CLASSICAL NOTES – 2020

TOPICS:

1. Waves
2. Electromagnetism
3. Radioactivity
4. Thermionic emission
5. Electronics
6. Elementary astronomy
7. Geophysics

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 TOPIC–1 WAVES

Wave: Is a progressive disturbance propagated

from a point in a medium (matter) on space without
the movement of the points themselves.

OR Is a periodic disturbance that

transfers energy from one point to
another
For example, light, sound and water
waves
6. Frequency: Is the number of crests or troughs
that pass a given point per unit time.
Terms Used
OR Is the number of cycles per unit
1. Period: Is the time taken by the wave to repeat
time.
itself.
It is represented by letter f. Its SI
OR Is the time taken for the wave to
unit is hertz (Hz).
complete one cycle.
1hertz (Hz) = 1per second (s-1)
It is represented by letter T. Its SI unit
is second (s)
Then , where T is a
periodic time
2. Amplitude: Is the maximum displacement of
7. Wave velocity: Is the speed at which the wave
the wave from the equilibrium position.
moves through a medium
It is represented by letter A. Its SI OR Is the displacement of the
unit is meter (m). wave per unit time.
3. Crest: Is the point of maximum positive It is represented by letter v
displacement of the wave from the equilibrium Mathematically
position

4. Trough: Is the point of maximum negative

displacement of the wave from the equilibrium Therefore: 𝒗=𝝀𝒇
position
Examples:
1. Sound waves have a frequency of 16
kHz. What is the periodic time for the
waves?

Given: 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟏𝟔 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛

Soln:

From:

5. Wavelength: Is the distance between two 2. A radio station transmits waves at a

successive or adjacent crest troughs. frequency of 95.6 MHz. What is the
wavelength of the waves transmitted? (c
OR Is the distance travelled by the =wave
3.0 xto108 m/s)
complete one cycle
Given: 𝒇 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔𝑴𝑯𝒛 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑯𝒛, c =
Soln:
It represented by letter Lambda
(λ) 3.0 x 108 m/s

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From: 7. If the frequency of a wave is doubled and if the
speed remains constant, its wavelength is ___
(ANS: halved.)
8. A wave whose speed in a snake is 4.4 m/s
Class Activity – 1:1 enters a second snakey. The wavelength
changes from 2.0 m to 3.0 m. The wave in the
second snakey travels at approximately ____.
1. From the diagram below, determine the (ANS: 6.6 m/s.)
amplitude, period and frequency of the wave
9. A 2.0-meter long rope is hanging vertically
from the ceiling and attached to a vibrator. A
single pulse is observed to travel to the end of
the rope in 0.50 s. What frequency should be
used by the vibrator to maintain three whole
waves
in the rope? (ANS: 6.0 Hz)
ANS: Amplitude, A = 0.5m Period, 10. Transverse stationary waves are set up in a long
T = 0.2 Frequency = 5Hz string using a suitable vibrator of frequency 60
2. From the diagram below, determine the Hz. The average distance between successive
wavelength and velocity of the wave, frequency nodal points is measured to be 50 cm. Calculate
of the wave is 5Hz the velocity of transverse waves in the string
(ANS V = 10m/s) ANS: V = 60 M/S
11. The distance between successive crests of water
ripples in a ripple tank experiment is 3.2 cm
and their wave speed is 26 cm/s. Determine the
wavelength, Frequency and period of the
ripples ANS: f = 8.125 Hz, λ=3.2cm T=0.123
Hz

3. What is the amplitude and wave length of the

wave in the diagram below? Types of waves

• Electromagnetic wave
• Mechanical wave

Electromagnetic Wave:
• Is the type of wave which does not require a
medium to transfer energy.
ANS: A = 0.03m, Wavelength = Mechanical Wave:
0.08 m
4. A periodic and repeating disturbance in a lake
• Is the type of waves in which a medium is
required to transfer energy.
creates waves which emanate outward from its
source to produce circular wave patterns. If the
frequency of the source is 2.00 Hz and the
wave speed is 5.00m/s then the distance
between adjacent wave crests is ___ meter.
(ANS: Wavelength = 10 m)
5. Calculate the wavelength of red light in air if
the frequency of red light is 4.3 x
1014 Hz, C = 3.0 X 108 (ANS: 6.98 x 10-7m)
6. A pendulum makes exactly 40 vibrations in
20.0 s. Its period is (ANS: 0.5 s)
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 Difference between Mechanical and Longitudinal Wave
Electromagnetic Waves • Is the mechanical wave in which particles of
the medium vibrate in a direction parallel to the
Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves direction of movement of the wave.
 Are disturbances  Are disturbances • For example, sound wave
which are made up of
transported electric and • It consists of compressions and rarefactions
through a magnetic fields • Compression: Is a region in a longitudinal
medium due to wave where the particles are closest together
particle to
particle • Rarefactions: Is a region in a longitudinal
interaction wave where the particles are furthest apart
 Requires a  Do not requires
material medium materials
to transfer medium to
energy transfer energy
 Cannot travel  Can travel through
through vacuum vacuum
 Examples are  Examples are X –
water waves, rays, Visible
sound waves etc light etc

Types of Wave motion

 Transverse wave
Differences between Transverse wave and
 Longitudinal wave Longitudinal waves
Transverse wave Longitudinal wave
Transverse Wave
• Is the mechanical wave in which particles of Particles of the medium The particles of the
vibrate perpendicular to medium vibrate in the
the medium vibrate in a direction
the direction in which the same direction in which
perpendicular to the direction of movement of
wave advances the wave advance
the wave.
It is formed of crests and It is formed of a series of
• For example, water wave troughs compressions and
• This wave enables a duck in a lake floating in rarefactions
the same position as the wave passes (This is It can propagate only in It can propagate in all
due to the vertical displacement of water solids and at the surface of types of media (solid,
waves ie transversely) liquids liquid and gas)
Diagram: There is no pressure The pressure and density
variations are maximum at
compressions and
minimum at rarefactions
Examples are: Examples are:
• Ripples produced • Sound waves
on the surface of travel through air
• This vibration of medium causes a boat on the water when stone  Waves in a coil
ocean moves up and down while the waves is dropped into it (helical) spring
themselves move toward the shore • Waves produced • Vibrations of air
in a rope fixed at column in organ
one end when the pipes
free end is moved
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 up and down • Earthquake P
rapidly waves N.B SONAR = Sound Navigation and
• Waves in the Ranging
stretched strings
• Earthquake S Ripple Tank Experiment
waves • Ripple tank Is a shallow glass tank of water
used in schools and colleges to
Properties of Waves demonstrate the basic properties of waves.
 Reflection of waves • It is useful in demonstrating wave properties
 Refraction of waves such as reflection and refraction.
 Interference of waves
 Diffraction of waves

