1) to .

    
12   2 0 
 
 3  0 2 
 
  0 
15 3
11 0  12  

Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

      
 1  2 0 
 
Then the resultant matrix is  3  0 2 
 
3   0 
4
0 0  12  

Row reduction sum = 0

Column reduction sum = 11
Cumulative reduction (r) = 0 + 11 = 11

Therefore, as cS   cR  A 1, 3  r

c S  = 25 + 17 + 11 = 53

Consider the path (1, 4):

Change all entries of row 1 and column 4 of A to  and also set A(4, 1) to .

    

12

 11  0 
0 3   2 
 
3 12  0 
 
11 0 0   

Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
     
12

  11  0 
Then the resultant matrix is  0 3   2 
 
3 12  0 
 
11 0 0   

Row reduction sum = 0

Column reduction sum = 0

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 MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY
Consider the path (1, 5):

Change all entries of row 1 and column 5 of A to  and also set A(5, 1) to .

     
12  
 11 2  
 0 3  0  
 
12   
15 3
  0 0 12  

Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

     
10  
 9 0  
Then the resultant matrix is  0 3  0  
 
9   
12 0
 0 0 12  

Row reduction sum = 5

Column reduction sum = 0
Cumulative reduction (r) = 5 + 0 = 0

Therefore, as cS   cR  A 1, 5  r

c S  = 25 + 1 + 5 = 31
The tree organization up to this point is as follows:
U = 
1 L = 25

i=2 i = 4 i= 5
i=3
35 2 53 3 25 4 31 5

i = 2 i= 5
i=3

6 7 8

The cost of the paths between (1, 2) = 35, (1, 3) = 53, (1, 4) = 25 and (1, 5) = 31.
The cost of the path between (1, 4) is minimum. Hence the matrix obtained for path
(1, 4) is considered as reduced cost matrix.

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     
12

  11  0 
A = 0 3   2 
 
3 12  0 
 
11 0 0   

The new possible paths are (4, 2), (4, 3) and (4, 5).

Consider the path (4, 2):

Change all entries of row 4 and column 2 of A to  and also set A(2, 1) to .

     
  11  0 
 
 0    2 
 
     
11  0   
Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

     
  11  0 
 
Then the resultant matrix is  0    2 
 
      
11  0   

Row reduction sum = 0

Column reduction sum = 0
Cumulative reduction (r) = 0 + 0 = 0

Therefore, as cS   cR  A 4, 2  r

c S  = 25 + 3 + 0 = 28

Consider the path (4, 3):

Change all entries of row 4 and column 3 of A to  and also set A(3, 1) to .

     
12    
 0 
  3   2 
 
    

11 0    

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Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

     
 1   0 
 
Then the resultant matrix is   1   0 
 
     
 0 0    
Row reduction sum = 2
Column reduction sum = 11
Cumulative reduction (r) = 2 + 11 = 13

Therefore, as cS  cR  A 4, 3  r

c S  = 25 + 12 + 13 = 50

Consider the path (4, 5):

Change all entries of row 4 and column 5 of A to  and also set A(5, 1) to .

     
12 

 11  
 0 3    
 
   
  
  0 0   

Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

     
 1 0   
 
Then the resultant matrix is  0 3    
 
     
  0 0   

Row reduction sum = 11
Column reduction sum = 0
Cumulative reduction (r) = 11+0 = 11

Therefore, as cS  cR  A 4, 5  r

c S  = 25 + 0 + 11 = 36

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The tree organization up to this point is as follows:

U = 
1 L = 25

i=2 i = 4 i= 5
i=3
35 2 53 3 25 4 31 5

i = 2 i= 5
i=3

28 6 7 8
36
50
i=3
i=5

9 10

The cost of the paths between (4, 2) = 28, (4, 3) = 50 and (4, 5) = 36. The cost of
the path between (4, 2) is minimum. Hence the matrix obtained for path (4, 2) is
considered as reduced cost matrix.

     
  11  0 
 
A =  0 
  2 
 
      
11  0   
The new possible paths are (2, 3) and (2, 5).

Consider the path (2, 3):

Change all entries of row 2 and column 3 of A to  and also set A(3, 1) to .

     
     
 
    2 
 
     
11     

Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

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     
     
 
Then the resultant matrix is     0 
 
     
 0     

Row reduction sum = 2
Column reduction sum = 11
Cumulative reduction (r) = 2 + 11 = 13

Therefore, as cS  cR  A 2, 3  r

c S  = 28 + 11 + 13 = 52

Consider the path (2, 5):

Change all entries of row 2 and column 5 of A to  and also set A(5, 1) to .
     
      
 
 0     
 

    
  0   
Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .
     
      
 
Then the resultant matrix is  0     
 

    
   0   
Row reduction sum = 0
Column reduction sum = 0
Cumulative reduction (r) = 0 + 0 = 0

Therefore, as cS  cR  A 2, 5  r

c S  = 28 + 0 + 0 = 28
The tree organization up to this point is as follows:

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U = 
1 L = 25

i=2 i = 4 i= 5
i=3
35 2 53 3 25 4 31 5

i = 2 i= 5
i=3

28 6 7 8
36
50
i=3
i=5

52 9 10 28

i= 3

11

The cost of the paths between (2, 3) = 52 and (2, 5) = 28. The cost of the path
between (2, 5) is minimum. Hence the matrix obtained for path (2, 5) is considered
as reduced cost matrix.

     
      
 
A =  0     
 

    
  0   
The new possible paths is (5, 3).

Consider the path (5, 3):

Change all entries of row 5 and column 3 of A to  and also set A(3, 1) to .
Apply row and column reduction for the rows and columns whose rows and
columns are not completely .

     
      
 
Then the resultant matrix is       
 
 
    
       

Row reduction sum = 0
Column reduction sum = 0
Cumulative reduction (r) = 0 + 0 = 0

Therefore, as cS   cR  A 5, 3  r

c S  = 28 + 0 + 0 = 28

The overall tree organization is as follows:

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U = 
1 L = 25

i=2 i = 4 i= 5
i=3
35 2 53 3 25 4 31 5

i = 2 i= 5
i=3

28 6 7 8
36
50
i=3
i=5

52 9 10 28

i=3

11 28

The path of traveling sale person problem is:

1 4 2 5 3 1

The minimum cost of the path is: 10 + 6 +2+ 7 + 3 = 28.

0/1 Knapsack Problem

Consider the instance: M = 15, n = 4, (P1, P2, P3, P4) = (10, 10, 12, 18) and
(w1, w2, w3, w4) = ( 2, 4, 6, 9).

0/1 knapsack problem can be solved by using branch and bound technique. In this
problem we will calculate lower bound and upper bound for each node.

Place first item in knapsack. Remaining weight of knapsack is 15 – 2 = 13. Place next
item w2 in knapsack and the remaining weight of knapsack is 13 – 4 = 9. Place next item
w3 in knapsack then the remaining weight of knapsack is 9 – 6 = 3. No fractions are
allowed in calculation of upper bound so w4 cannot be placed in knapsack.

Profit = P1 + P2 + P3 = 10 + 10 + 12
So, Upper bound = 32

To calculate lower bound we can place w4 in knapsack since fractions are allowed in
calculation of lower bound.
3
Lower bound = 10 + 10 + 12 + ( X 18) = 32 + 6 = 38
9
Knapsack problem is maximization problem but branch and bound technique isapplicable
for only minimization problems. In order to convert maximization problem into
minimization problem we have to take negative sign for upper bound and lower bound.

Therefore, Upper bound (U) = -32

Lower bound (L) = -38

We choose the path, which has minimum difference of upper bound and lower bound.If
the difference is equal then we choose the path by comparing upper bounds and we
discard node with maximum upper bound.
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U = - 32
1 L = -38
x1 = 1 x1 = 0

U = - 32 2 3 U = - 22
L = -38 L = -32

Now we will calculate upper bound and lower bound for nodes 2, 3.

