INTRODUCTION AND

OVERVIEW OF
MANUFACTURING
1. Raw materials preparation and melting
2. Shaping processes in glassworking
3. Heat treatment and finishing
4. Product design considerations

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Glass Products

 Glass products are commercially produced in an almost

unlimited variety of shapes
 Most products made in very large quantities
 Light bulbs, beverage bottles, jars, light bulbs
 Window glass
 Glass tubing (e.g., for fluorescent lighting)
 Glass fibers
 Other products are made individually
 Giant telescope lenses

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Glass: Overview of the Material

 Glass is one of three basic types of ceramics

 The others are traditional ceramics and new
ceramics
 Glass is distinguished by its noncrystalline (vitreous)
structure
 The other ceramic materials have a crystalline
structure

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Shaping Methods for Glass

 Methods are quite different from those for traditional

and new ceramics
 Process sequence in shaping glass:
 Starting material is heated to transform it from a
hard solid into a viscous liquid
 It is then shaped while in this fluid condition
 When cooled and hard, the material remains in
the glassy state rather than crystallizing

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Process Sequence in
Glassworking

 Typical process sequence in glassworking: (1)

preparation of raw materials and melting, (2) shaping,
and (3) heat treatment

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Raw Materials Preparation and
Melting

 Principal component in nearly all glasses is silica, SiO2

 Primary source is natural quartz in sand
 Other components are added in proportions to achieve
the desired composition:
 Soda ash (source of Na2O), limestone (source of
CaO), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and potash
(source of K2O),
 Recycled glass is usually added to the mixture too

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Glass Melting

 The batch of starting materials is called a charge, and

loading it into furnace is called charging the furnace
 Melting temperatures for glass are around 1500C
to 1600C (2700F to 2900F)
 Viscosity of molten glass is inversely related to
temperature
 Shaping immediately follows melting, so
temperature at which the glass is tapped depends
on the viscosity required for the shaping process

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Shaping Processes in
Glassworking

 Shaping processes to fabricate glass products can

be grouped into three categories:
1. Discrete processes for piece ware (bottles, jars,
plates, light bulbs)
2. Continuous processes for making flat glass
(sheet and plate glass) and tubing (laboratory
ware, fluorescent lights)
3. Fiber-making processes to produce fibers (for
insulation and fiber optics)

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Shaping of Piece Ware

 Ancient methods of hand-working glass included

glass blowing
 Handicraft methods are still used today for making
glassware items of high value in small quantities
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 However, most modern glass shaping processes are
highly mechanized technologies for producing
discrete pieces such as jars, bottles, and light bulbs
in high quantities

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Piece Ware Shaping Processes

 Spinning – similar to centrifugal casting of metals

 Pressing – mass production of flat products such as
dishes and TV tube faceplates
 Press-and-blow –production of wide-mouth containers
such as jars
 Blow-and-blow - production of smaller-mouth containers
such as beverage bottles and incandescent light bulbs
 Casting – large items such as astronomical lenses that
must cool slowly to avoid cracking

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Spinning:
Process Sequence
 Spinning of funnel-shaped glass parts such as cathode
ray tubes for TVs: (1) gob of glass dropped into mold;
and (2) rotating mold to spread molten glass on mold

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Pressing of Flat Pieces:
Process Sequence
 (1) Glass gob is fed into mold; (2) pressing into shape
by plunger; and (3) plunger is retracted and finished
product is removed

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Press-and-Blow:
Process Sequence

 (1) molten gob is fed into mold cavity; (2) pressing to

form a parison; (3) parison is transferred to blow mold,
and (4) blown to final shape

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Blow-and-Blow:
Process Sequence
 (1) gob is fed into mold cavity; (2) mold is covered; (3)
first blow step; (4) partially formed piece is repositioned
in second blow mold, and (5) blown to final shape

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Casting

 If molten glass is sufficiently fluid, it can be poured

into a mold
 Massive objects, such as astronomical lenses and
mirrors, are made by this method
 After cooling and solidifying, the piece must be
finished by lapping and polishing
 Casting is not often used except for special jobs
 Smaller lenses are usually made by pressing

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Shaping of Flat and Tubular
Glass