Reflection of Waves
 Is the abrupt change in the direction of
propagation of a wave that strikes the boundary
between two different medium.
See the figure below

Reflection of Mechanical Waves

Main Parts of Ripple Tank

(a) Shallow tank of water
•
Shallow tank of water is the source of waves in
which an oscillating paddle generates parallel
water waves
Laws of reflection of waves (b)Motor
• The rotating armature (axle) of an electric
1st.” The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of motor makes the wooden (metal bar) to vibrate
reflection” on water surface and generating ripples
(c) Oscillating paddle
nd
2 . “The incident direction of propagation, the • Oscillating paddle is the one in which
reflected direction of propagation and the transform mechanical energy generated by
normal all lie in the same plane” motor by off centre mass to wave energy in a
Shallow tank of water
Applications of Reflection of Waves
 Is used in the designing of plane mirrors
(d)Lamp (Bulb/ filament)
 Reflection of waves(sound waves) used in • Bulb or filament which is used to illuminate
measuring distances the water surface to see the water waves onto
the white board or white sheet below the ripple
 Sonar system rely on the reflection of sound tank
waves to assist ships in navigating,
communicating and detecting other vessels
(e) Paper sheet
 In geology, it is important in the study of • Paper sheet used to display shadow of the
seismic waves wave pattern placed under the tank
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(f) Various obstacles
But the ratio is the refractive index of the
• Various obstacles is paced in the tray to second medium
observe properties of waves e.g. reflection, relative to the first medium
refraction, interference and diffraction. N.B
Example, laying glass, rectangular barrier,
curved barrier (concave and convex barrier) • The length of water waves in shallow water
etc is usually shorter than in deep water
(g)Stroboscope • When wave is refracted into a less medium,
the speed of wave increases and vice versa
•
The stroboscope enables the observer to see the
waves as stationary • When wave is refracted into a less medium,
the wave length of wave increases and vice
(h)Laying glass versa
• Laying glass used to vary the depth (tray
thickness) of the water. This allows observing Applications of Refraction of Waves
waves travelling from one to another medium  It is used in optical instruments which focus or
(i) Metal bar spread light. For Example, microscopes and
telescopes
• A metal bar (wooden bar) is screwed to the  It is used in dispersion of light waves
electric motor and suspended above the ripple
tank with rubber (elastic) bands and touching  It is used to determine the eye’s refractive error
the water surface
(j) Power supply Individual task
1. During the day sound from distant sources are
 Power supply for electric motor not very clear unlike during the night ANS:
During the day sound waves are refracted
Refraction of Waves upwards from the hot earth, while at night,
• Is the change in direction of waves as they sound waves are refracted downwards, hence
pass from one media to another due to change are much louder.
in speed and wave length 2. Give reason why the amplitude of the wave
• It obeys Snell’s law: ie does not change as it crosses the boundary
ANS: Because there is no LOSS of energy
therefore amplitude does not change

Interference of Waves
• Is a phenomenon in which two waves
superpose to form a resultant wave of greater,
lower, or the same amplitude
OR
• Is the pattern formed when two or more waves
overlap in medium.
• The speed of waves depends on the medium

decrease in wavelength. 𝒗 ∝ 𝝀
i.e velocity of the waves decrease with Types of Interference
 Constructive interference
That is:  Destructive interference
Principle of Superposition
It states that

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“The resultant displacement at any points is equal
to the sum of the displacements of different waves
at the point”

NB:
• When two different crests meet at the same
point in the same direction results a greater
amplitude than individual, this refers as
constructive interference
NB:
 It is possible to hear sound round obstacles but
not possible to see light. This is because sound
• When crest and trough meet at the same point waves have longer wavelengths therefore are
in the opposite direction results smaller more readily diffracted unlike light waves ,
amplitude than individual, this refers as which have very short wavelengths therefore
destructive interference not readily diffracted
 Diffraction of wave is greater when the wave
length and width of the gap is the same
N.B  We hear someone sound even she/he behind the
building due to diffraction of wave sound
 Soft sound occurs in regions where sound
waves interfere destructively
 Loud sound occurs where sound waves Factors affecting diffraction o The wavelength (the
interfere constructively shorter wavelength, the greater the of angle of
 Node: Is a point on a stationary wave where diffraction)
particles have zero displacement o The size of the opening gap (the size of gap
 Antinode: Is a point on a stationary wave where
particles have maximum displacement

Applications of Interference of wave Applications of diffraction of Waves

• Creation of hologram. holograph is a

 It is used in determining the crystal structure of
materials
photograph of an interference pattern which is
able to produce a three dimensional image  It is used in measuring the coefficient of
when suitably illuminated thermal expansion, crystalline size and thick of
thickness of thin films
• Noise reduction system. For example,
earphones capture environment sound which  It is used in determining the types and phases
destructed by second computer sound present in a specimen where the spacing of
obstacles (atoms) is between 1 and 3nm
• Concert halls and auditoriums designed to
reduce the amount of destructive interference
by introducing sound absorber

Diffraction of Waves Sound Waves

Diffraction: Is the change in the direction of waves as
they pass through an opening or around a
barrier in their pass • Sound wave is a longitudinal wave that
produced by vibrating object.
• For example, turning fork
OR Is the spreading of waves around
obstacles
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Propagation of Sound Wave brain for interpretation. It can distinguish
frequency, amplitude and direction.
• Sound travels by vibration of particles to
transfer energy to the next particles until the
sound reaches another point

Qn: Why solid materials transfer sound faster than

liquid/gas
Answer: The molecules/particles of solid
materials are packed together

Sources of Sound Wave

• Almost everything ranging from people,
animals, plants and machines

Factors affecting speed of sound in air Parts of human Ear

It consists of three basic parts include
 outer ear
 Temperature
V ∝ T, e.g, Vda = V a + 0.6 Tc (Vda = velocity
 Middle ear

of sound in dry air)  Inner ear

 Direction of Wind o In the same direction : V Mechanism of Hearing
∝ W o In opposite direction:
 Earflap collect sound waves, which pass through
 Humidity
the ear canal to hit drum which results
vibrations of interconnected bones where
vibrate cochlea fluid through (oval window)
 Density of Air results vibrations of hair cells which transform
mechanical energy to electrical impulses, which
transmitted to the brain where they are decoded
and interpreted as sound

Audibility Range
 Audibility range is the range of frequency N.B Hearing: Is the process by which the ear
detected by human ear transforms sound vibrations in the external
environment into nerve impulses that are conveyed
NB: o The human ear is most sensitive to to the brain where they are interpreted as
sound with a frequency around 3000Hz o Sound sounds
below 20Hz is called infrasonic Sound o Sound Echo
above 20000Hz is called ultrasonic sound o
Dogs, cat, bat and dolphins detect ultrasonic
• Echo is a reflected sound which is heard
sound distinctly from the original sound  Since
sound waves go and bounce back its distance
o Bats can fly in the dark without hitting anything becomes 2d.
because they are guided by ultrasonic waves
produced by them
o Human ear can distinguish two simultaneous
sound if their frequencies differ by at least 7Hz

The Human Ear

 Human ear is the human organ responsible for
conversion of sound energy to mechanical
energy to nerve impulse that transfers to the
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 •Hence speed (v) of sound associated with echo reasons why ultra sound is preferred for this
is calculated by, v = 𝟐𝒅 purpose
𝒕 ANS: (a) Ultra sound penetrates deepest
(b) Ultra sound is reflected easily by tiny grains
𝟐𝒅
NB: Always echo reaches the ear more than 0.1s
of sand

𝒕
From: v =
Class Activity – 1:2
1. A gun was fired and the echo from a cliff was heard
Then: 2d = v x t = 0.1 x 340, d = 17m 8s later. How far was the gun from the cliff? (ANS:
d= 1400m)
• Therefore: An obstacle must be at least 17 m 2. (a) Define an echo
away for a distinct echo to be heard (b)Name any two factors that affect the speed of sound
in air
The accoustics of buildings (c) Explain briefly why sound produced in hall with
• Is the science of controlling the quality and many people is heard more clearly than
amount of sound inside a building when the hall has few people?
• It is used to allow for pleasant sound in a (d)A person standing 99m from the foot of mountains
concert hall and to reduce echoes and noise claps his hands and hears an echo 0.6 second later.
within an office building Calculate the speed of the sound in the air (AN: V
= 330m/s) ANS (c) When a hall has many
• When a hall has many people, most of the people, most of the sound (including echoes) is
sound (including echoes) is absorbed by clothes absorbed by clothes and skins of the audience, thus
and skins of the audience, thus echoes do not echoes do not occur
occur (noise reduced) 3. It is possible to hear sound round obstacles but not
possible to see light. Give reason
• It also concerns suppressing sound coming from 4. Two sets of transverse waves arrive at the same
outside the building such as apartments time. Under what conditions do they:
(i) Cancel out (ANS: trough from one arrive
at the same time as crest from the other)
Reverberation
• Are the multiple reflections of sound produced (ii) Produce a larger wave (ANS: A crest from
when it travels in an enclosed room one arrive at the same time as a crest from
Reverberation time the other (constructive interference))
5. A fathometer produces sound in a ship and receives
• Is the time required for the sound to decay in a two echoes where there is a raised sea bed one after
closed space or cavity 2.5 seconds and the other after 3.0 seconds. Find
the height of the raised sea bed (Take V in water =
Examples 1460 m/s) (ANS: h1-h2 = 365 m)
1. An echo sounder produces a pulse and an echo 6. A girl standing 200 m from the foot of a high wall
is received from the sea – bed after 0.4 claps her hands and the echo reaches her 1.16
seconds. If the speed of sound in water is 1500 seconds later. Calculate the velocity of sound in air
m/s, calculate the depth of the sea –bed Soln: using this observation (ANS: V = 344.8 m/s)
Given: v = 1500 m/s, total time = 0.4 s 7. From the figure below, give reason why, an
observer moving along the line AB hears loud
From sound at same point and soft sound at other points.
: How is the sound along the line OC? (when he
moves along line OC hears loud sound only)

2. In determining the depth of an ocean an echo

sounder produces ultrasonic sound. Give
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 The wavelength is 0. 6m) NB: The higher the
frequency of a wave, the shorter the wavelength
and the lower is the frequency on the wave, the
longer is the wavelength.
19. The radio waves have a velocity of about 3.0
x108m/s and the wavelength of
1500m. Calculate the frequency of these waves?
(ANS: f = 2. 0 x 105 Hz)
8. A person stands 100 m from the foot of a tall
20. Consider the figure below illustrates part of a wave
building claps his hands and hears an echo 0.588
traveling across the water at a particular place,
seconds later .Calculate the velocity of sound in air
Calculate;
(ANS: 340 m/s)
9. The velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s, Find the (a) The frequency of the wave (ANS: f =
wavelength in water of sound wave of frequency 10 Hz)
660 Hz if the velocity of sound in water is 1. 32 (b) The wavelength of the wave (ANS: 
km/s = 0.1 m)
10. A source of sound produces waves of wavelength
0.8 m in air. The same source of sound produces (c) The amplitude of the wave (ANS: A = 0.2
waves of wavelength 4.0 m in air. If the velocity of m)
sound in air is 332 ms-1 , find the velocity of sound (d) The velocity (ANS: v
in water (ANS: v = 332 m/s) = 2m/s)
11. How far does sound travel in air when a turning

The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟏.

fork of frequency 250 Hz completes 50 vibrations?

𝟑𝟔 𝒎)
12. A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency 100 kHz
in air. If this sound meets a water surface, what is
the wavelength of (i) the reflected sound (ii) the

340m m/s and in water = 1486 m/s (ANS: (i) 𝝀 =

transmitted sound? If the speed of sound in air =

𝟑. 𝟒 x 10-3 m (ii) 𝝀 = 1.486 x 10-3 m)

13. If the frequency of radio waves is 600 kHz, find the

= 3 x 108 m/s. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎)

wavelength of the waves. The speed of radio waves 21. The wavelength of signals from a radio transmitter
is 1500m and the frequency is the 200 KHz. To
14. A stone is dropped into a well 19.6 m deep and the what speed does the radio wave travel?.What is the

(ANS: V = 3 x 108 m/s, 𝝀= 3. 0 x 102m)

impact of sound is heard after wavelength of a transmitter operating at 1000 KHz?
2.056 seconds. Find the velocity of sound in air
(ANS: v = 350 m/s) 22. A certain wave has a periodic time of 0.04 second
15. A personal with deep voice singing a note of and travels at 30 x 107 m/s Find its wavelength.
frequency 200Hz is producing sound waves whose (ANS:  = 1.2 x 107 m)
velocity is 330m/s. find the sound's wave length. 23. A signal is sent to the seabed from the bottom of a
(ANS: λ = 1.65m) ship. The signal comes back in one – fifth of a
16. A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate second .How deep is the water?
tumours in a tissue. What is the wavelength of 24. The commercial Programme of radio Tanzania is
sound in a tissue in which the speed of sound is 1.7 broadcast on wavelengths of 1500m and 247 m.

4.2 MHz. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝟓 𝒎)

kms-1? The operating frequency of the scanner is The frequency of the 1500 m wave is 200 kHz.
What is (a)The velocity of the wave? (b)The
17. Calculate the velocity of the wave whose frequency of the 247 m wave?
wavelength is 1. 7 x10-2m and frequency 2x1014Hz
(ANS: 3.4 1x1012m/s) 25. Sound travels 1.7 Km in 5 seconds .The time
18. Find the wavelength of sound wave whose between a flash of lightning and the thunder is 10 s.
frequency is 550Hz and speed is 330m/s (ANS: How far away is the storm?

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26. Explain how bats can fly in the dark without hitting • Loudness is the intensity of the sound as
anything perceived by the human ear.  The large the
amplitude, the louder the sound
Uses of Echo Pitch
 Used to find depth of ocean (lakes)
• Is the degree of highness or lowness of a
 Looking at babies in the womb ( pre – natal tone.
scanning ) by Ultrasound
• The higher the frequency, the higher the pith
 To detect the submarines produced.
 To detect large groups of fish
Timbre
 To detect the wrecked ships
 To detect the dangerous rocks • Timbre is the quality of sound produced by
an instrument.
Musical sounds and noise • For example, different instruments produce
 All sounds which produce sensation of hearing different sound N.B:
may be roughly dived into two classes namely • The difference between sounds are caused by
(i) musical sounds (ii) noise intensity, pitch and tone
• For example a violin sounds different than a
(a) Musical sound flute playing the same pitch. This is because
they have a different tone or sound quality
• Is a pleasant, continuous and uniform sound
produced by regular and periodic vibrations Musical Instruments
OR
• Is a sound produced by continuous and regular
• Musical instrument is a device constructed or
modified for the purpose of making music
vibrations
• Example sound produced by turning fork, flute Categories of musical instruments
and piano
String Instrument
(b) Noise • Is the instrument which produces sound from
stretched strings that are plunked, bowed or
• Is an unpleasant ,discontinuous and non–
struck
uniform sound produced by irregular
succession of disturbances • Example, guitar is plunked, violin is bowed and
OR piano is struck
• Is the random and non-structured sound
Percussion Instrument
musical scale that not appealing to the human
ear • Is the instrument which produces sound by
• Example is sound produced by a falling brick, struck with an implement, shaken, rubbed,
the clapping of two wooden blocks NB: scrapped or by any other action which sets the
object into vibrations  Example drum,
• Tone (Musical note) is a sound of regular cymbals, tambourine, marimba and
frequency xylophone.

Properties of Musical Sounds Wind Instrument

•These are loudness, pitch and timbre (quality) • Is the instrument which produces sound by
Loudness blowing.
• Example recorders, flutes, vuvuzela and
trumpets
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 • Is any frequency higher than the
Stationary Waves fundamental frequency of a sound NB:
• A stationary wave is the wave which occurs • The fundamental note is equal to first
when two waves are travelling in opposite harmonic
direction with the same speed and frequency
are superposed
• The second harmonic is equal to first
overtone
• Stationary wave in a string have certain
fixed wavelength

Consider the diagrams below

For fundamental note (1st
harmonics)

NB:
• When adding together producing maximum
displacement (amplitude) called antinodes and
when cancel out producing zero displacement From:
called nodes

→ 𝒗 = 2Lf
λ = 2L
From: V = λƒ Then:

∴ 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
, �𝟎 = 𝟐𝒍
𝒗

• Distance between adjacent nodes or antinodes

�
is equal to half wave length,
i.e L = λ/2 For 1st overtone (2nd harmonic)

Fundamental Frequency(note)
• Is the lowest frequency of a vibrating object

From: L =2 × ( 2) → λ =2 (�)
Fundamental note: Is the primary note of the 𝜆 �
𝟐
harmonic series

Fundamental harmonic From: V = λƒ

A harmonic: Is a wave whose frequency is an integral
(whole number) multiple of the fundamental frequency
OR
• Is a note whose frequency is a whole Then:
number that of the fundamental frequency

Overtone (Fundamental Overtone)

For 2nd overtone (3rd harmonic)

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  Tension of the wire, T
 Mass per unit length, μ (diameter and
density)

Length (L) of stretched string (Wire)

• When the length of the string is changed, it will
vibrate with a different frequency. The shorter
From: L = strings have higher frequency and therefore
higher pitch
From: V = λƒ
• Example when a musician presses her finger on
Then: a string, she shortens its length .The more
fingers she adds to the string ,the shorter she
makes it and the higher the pitch will be
• Therefore: The frequency of a stretched
string is inversely proportional to its length
Generally the overtone of a stationary wave is
given by …………..(i) )

� 𝒏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)� 𝟎 …………(𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 …. . )
If

� �

∴ � 𝟏𝒍𝟏 = � 𝟐𝒍𝟐 𝒐𝒓
Sonometer

� �
• Sonometer is an instrument used to study the
properties of stationary wave
• It is an apparatus made of a hollow box having
two holes Tension (T) of the stretched string
• Tension refers to how tightly the string is
stretched
• Tightening the string gives it a higher
frequency while loosening it lowers the
frequency
• Example when string players tighten or loosen
their strings , they are altering the pitches
(frequencies) to make them in tune
• Therefore: The frequency of a vibrating

root of the tension T (f ∝ √𝑇………….. ii)

• It is used to study the relationship between the string is directly proportional to the square
frequency of the sound produced by a plucked
string, and the tension, length and mass per unit
length of the string.
• N.B: Stringed musical instruments are
provided with a hollow box in order to amplify If
the sound made by the vibrations of the
strings of the instrument.