For node 2, x1= 1, means we should place first item in the knapsack.

U = 10 + 10 + 12 = 32, make it as -32

3
L = 10 + 10 + 12 + x 18 = 32 + 6 = 38, make it as -38
9

For node 3, x1 = 0, means we should not place first item in the knapsack.

U = 10 + 12 = 22, make it as -22

5
L = 10 + 12 + x 18 = 10 + 12 + 10 = 32, make it as -32
9

Next, we will calculate difference of upper bound and lower bound for nodes 2, 3

For node 2, U – L = -32 + 38 = 6

For node 3, U – L = -22 + 32 = 10

Choose node 2, since it has minimum difference value of 6.

U = - 32
1 L = -38
x1 = 1 x1 = 0
U = - 32 U = - 22
2 3
L = - 38 L = -32

x2 = 1 x2 = 0

U = - 32 U = - 22
4 5
L = - 38 L = -36

Now we will calculate lower bound and upper bound of node 4 and 5. Calculate
difference of lower and upper bound of nodes 4 and 5.

For node 4, U – L = -32 + 38 = 6

For node 5, U – L = -22 + 36 = 14

Choose node 4, since it has minimum difference value of 6.

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U = - 32
1 L = -38
x1 = 1 x1 = 0

U = - 32 U = - 22
2 3
L = -38 L = -32

x2 = 1 x2 = 0

U = -32 U = - 22
4 5
L = -38 L = -36

x3 = 1 x3 = 0

U = -32 U = -38
6 7
L = -38 L = -38

Now we will calculate lower bound and upper bound of node 8 and 9. Calculate
difference of lower and upper bound of nodes 8 and 9.

For node 6, U – L = -32 + 38 = 6

For node 7, U – L = -38 + 38 = 0

Choose node 7, since it is minimum difference value of 0.

U = - 32
1 L = -38
x1 = 1 x1 = 0

U = - 32 2 3 U = - 22
L = -38 L = -32

x2 = 1 x2 = 0

U = - 32 U = - 22
4 5
L = -38 L = -36

x3 = 1 x3 = 0

U = - 32 U = - 38
6 7
L = -38 L = -38

x4 = 1 x4 = 0

U = - 38 U = - 20
8 9
L = -38 L = -20

Now we will calculate lower bound and upper bound of node 4 and 5. Calculate
difference of lower and upper bound of nodes 4 and 5.

For node 8, U – L = -38 + 38 = 0

For node 9, U – L = -20 + 20 = 0

Here the difference is same, so compare upper bounds of nodes 8 and 9. Discard the
node, which has maximum upper bound. Choose node 8, discard node 9 since, it has
maximum upper bound.

Consider the path from 1  2  4  7  8

X1 = 1
X2 = 1
X3 = 0

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X4 = 1

The solution for 0/1 Knapsack problem is (x 1, x2, x3, x4) = (1, 1, 0, 1)

Maximum profit is:

Pi xi = 10 x 1 + 10 x 1 + 12 x 0 + 18 x 1
= 10 + 10 + 18 = 38.

Portion of state space tree using FIFO Branch and Bound for above problem:
As follows:

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NP-Hard and NP-Complete problems

Deterministic and non-deterministic algorithms

Deterministic: The algorithm in which every operation is uniquely defined is called
deterministic algorithm.
Non-Deterministic: The algorithm in which the operations are not uniquely defined but
are limited to specific set of possibilities for every operation, such an algorithm is called
non-deterministic algorithm.
The non-deterministic algorithms use the following functions:
1. Choice: Arbitrarily chooses one of the element from given set.
2. Failure: Indicates an unsuccessful completion
3. Success: Indicates a successful completion

A non-deterministic algorithm terminates unsuccessfully if and only if there exists no

set of choices leading to a success signal. Whenever, there is a set of choices that leads to
a successful completion, then one such set of choices is selected and the algorithm
terminates successfully.
In case the successful completion is not possible, then the complexity is O(1). In case of
successful signal completion then the time required is the minimum number of steps
needed to reach a successful completion of O(n) where n is the number of inputs.
The problems that are solved in polynomial time are called tractable problems and the
problems that require super polynomial time are called non-tractable problems. All
deterministic polynomial time algorithms are tractable and the non-deterministic
polynomials are intractable.

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Satisfiability Problem:
The satisfiability is a boolean formula that can be constructed using thefollowing literals
and operations.
1. A literal is either a variable or its negation of the variable.
2. The literals are connected with operators ˅, ˄͢, ⇒ ,⇔
3. Parenthesis
The satisfiability problem is to determine whether a Boolean formula is true for some
assignment of truth values to the variables. In general, formulas are expressed in
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF).

A Boolean formula is in conjunctive normal form iff it is represented by

( xi ∨ xj ∨ xk1 ) 𝖠 ( xi ∨ jx 1 ∨ xk )

A Boolean formula is in 3CNF if each clause has exactly 3 distinct literals.Example:

The non-deterministic algorithm that terminates successfully iff a givenformula

E(x1,x2,x3) is satisfiable.

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Reducability:
A problem Q1 can be reduced to Q2 if any instance of Q1 can be easily rephrased as an
instance of Q2. If the solution to the problem Q2 provides a solution to the problem Q1,
then these are said to be reducable problems.
Let L1 and L2 are the two problems. L1 is reduced to L2 iff there is a way to solve L1 by
a deterministic polynomial time algorithm using a deterministic algorithm that solves L2
in polynomial time and is denoted by L1α L2.
If we have a polynomial time algorithm for L2 then we can solve L1 in polynomial time.
Two problems L1 and L2 are said to be polynomially equivalent iff L1α L2 and L2 α L1.

Example: Let P1 be the problem of selection and P2 be the problem of sorting. Let the
input have n numbers. If the numbers are sorted in array A[ ] the i th smallest element of
the input can be obtained as A[i]. Thus P1 reduces to P2 in O(1) time.

Decision Problem:
Any problem for which the answer is either yes or no is called decision problem. The
algorithm for decision problem is called decision algorithm.
Example: Max clique problem, sum of subsets problem.

Optimization Problem: Any problem that involves the identification of an optimal value
(maximum or minimum) is called optimization problem.
Example: Knapsack problem, travelling salesperson problem.
In decision problem, the output statement is implicit and no explicit statements are
permitted.
The output from a decision problem is uniquely defined by the input parameters and
algorithm specification.

Many optimization problems can be reduced by decision problems with the property that
a decision problem can be solved in polynomial time iff the corresponding optimization
problem can be solved in polynomial time. If the decision problem cannot be solved in
polynomial time then the optimization problem cannot be solved in polynomial time.

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Class P:
P: the class of decision problems that are solvable in O(p(n)) time, where p(n) is a
polynomial of problem’s input size n
Examples:
• searching
• element uniqueness
• graph connectivity
• graph acyclicity
• primality testing

Class NP
NP (nondeterministic polynomial): class of decision problems whose proposed
solutions can be verified in polynomial time = solvable by a nondeterministic
polynomial algorithm
A nondeterministic polynomial algorithm is an abstract two-stage procedure that:
• generates a random string purported to solve the problem
• checks whether this solution is correct in polynomial time
By definition, it solves the problem if it’s capable of generating and verifying a
solution on one of its tries
Example: CNF satisfiability
Problem: Is a boolean expression in its conjunctive normal form (CNF) satisfiable, i.e.,
are there values of its variables that makes it true? This problem is in NP.
Nondeterministic algorithm:
• Guess truth assignment
• Substitute the values into the CNF formula to see if it evaluates to true

What problems are in NP?

• Hamiltonian circuit existence
• Partition problem: Is it possible to partition a set of n integers into two
disjoint subsets with the same sum?
• Decision versions of TSP, knapsack problem, graph coloring, and many other
combinatorial optimization problems. (Few exceptions include: MST, shortest
paths)
• All the problems in P can also be solved in this manner (but no guessing is
necessary), so we have:
P  NP
• Big question: P = NP ?