 Processes for producing flat glass such as sheet and

plate glass:
 Rolling of flat plate
 Float process
 Process for producing glass tubes
 Danner process

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Rolling of Flat Plate Glass

 Starting glass from furnace is squeezed through

opposing rolls, followed by grinding and polishing for
parallelism and smoothness

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 Float Process for Producing
Sheet Glass

 Molten glass flows onto surface of a molten tin bath,

achieving uniform thickness and smoothness - no
grinding or polishing is needed

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Danner Process for Drawing
Glass Tubing
 Molten glass flows around a rotating hollow mandrel
through which air is blown while glass is drawn

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Forming of Glass Fibers

Glass fiber products fall into two categories, with

different production methods for each:
1. Fibrous glass for thermal insulation, acoustical
insulation, and air filtration, in which the fibers are in
a random, wool-like condition
 Produced by centrifugal spraying
2. Long continuous filaments suitable for fiber
reinforced plastics, yarns, fabrics, and fiber optics
 Produced by drawing

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Centrifugal Spraying

 In a typical process for making glass wool, molten

glass flows into a rotating bowl with many small
orifices around its periphery
 Centrifugal force causes the glass to flow through the
holes to become a fibrous mass suitable for thermal
and acoustical insulation

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Drawing of Continuous Glass
Fibers

 Continuous glass fibers of

small diameter are
produced by pulling
strands of molten glass
through small orifices in a
heated plate made of a
platinum alloy

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Heat Treatment:
Annealing of Glass

Heating to elevated temperature and holding to

eliminate stresses and temperature gradients; then
slow cooling to suppress stress formation, then more
rapid cooling to room temperature
 Annealing temperatures ~ 500C (900F)
 Same function as in metalworking – stress relief
 Annealing is performed in tunnel-like furnaces, called
lehrs, in which products move slowly through the hot
chamber on conveyors

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Tempering of Glass

Heating to a temperature somewhat above annealing

temperature into the plastic range, followed by
quenching of surfaces, usually by air jets
 Surfaces cool and harden while interior is still plastic
 As the internal glass cools, it contracts, putting the hard
surfaces in compression
 Tempered glass is more resistant to scratching and
breaking due to compressive stresses on its surfaces
 Products: windows for tall buildings, all-glass doors,
safety glasses

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Case Study:
Automobile Windshields
 When tempered glass fails, it shatters into many small
fragments
 Automobile windshields are not made of tempered
glass, due to the danger posed by this fragmentation
 Instead, conventional glass is used; it is fabricated by
sandwiching two pieces of glass on either side of a
tough polymer sheet
 Should this laminated glass fracture, the glass splinters
are retained by the polymer sheet and the windshield
remains relatively transparent

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Finishing Operations on Glass

 Operations include grinding, polishing, and cutting

 Glass sheets often must be ground and polished to
remove surface defects and scratch marks and to make
opposite sides parallel
 In pressing and blowing with split dies, polishing is often
used to remove seam marks from the product
 Cutting of continuous sections of tube and plate is done
by first scoring the glass with a glass-cutting wheel and
then breaking the section along the score line

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Other Finishing Operations

 Decorative and surface processes performed on

certain glassware products include:
 Mechanical cutting and polishing operations
 Sandblasting
 Chemical etching (with hydrofluoric acid, often in
combination with other chemicals)
 Coating (e.g., coating of plate glass with
aluminum or silver to produce mirrors)

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Product Design
Considerations - I

 Glass is transparent and has optical properties that are

unusual if not unique among engineering materials
 For applications requiring transparency, light
transmittance, magnification, and similar optical
properties, glass is likely to be the material of
choice
 Certain polymers are transparent and may be
competitive, depending on design requirements

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Product Design
Considerations - II

 Glass is much stronger in compression than tension

 Components should be designed to be
subjected to compressive stresses, not tensile
stresses
 Glass is brittle
 Glass parts should not be used in applications
that involve impact loading or high stresses that
might cause fracture

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
 Product Design
Considerations - III

 Certain glass compositions have very low thermal

expansion coefficients and can tolerate thermal shock
 These glasses should be selected for applications
where this characteristic is important
 Design outside edges and corners with large radii and
inside corners with large radii, to avoid points of stress
concentration
 Threads may be included in glass parts
 However, the threads should be coarse

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes