Chapter4

Lesson 1
Data

- is a collection of facts, such as

numbers, words, measurements,
observations or just descriptions of
thing.
Two Categories of Data
• Qualitative Data
- Also called attribute data are typically
associated with inherent characteristics of the
items under consideration. However, attribute
data are not easy to analyze using numerical
techniques.
Example:

If we are studying human beings,

the following characteristics may
be considered attributes: color of
the hair, race, color of the eyes,
types of car driven, etc.
• Quantitative Data

- Also called as numerical data result from a

process that quantifies which includes counts
of (how many) or measurements (length,
weight, and so on).
Classification of Quantitative data

o Discrete numerical data

- data that represents counts

Example:

The number of people living in Brgy. San Isidro

The score in a basketball game
The number of books in ICCT Cainta Library
o Continuous numerical data
- data that represents measurement
Example:

➢ IQ scores of the students in Ms. Berces’ Math

class
➢ The height of the basketball player
➢ The volume of weekly garbage produced by
Brgy. 123
Classification of Data using the four levels of measurement

• Nominal Level
- Is characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or
categories only. The data cannot be arranged in an ordering
scheme.

Example:

Category of shirt in terms of color

• Ordinal Level
- Involves data that may be arranged in some order
but differences data values either cannot be
determined or are meaningless.

Example: Rank order of winners

• Interval Level
- Is like the ordinal level but meaningful amounts of
differences between data can be determined. It has no
inherent (natural) zero starting point where the none of
the quality is present.

Example: Interval of Student’s IQ

• Ratio Level
- Is the interval level modified to include the inherent zero
starting point where zero indicates that none of the
quantity is present.

Example: Income of employee

Sources of Data
The analysis of data begins with the acquisition of
data. For the analysis of data to be meaningful,
the data must be a representative of the
population under consideration. The art of
gathering data is called sampling.
Most Common Sampling from a Population:
1. Random Sampling
- In this sampling technique, each member of
the population has the same
chance of being chosen, with no one member
being favored over any other.
Example:
In a card game, random samples of cards are
distributed to each of player by means of shuffling deck.
2. Systematic Sampling

- This is typically used when a list of the population is

readily available. The samples are determined by
𝑡ℎ
choosing every 𝑛 item on the list until the desired
number of samples are obtained.
3. Stratified Random Sampling

- In this technique, the population is divided into sub-

groups or strata and then a small sample is taken from
each stratum. Each subsample is then drawn in equal
numbers from each stratum. An extension of this method
is the proportional method where the number of
observations chosen from each stratum is proportional to
the size of the stratum.
4. Cluster Method
- The population is divided into strata, except that
now certain strata are selected randomly, and the
sample is chosen from only those strata.
Collection of Data
The validity of the conclusion drawn from a
sample is determined based on how the data are
collected or gathered. These data are taken in
several ways, some are listed below:
1. Interviews and Focus Groups

Interviews and focus groups are often used to

gather detailed and qualitative descriptions. An
interview is conducted on one-on-one basis while
focus groups are conducted in small groups. In
these methods, questions are generally open-
ended and responses are documented in
thorough and detailed notes or transcriptions.
1.Interviews and Focus Groups
Advantages:

a. It provides a rich data that can picture a

broader aspect.
b. It may highlight issues, which are not
previously considered, or information that are
useful to further interpretation.
c. It may increase the comfort level of the
respondents.
Disadvantages:

a. It can be difficult to elicit participation from

an individual who has time constraints.
b. Interviews and large groups may intimidate
some participants.
c. Documentation and analysis can be time
consuming and may even require experts for a
certain qualitative analysis.
2. Surveys and questionnaires

These are indirect and commonly used methods

f gathering data. Surveys and questionnaires are
collected by the evaluator to gather specific
information from respondents. These are usually
administered through papers in a structured or
semi-structured format which can be done
through mail, over the phone or via internet.
2. Surveys and questionnaires
Respondents often choose from the set of forced
choices or provided responses. These includes
yes/no or scaled responses.
Advantages:
a. It is less time consuming and less expensive
to administer.
b. It can be administered to a larger group of
individuals.
c. It is effective for assessing program
satisfaction.
Disadvantages:

a. Data entry and analysis can be time

consuming.
b. It is quite difficult to receive complete survey.
c. Answers of the respondents may not be
reliable.
3. Observations
Observation are generally unobtrusive method
for gathering information about a certain concern
or interest. They are usually conducted by
external evaluators or researchers and are often
used to verify and supplement information
gathered through other methods.
3. Observations
Observation can be highly structured with
protocols for recording specific behavior at
specific times. They are most reliable when they
are conducted over a period of time to minimize
the chances of observation days being unusual.
Advantages:

a. Trained evaluators and researchers may

provide less biased descriptions.
b. Provide a highly detailed information from an
external perspective on what actually occurs.
Disadvantages:

a. It can be time consuming, labor intensive,

and expensive.
b. Observers must be trained and be consistent
with one another.
4. Registration Method

This method of gathering data or information is

enforced by certain laws. In this method, the
information are kept, systematized, and made
available to all for future references.
Examples are the registration of births, marriage,
death, vehicles, licenses, and many others.
4. Registration Method
5. Experiment Method
This method is used when the objective is to
determine the cause-and-effect relationship of
certain phenomena under controlled conditions.
An equal number of respondents with relative
similarities are examined to distinguish the
effects of whatever are done to the experimental
group. This is usually conducted
on scientific researches.
5. Experiment Method
Experimental method is sometimes difficult to
conduct because it is not that easy to consider
respondents with the same characteristics.
Lesson 2
1. Textual or Narrative Presentation

The textual presentation combines text and figures

in a statistical report. It aims to direct the reader’s
attention to some data which need particular
emphasis and probably comparison.
2. Tabular Presentation

This method is better than the textual

method because it provides numerical
facts in a more conscience and
systematics manner.
Some rules to be followed in constructing a
table.

1. Every table should have a clear and unambiguous

number. It is a common practice to use a decimal
numbering system such as 9.1,9.2,9.3,....,9.9 for tables
which are either in the ninth chapter of you work or if
there are several tables which relate to the same topic.
2. A title must be given that includes what the table is all
about.
3. Row and column labels should be concise and
unambiguous.
4. Categories should be exhaustive and mutually
exclusive.
5. The units of measurement must be clearly stated.
6. Label any subheadings clearly.
7. Combine any unimportant figures or omit them.
8. Show any totals, subtotals, percentages, etc.
9. If relevant, check that the column and row grand totals
are equal.
Example:
3. Graphical Presentation
Graphs, in general, do not present as much
data in detail as do tables. When data are
shown in terms of visually interpreted
illustrations, the reader easily sees essential
facts and relationships. The significant
proportions, differences or terms can easily
be grasped.
Advantages:
a. It attracts the attention of readers more effectively
than tables.
b. The use of colors and pictorial diagram make the list
of figures more meaningful.
c. It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data.
d. Graphs can be grasped and understood easily. In
fact, other relations not readily seen are easily
discovered.
Limitations:
a. It does not show as much information that maybe
needed.
b. Graph does not show accurate data as tables do.
c. Charts require more skill, more time and are
expensive to prepare.
d. Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as
tabulated data.
e. Graphs can be made only when data have been
tabulated.
The following are some basic rules to follow when
illustrating data by means of a graph.

1. The graph should have a clear title.

2. Axe should be clearly labeled.
3. Do not put too many curves on the same graph.
4. Quote all sources of data.
5. If possible, accompany the graph with the table of data it
represents.
6. A zero line for the vertical axis should be used if possible.
A. Line Graph
A line graph is used to represent changes in data
over a period of time. Data like changes in
temperature, income, population and the like can
be represented by a line graph. In line graph, data
are represented by points and are joined by a line
segment. A line graph may be curved, broken or
straight.
Here are some guidelines to follow in constructing a
line graph.
1. The title of the graph must be descriptive and clearly
stated.
2. Label the x- and y-axes with the unit these variables and
scale represent.
3. The zero point should be an indicator.
4. For a multiple line graph, one line should be distinguished
from the other. Using different colors, line forms, or making a
legend would facilitate the understanding of the graph.
5. The graph should not be loaded by two much curves.
B. Bar Graph

Bar graphs are consist of series of rectangular bars

where the length of the bar represents the magnitude
to be demonstrated.
➢A simple bar graph is one in which each bars
represents one unit only.
➢A multiple bar graph is one where different units are
used on the same diagram in orderto emphasize
comparisons.
Some Guidelines in Constructing a Bar Graph

1. The title must be clearly stated. It is usually written on top of the graph.
2. Determine the longest and smallest number in the given data and choose
a unit of length such that the largest bar is within the space of the paper.
3. The space between any two consecutive bars must be the same but not
less than half of the width of the bar.
4. The bar must be of equal width and the lengths must be proportional to
the numbers they represent.
5. All designations or notations on the vertical and horizontal axes must be
indicated.
6. Show the zero point. If in case a zero point and a point on the scales are
irrelevant, you may omit those numbers by breaking the scale. The symbol _
is used instead.
C. Circle Graph/ Pie Chart

A circle graph or pie chart consists of a

circle divided into sections whose sizes
are proportional to the magnitudes or
percentages they represent.
C. Circle Graph/ Pie Chart

The circle or pie chart aims to show

percent distribution of a whole into its
component part. It is very effective in
presenting financial data.
The following should be observed in constructing a pie
chart or circle graph.
1. Express each component part as a certain percent of the whole
and multiply the result by 360 degrees.
2. Mark off the desired number of degrees on the circumference of a
circle using a protractor. Connect this point to the center in order to
produce pie-shaped areas which make up the whole circle.
3. Label the sectors horizontally with the percentages indicated.
4. Arrange the sectors clockwise with the largest sector first. This
sector should begin by drawing a vertical line from the center of the
circle to the twelve o’clock position on the circumference.
5. Avoid overloading the chart by showing too many categories.
D. The Picture Graph or Pictograph
The pictograph sometimes called the pictogram is
another device in presenting data by means of pictures
or symbols. It is an adaptation of the bar graph. Its
symbol called isotype represents specific number of
people or objects. Its purpose is to catch the attention of
readers and to convey a clear analysis of the numerical
facts.
How to construct a pictograph:

1. The symbols used must be self explanatory. If the data

pertain to people, then the pictures of people may be used.
2. Use a legend to represent the number of units in a picture.
3. Round off numbers to eliminate fractions. If the fractional
parts are to be presented the must be done proportionally.
4. Use symbols that are of the same size and space them
equally.
Example: Number of red colored boxes sold by William, a
shopkeeper, in six days of a week. See the picture graph or
pictograph to answer the questions.
Information gathered from the above table:
(i) Number of red boxes sold:
Monday – 4, Tuesday – 2, Wednesday – 3, Thursday – 5,
Friday – 8, Saturday – 1
Therefore, sale during the week = 23
ACTIVITY:

In a 1 whole paper, create a presentation of the following data:

a. Pie chart of how many percent you spent in:

- Transportation
- Food
- Clothes
- Electric bills
- Internet/load

Use different color to represent the data.