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NP HARD AND NP COMPLETE

Polynomial Time algorithms
Problems whose solutions times are bounded by polynomials of small degree are called
polynomial time algorithms
Example: Linear search, quick sort, all pairs shortest path etc.
Non- Polynomial time algorithms
Problems whose solutions times are bounded by non-polynomials are called non-
polynomial time algorithms
Examples: Travelling salesman problem, 0/1 knapsack problem etc
It is impossible to develop the algorithms whose time complexity is polynomial for
non-polynomial time problems, because the computing times of non-polynomial are
greater than polynomial. A problem that can be solved in polynomial time in one model
can also be solved in polynomial time.
NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problem:
Let P denote the set of all decision problems solvable by deterministic algorithm in
polynomial time. NP denotes set of decision problems solvable by nondeterministic
algorithms in polynomial time. Since, deterministic algorithms are a special case of
nondeterministic algorithms, P ⊆ NP. The nondeterministic polynomial time problems
can be classified into two classes. They are
1. NP Hard and
2. NP Complete
NP-Hard: A problem L is NP-Hard iff satisfiability reduces to L i.e., any
nondeterministic polynomial time problem is satisfiable and reducable then the problem
is said to be NP-Hard.
Example: Halting Problem, Flow shop scheduling problem

NP-Complete: A problem L is NP-Complete iff L is NP-Hard and L belongs to NP

(nondeterministic polynomial).

A problem that is NP-Complete has the property that it can be solved in polynomial time
iff all other NP-Complete problems can also be solved in polynomial time. (NP=P)

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If an NP-hard problem can be solved in polynomial time, then all NP- complete problems
can be solved in polynomial time. All NP-Complete problems are NP-hard, but some NP-
hard problems are not known to be NP- Complete.
Normally the decision problems are NP-complete but the optimization problems are NP-
Hard.
However if problem L1 is a decision problem and L2 is an optimization problem, then it is
possible that L1α L2.
Example: Knapsack decision problem can be reduced to knapsack
optimization problem.
There are some NP-hard problems that are not NP-Complete.

Relationship between P,NP,NP-hard, NP-Complete

Let P, NP, NP-hard, NP-Complete are the sets of all possible decision problems that are
solvable in polynomial time by using deterministic algorithms, non-deterministic
algorithms, NP-Hard and NP-complete respectively. Then the relationship between P,
NP, NP-hard, NP-Complete can be expressed using Venn diagram as:

Problem conversion
A decision problem D1 can be converted into a decision problem D2 if there is an
algorithm which takes as input an arbitrary instance I1 of D1 and delivers as output an
instance I2 of D2such that I2 is a positive instance of D2 if and only if I1 is a positive
instance of D1. If D1 can be converted into D2, and we have an algorithm which solves
D2, then we thereby have an algorithm which solves D1. To solve an instance I of D1,
we first use the conversion algorithm to generate an instance I0 of D2, and then use the
algorithm for solving D2 to determine whether or not I0 is a positive instance of D2. If it
is, then we know that I is a positive instance of D1, and if it is not, then we know that I is
a negative instance of D1. Either way, we have solved D1 for that instance. Moreover, in
this case, we can say that the computational complexity of D1 is at most the sum of the
computational complexities of D2 and the conversion algorithm. If the conversion
algorithm has polynomial complexity, we say that D1 is at most polynomially harder than
D2. It means that the amount of computational work we have to do to solve D1, over and

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above whatever is required to solve D2, is polynomial in the size of the problem instance.
In such a case the conversion algorithm provides us with a feasible way of solving D1,
given that we know how to solve D2.
Given a problem X, prove it is in NP-Complete.
1. Prove X is in NP.
2. Select problem Y that is known to be in NP-Complete.
3. Define a polynomial time reduction from Y to X.
4. Prove that given an instance of Y, Y has a solution iff X has a solution.

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