Factors affecting the frequency of a vibrating string

 Length of wire, L
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 13
 �𝟏 �𝟐 �𝟏 �𝟏
∴ = 𝑶 = √
√�� 𝟏 √�� 𝟐 𝑹
�𝟐 �𝟐
Where: k = 1/2, (experimentally) Then:

�
�
� � �
Mass per Unit Length (𝝁) of a vibrating string

𝟏 � 𝟏 𝑻
•
√
This includes the thickness (diameter) and

∴� = √ =
𝟐 � � 𝟐 𝒍�
heaviness (density) of a sting

�
• Thus the thicker and heavier a string is, the

𝒍 � 𝒍 �)
lower is its frequency for a given length and
tension and vice versa
(fundamental frequency/firs
• Example a thin string with a 10 mm diameter
will have a frequency twice as high as one with harmonic
a larger, 20 mm diameter Since (mass per unit length)
• Also the instruments often have strings made of From:
different materials. The strings used for low
pitches will be made of a more dense material
than the strings used for high pitches

→𝝀=
• Therefore: The frequency is inversely
𝟐𝒍 (for fundamental
proportional to the square root of the Since
mass per unit length,
frequency)

If

Therefore, for the nth harmonic is given by

� �𝟏𝒏 = 𝒏𝝁𝟐√ 𝑻 = 𝒏 ( √ 𝒎)
𝟏 𝑻
∴ � 𝟏√ 𝝁𝟏 = � 𝟐√ 𝝁𝟐 𝒐𝒓 = √𝟐𝑳 𝒎 𝑳 𝟐𝒍 𝑳
� �𝟐 𝝁𝟏
� � (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑦 𝒇𝒏 = frequency of nth
� etc)
harmonic, n =
1,2,3,4

Example
• Also for a diameter and density
1. The vibrating length of a stretched wire is altered
at constant tension until the wire oscillates in
unison with a turning fork of frequency 320 Hz.
Now combine the three equations The length of the wire is again altered until it
oscillates in unison with a fork of unknown

� ∝ � √�
𝟏 �
frequency. If the two lengths are 90 cm and 6o
cm, respectively, determine the unknown
𝝁 ……………..
�
frequency
� constant
Remove
proportionality Solution
Given that: f1 = 320 Hz, L1 = 90 cm, L2 = 60
cm, f2 =?

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 14

 plucked at the midpoint. Calculate the length of
From: the wire that
would produce a note of 256Hz with the same
tension (ANS: L2 = 0.8m)
9. A sonometer wire of length 40 cm between two
bridges produces a note of 512 Hz when
Class Activity – 1:3 plucked at the midpoint. Calculate the length of
Use acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 m/s2 the wire that would produce a note of 256 Hz
with the same tension
10. The frequency obtained in a plucked string is
1. A string has a length of 75cm and a mass of 500Hz when the tension is 3 N. calculate
8.2g, the tension in the string is (i)The frequency when the tension is increased
[Link] the 1st harmonic and 3rd to 10 N (ANS: 912.8 Hz)
harmonic (ANS: f1 = 27Hz, f3 = 81Hz) (ii)The tension needed to produce a note of
2. A string of length 1 m and mass 5 x 10-4 kg frequency 800 Hz (ANS: T =7.7 N)
fixed at both ends is under a tension of 20 N. It 11. A plucked string of length 30 cm has a mass
is plucked at a point situated 25 cm from one per unit length of 0.5 kg/m. If the tension in the
end. What would be the frequency of vibrations string is equal to 40 N, Find:
of the string? (ANS: f = 200 Hz) (a)The fundamental frequency (ANS: f0 = 14.9
3. A wire of length 140 cm and mass 0.52 x 10-3 Hz)
kg is stretched by means of a load of 16 kg. (b)The first overtone frequency (ANS: f1 =
Calculate the frequency of the fundamental 29.8Hz)
note. (ANS: f = 234 Hz) (c)The second overtone frequency (ANS: f2 =
4. The vibration length of a stretched wire is 44.7 Hz)
altered at constant tension until the wire 12. A plucked wire of 10 m long and radius of
oscillates in unison with a turning fork of 7mm has a density of 500 kg/m3. Calculate (i)
frequency 320 Hz. The length of a wire is again The fundamental frequency (ANS: f0 =
altered until it oscillates in unison with a fork 0.5 Hz)
of unknown frequency. If the two lengths are
(ii) The first overtone frequency
90 cm and 65.5 cm, respectively, determine the
(ANS: f1 = 1.0 Hz) needed to
unknown frequency
produce a tension of 8 N
(ANS: ƒ2 = 440 Hz)
13. A string has a length of 75cm and a mass 0f
5. The length of a sonometer wire between two
8.2g. The tension in the string is
fixed ends is 110 cm. Where should the two
18N. Calculate the velocity of the sound wave
bridges be placed so as to divide the wire into
in the string. (ANS: V = 40.5m/s.)
three segments whose fundamental frequencies
are in the ratio [Link]? 14. Given that the velocity of the sound wave
emitted from a string is 50m/s the Length of the
string is 40cm and the mass of the string is
(from: , 0.0004kg calculate the tension of the string.
Thus L1=60 cm, L2 =30 cm and L3 = 20 cm) (ANS: T = 2.5N)
6. A 90 cm long wire of a sitar has a fundamental 15. A sonometer wire of length 50cm vibrate with
frequency of 256Hz. At what distance from the frequency 384Hz. Calculate the length of the
upper end should the wire be compressed so sonometer wire so that it vibrates with
that a note of frequency 384 Hz is produced? frequency of 512Hz. (37.5 m)
(ANS: L = 30 cm)
16. A sonometer wire of length 40cm between two
7. A nylon string is stretched between supports bridges produces a note of frequency 512Hz
1.2 m apart. Given that the speed of sound in when plucked at midpoint. Calculate the length
the string is 800 ms-1, find the frequency of the of the wire that would produce a note of
fundamental vibration and the first two frequency 256Hz with some tension. (L =
overtones (ANS: f0 =333 Hz, f1 = 666 Hz and 80cm)
f3 = 1000 Hz)
17. The frequency obtained from a plucked string
8. A Sonometer wire of length 40cm between two is 400Hz when the tension is 2
bridges produces a note of 512Hz when
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 15
 Newton. Calculate; 2000Hz (ANS: f = 2000Hz ,L =
a) The frequency when the tension is 150m)
increased to 8N (ANS: f= 800Hz) 24. A string A is 2m long and has a linear mass
b) The tension needs to produce a note of density of 9 g/cm3. String B has has a linear
mass density of 18g/cm3 .If the tension in both
frequency 600Hz (ANS: T = 4.5N)
strings is the same
18. Given that the frequency obtained from a
,how long must string B be for it to be raised to
plucked string is 800Hz when the tension is 8N.
hear the next peak in intensity
Calculate;
25. What is the approximate distance of a
(a) The frequency when the tension is
thunderstorm when you note a 3 s delay
doubled (ANS: f = 1131. 2 Hz)
thunder? (d ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎 ≈ 𝟏 𝒌𝒎)
between the flash of lighting and the sound of
b) The tension required when the
frequency is halved (T = 1.414 N)
19. Under constant tension the note produced by a 26. How long does it take for a radio signal sent
plucked string is 300Hz when the length is from the earth to reach the moon?
0.9m; The distance from the earth to the moon is 3.84
x 106 m
a) At what length is the frequency 200Hz?
(ANS: L2 = 1.35m) 27. During a storm ,thunder is heard 7 s after the
lightning is seen .If the temperature of the air is
b) What frequency is produce at 0.3m
28 0C ,how far away is the storm ( C = 3 x 108
(ANS: f = 90Hz)
m/s)
20. A string fixed between two supports that are
60cm a part. The speed of a transverse wave in 28. In a resonance tube experiment ,the smallest
a string is 420m /s. Calculate the wavelength value of L for which a peak in sound intensity
and the frequency for Fundamental note, occurs is 9.0 cm .How much must the tube be
Second overtone and Fifth overtone raised to hear the next peak in intensity
(ANS: fo = 350 λ = 1.2 m, f 3 = 1050 λ = 0.4 29. A helicopter is hovering at an altitude of 200 m
m , f5 = 2100 λ = 0.2m) above the surface of a lake. A speaker on the
21. A string is fixed two ends 50cm a part. The helicopter is sending out sound waves ,which
velocity of a wave in a string is are reflected from both the surface of the water
600m/s. Calculate; and the bottom of the lake .If the difference in
arrival times of the two echoes is measured to
(a) The first five over tone (ANS: be 0.24 s, what is the depth of the lake ?(The

𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒎)
1200Hz, 1800Hz, 2400Hz, 3000Hz, atmospheric temperature is 20 0 C) (ANS: h ≈
and 3600Hz).
(b) The tenth overtones (The tenth 30. Matter expands when heated and contracts
overtone is 6600Hz) when cooled .Explain why a musician must re –
NOTE: In stationary wave a string does tune a stringed instrument if its temperature
note compose up to ten overtones, changes
though mathematically is possible. In 31. Explain why it is not advisable for soldiers to
real practical of the sonometer by using march across a bridge in rhythm.
turning, is possible for the second and 32. Guitars have strings of varying
third overtone. thickness .Which of the strings (thickest or
22. Given that the refractive index of glass is 1.52. thinnest) produces the highest frequency of
The wavelength of the radio waves in vacuum musical notes? Explain your answer .
is 1.5 x 103m .Calculate the wavelength of the 33. A loud sound is made and the echo from a
radio waves in glass.(λ =986.8 m) distant cliff is heard 8 s later .If the atmospheric
23. A guitar wire fixed between two supports 60cm temperature is 220 C, how far away is the cliff?
a part produced wave of
frequency 500Hz. Calculate; Forced Vibration and Resonance
(a)The frequency of a wave when the length of
the guitar wire is reduced to quarter Forced Vibration
(b)The length of the guitar wire when the
frequency of the wave produced is
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 16
  Is the vibration in a system as a result of impulse When the two frequencies match ,energy
received from another system vibrating nearby transfer occurs and we listen to the selected
OR channel
Resonance in a Closed Pipe
• Is type of vibration in which a force is repeatedly
applied to a mechanical system
• When a turning fork is sounded at the top of a
tube with one end open and the other closed,
RESONANCE the air in the tube vibrate freely (resonates) at a
• Is the tendency of a system to oscillate at certain length of
maximum amplitude at certain frequencies a tube. The resonance is observed as a loud
from another system. sound produced in the tube when
OR the proper length obtained
Consider the figure
• Is a phenomenon that occurs when the frequency below
at which a force is periodically applied is equal
or near equal to one of the natural frequencies of
the system on which it acts
OR
• Is a large increase in amplitude of vibration in a
body when it interacts with another vibrating
body
OR
• Is the phenomena where by the response of the

�𝟏 + � = �
system that is set into forced vibration when the
driving frequency is equal to the natural �
�
frequency of the responding system.  Considering the end correction, …
NB:
• For second harmonic or first overtone is� � �
produced when the length is increased to 𝒍𝟐
A resonance is said to occur when a body or system is
set into vibration or oscillation at its own natural
frequency as a result of impulses received from another
system which is vibrating at the same frequency.
OR
A Resonance is said to occur when the amplitude of
an object’s oscillations are increased by the matching
vibrations of another object

Example of Resonance

1. A group of troupes was marching towards the

bridge the bridge collapsed even before it is
approached.
2. If a very loud sound is produced near the
mouth of the glass bottle, the glass is likely to • Considering the end correction, then
break.
……………. (ii)
3. The buildings are likely to collapse following
the occurrences of the earth quake Now, consider the two equations

4. Applied when turning the knob of a radio.

This occurs when changing the natural
frequency of the receiver, it matches the
……………. (iii)
transmission frequency of the radio station.

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 17

 which resonates in similar conditions to a note of
frequency 1000 Hz (ANS: a.
frequency, Loudness (amplitude) and Quality of
……………. (iv) music note (Timbre) .b L2 = 0.0504m)
Compare the two equations ((iii) and (iv)) 6. A turning fork of frequency 250Hz is used to
produce resonance in an opened pipe.
Given that the velocity of sound in air is
350m/s. find the length of tube which gives
(a) First resonance (b) Third

∴ 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒉,𝝀 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏)

resonance (ANS: L = 1.4m)
7. The length of a closed pipe is 160mm. calculate the
∴ 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏)𝒇
wavelength and the frequency of (i) The first
overtone (ii) The third harmonic (λ = 0.213, f2
≈1500,Hz, f3 = 2500Hz)
Whereby: V is the speed of sound in air column and ƒ
is frequency of sound in air
8. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 100 cm. If
the velocity of sound in air of the pipe is 340m/s.
Calculate the frequency of;
Class Assignment – 2:3 (a) The fundamental (f0 = 85 Hz) (b) The first
overtone ( f1 = 255 Hz)
1. A turning fork of frequency 512 Hz is sounded at the
mouth of a tube closed at one end with a movable Resonance in a closed Pipe (without end
piston. It is found that resonance occurs when the correction, c)
column of air is 18cm long and again when the column

(ANS: 𝝀 = 0.66m and VA =

is 51cm long. Find wave length and velocity of sound
in air
338m/s) 2. In a closed pipe, the first resonance is at
23cm and second at 73cm. determines the wave length

0.002 m, 𝝀 = 1.0 m)
of the sound and the end correction of pipe (ANS: c =

3. A resonance tube produces a loud sound for the

first time when the length of the air column is 17
cm and a loud sound at the second time when the
length of the air column is 51 cm .The turning fork
frequency used is 500 Hz .Determine the speed of
the air in the tube (ANS: V = 340 m/s)
• From:
4. The first resonance in the tube of resonance occurs
when the length of the air column is 20 cm. What But
are the lengths of air column in the second
resonance and third resonance respectively (ANS:
60 cm and 100 cm respectively) 5. (a) Identify
three characteristics of sound which distinguish one
note from another.
Hence state the physical factors which For the 1st overtone (2nd harmonic)
correspondingly define the mentioned
characteristics (b) A resonance tube whose one
end is closed and other open, resonance to a note of
frequency 560Hz when the length of the air column
is 15cm. determine the wave length of this sound in
air. What is the shortest length of the air column

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 18

 𝒇𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒇𝟎 … …… ……𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =
1,2,3,4 𝑒𝑡𝑐

Since the resonance tube (closed at one end) produces

odd harmonics then the equation of the length of tube
(length of air column) is given by

• From: Resonance in Opened Pipe

Consider the diagram below

But
𝒗
Fundamental note (First resonance)

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆,𝒇𝟏 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎

For the 2nd overtone (3rd harmonic)

• From: ,

But

For the first overtone (second harmonic/second

resonance)

• From:
From:

But 𝒍= 𝝀
𝒗
But

�𝟐 = = = 𝟓 × 𝟒𝒍 , 𝒃𝒖𝒕�𝟎 = 𝟒𝒍
𝟒𝒍 𝟓𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
𝟓 𝟒𝒍
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟓𝒇𝟎 ∴ 𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝒇𝟎

Generally the 𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅

𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 ;
For the 2nd overtone (Third harmonic/third
resonance)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 19

 Class Activity – 1:4

1. The speed of sound waves in air is found to be

340m/s. Find;
(a)The fundamental frequency (b) The
frequency of the 3rd harmonic
(c) The frequency of 9th harmonic (d) The
st
frequency of 51 harmonic Given
• From: that the sound waves are probating in a closed
pipe of length 700m.
ANS: f0 = 121.5Hz, f3 = 850.5 Hz, f9 =
But 2308.5 Hz, f51 = 12514.5 Hz
2. In a closed pipe, the first resonance is at 23 cm
and second at 73 cm. Determine the wavelength

(ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟏 𝒎,𝒄 = 𝟐 𝒄𝒎)

of the sound and the end correction of the pipe.

3. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm.

If the velocity of sound in the
air of the pipe is
Generally the 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑠
340m/s. Calculate the
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝒇𝒏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒇𝟎
frequency of;
(a)The fundamental (b) 1st overtone
(ANS: f0 = 850 Hz, f1 = 2550 Hz)
Whereby (n = 1,2,3,4………….)
4. A pipe closed at one and has a length of 2.46m.
Find the frequency of the fundamental and the
• Since the resonance tube(opened at both ends) first two overtones. Take 343m/s as the speed
produces integral multiples of harmonics, then of sound in air. (ANS: f0 = 34.85Hz, f1 =
column) at 𝒏𝒕𝒉
the equation of the length of tube (length of air 104.55 Hz, f2 =174.25 Hz)

harmonic is given by 5. When a tuning fork of 512Hz is sounded at the

top of the measuring cylinder which contains
water. The first resonances are observed when
the length of the air column (the distance from
. the mouth to the level of the water is 50 cm)
Example and the second resonance is observed when the
1. A turning fork of frequency 256 Hz is sounded at length of the air column (the distance from the
the mouth of a tube closed at one end with a mouth to the level of water) is 80 cm; using
movable. It is found that resonance occurs these observations. Calculate the velocity of
when the column of air is 15 cm long and again water in air.(ANS: v = 307 .2m/s)
when the column is 80 cm long. Determine the
velocity of sound in air. Beats
Soln:
Given: L1 = 15
• A beat is a rise or fall in loudness of sound
cm, L2 = 80 cm, f when two sources of sound of nearly equal
frequencies produce sound together.
From: 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇 =
= 256Hz, V = ?

𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏)𝒇
• The Beat frequency (number of beats):
• Is the difference between the two frequencies

∴ 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏)𝒇 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝒙𝟐(𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 − 𝟎.

of sound

𝟏𝟓) = 𝟓𝟏𝟐 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐. 𝟖 𝒎/𝒔 T

h
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 20
a • Examples are Radio waves ,Microwaves,
t Infrared radiation, Visible light ,
Ultraviolet rays , X–rays, Gamma rays
i NB:
s
 It is produced when electrically charged
B particles oscillate or change energy
f  The greater the energy change, the higher the
frequency of the resulting wave
=
 Electric field and magnetic field of an
f electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each
1
other

–
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
f
2 o They do not require material
medium to travel through o They
o undergoes reflection, refraction,
r interference and diffraction o They
travel at the speed of light (i.e C = 3
f x108 m/s in vacuum) o They carry no
2 electric charge

–
o They transfer energy in form of
oscillating electric and magnetic
f fields o They obey the wave
1 equation, C = λ

Example Electromagnetic Spectrum

1. A 256Hz turning fork produces sound at the  Is a continuous band of all
same time with a 249Hz turning fork. What is electromagnetic waves arranged in order
the beat frequency? (ANS: Bf = 7Hz) of increasing or decreasing frequencies
2. What is the beat frequency when a 262 Hz and or wavelength change.  It is divided
266 Hz turning forks are sounded together? into seven regions or bands
(ANS: BF = 4 Hz)
Tables of Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Waves
Wavelength (m) Region (band) Frequen
>10-1 Radio waves >3 x 109
• Are a self – propagating transverse wave of 10-1 – 10-4 Micro waves 3x109 - 3
oscillating electric and magnetic fields 10-4 – 10-7 Infrared 3x1012 - 4
• OR: Are the waves which are 7x10-7 – 4 x 10-7 Visible light 4.3x1014
propagated through space or matter by the
4x10-7 – 10-9 Ultraviolet light 7.5x1014
vibration of an electric field and magnetic
field at right angles to one another 10-9 – 10-11 X-rays 3x1017 - 3
<10-11 Gamma rays >3x1019
• Self propagating means a change in electric
Electromagnetic Spectrum Observation
field produces a change in magnetic field and
vice versa  It is continuous: means each band merges into
next and there is no gap between their
frequencies
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 21
  Some Wave length overlap: in some cases e.g planets,stars electric circuits
there is an overlap of wave length so we have etc
to name according to source not to the wave
length, for Example, X-rays and Gamma rays N.B: RADAR = Radio Detection And Ranging

Sources, Detectors, and uses of EMW Example

Radiation Source Detector 1. What is the wavelength of radio waves of frequency
95.6MHz?(c = 3.0 x 108 m/s)
Gamma rays  Radioactive •
From: 𝒗(𝒄) = 𝒇𝝀
Photographic plate Soln:
substance
• Geiger muller tube

X –rays  x –rays tubes • fluorescent screensClass Assignment – 1

• photographic film
1. (a) Explain why radio waves are similar to light
waves but not sound waves
Ultra violet • the sun • photographic films
(b)A radio station transmits a signal of wave
1500m. Calculate the frequency of
• sparks • photocells this signal (ANS: ƒ = 200 KHz)
 mercury vapor  paper smeared with 2. Light of frequency 4.6 × 1014Hz travels at a speed
lamp vaseline of 1.24 × 108ms-1 in diamond.

this color of light. (ANS: 𝝁 = 2.42) 3. (a) What is

Calculate the refractive index of diamond for
Visible light • The sun • The eye
• Luminous objects • Photocells diffraction of wave?
• Photographic films (b)Illustrate how plane water wave fronts are
diffracted on passing through a narrow
Infra red • The sun • Thermometer with gap
• Fires blackened bulbs (c)(i) Is it possible for light to be diffracted on
• Hot bodies • Thermopile passing through an open window?
(ii) Give an explanation on your answer above
• Bolometer
4. (a) What is the fundamental frequency of a
vibrating string?
(b) Sonometer consists of a taut steel wire fixed
between two bridges 100cm apart.
Defining the first harmonic, second harmonic, third
harmonic and fourth harmonic, explain how
overtones can be obtained

Microwaves  Magnetrons in  Solid state diodes 5. How an echo differs from the reverberation?
microwave oven • ANS: Echo occurs when long distances are
considered WHILE reverberation is when short
distances are considered.
• Echo is due to the reflection of sound wave by
Radio waves • Oscillating • Aerials obstacles or end points like wall etc. BUT
electric circuits Reverberation is due to the collection of
• Diodes reflection sounds from the surface which is
• Objects in space • Earphones in enclosed completely
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 22
 6. Sound travelling towards a cliff 700m away (c)(i) what is an echo
takes 4.2 seconds for an echo to be heard. (ii) A sound is sent out from the ship and its
Calculate the velocity of sound in air. (ANS: reflection from the ocean floor returns one
Va = 333.33m/s) second later. Assuming that the velocity of sound in
7. A boy standing 100m from the foot of a high water is
wall claps his hands and the echo reaches him 1500m/s. how deep is the ocean? (
0.5 second later. Calculate the velocity of sound 750m)
in air using this observation. 13. (a) (i) What is a sonometer?
(ANS: V in air is 400m/s) (ii) Briefly explain when resonance is said to
8. A student standing between two vertical walls occur.
and 480m from the nearest wall, shouted. She (b) Two boys are stand 200m apart on one
heard the first echo after 3 seconds and the side of a high vertical cliff at the same
second after two perpendicular distance from it. When one
second fires a gun, the other hears the sound 0.65
later use seconds after the flash and the second
this sound 0.25 second after the first sound.
informatio Calculate the perpendicular distance of
n to the boys from the cliff (c) A diagram
calculate; below illustrates part of the
(i) Velocity of sound in air (Va =320m/s) (ii) displacement-time graph of a wave
Distance between the two walls.(d =1280 m) travel with velocity of 2m/s.
9. An old woman sitting in a gorge between two
large cliffs gives a short sharp sound. She hears
two echo, the first after 1 second and the next
after 1.5sec. The speed of sound is 340m/s what
is the distance between the two cliffs? (ANS:
d=425 m)
10. A sonar signal (a high frequency sound wave)
sent vertically downwards from the ship is Calculate.
refracted from the ocean floor and detected by a (i). The amplitude (ii). Frequency
microphone on the keel. 0.4 sec after (iii). Wave length
transmission. If the speed of sound in water is (b) ANS: d = 84.27m (c) (i). A = 0.2m (ii) f
1550m/s. What is the depth of the ocean in = 10Hz (iii). λ = 0.2m
meters? (ANS: The depth of the ocean is
300m) 14. Which of the following has the shortest
wavelength?
11. A man sees steam coming out from a factory (i) Radio waves (ii) X – rays
whistle and 3 seconds later he hears the sound. (iii) Red light
The velocity of sound in air is 360m/s.
Calculate the distance from the man to the 15. A column of air 26.25 cm long in a closed tube
factory. ANS: d = 1080m resonates to a sounding tuning fork. If the
velocity of sound in air is 33 600 cm/s, what is
12. (a) (i) Distinguish between longitudinal wave the frequency of the fork? (ANS: f = 320 Hz)
and transverse wave
(ii) Explain how beats are formed 16. If the shortest length of the tube for resonance is
0.12 m and the next resonant length is 0.37 m,
(b) A light wave is refracted into an what is the frequency of vibrations? Take the
optically dense medium. What change speed of sound in air as 340 m/s. (ANS: f = 680
will occurs in (i) The Hz)
frequency?
17. Explain the following
(ii) The speed?
(iii) The wavelength?
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 23
 (a) Strings of different thickness are used 25. The diagram below shows the electromagnetic
on a stringed instrument such as a violin or spectrum. Region D represents visible light
a guitar
(b) The same note played on a violin and a
flute sound different
(c) The strings of a stringed instrument are
usually mounted on a hollow box of special (a) Which region contains radiation
shape produced in nuclear reactors?
(d) Matter expands when heated and (b) Which region represents radiation
contracts when cooled. Explain why a capable of promoting the production of
musician must retune a stringed instrument vitamin D in the skin?
if its temperature changes (c) Which region is contains radiation used
(e) How does the size of the gap in the in radar system?
barrier affect the diffraction of waves? 26. Explain why a duck remains floating at the
18. The commercial program of Radio Annur is same place as wave passes by the water in a
broadcast on wavelengths of 1500 m and 250 m. lake
The frequency of the 1500 m wave is 200 27. Two similar sonometer wires of the same
kHz what is the frequency of 250 m wave? material produces 2 beats per second. The
19. Explain briefly how the concept of wave is length of one is 50 cm and that of the other is
applied in each of the following fields 50.1 cm. Calculate the frequencies of the two
(i) Medicine (ii) Communication (iii)
Scientific research wires (From: =1002 Hz, f2 =
1000 Hz)
20. A light wave is refracted into an optical less
dense medium. What change will occur in 28. Explain why it is not advisable for soldiers to
(i)The frequency (ii) The speed (iii)The march across a bridge in rhythm
wavelength 29. A note of 100 vibrations per second is reflected
21. A solid is sent out from the ship and its back to an observer from a wall 34 meters away
reflection from the floor of the ocean returns in 0.2 seconds. Calculate the speed of sound and
half a second later. Assuming that the velocity the wavelength of tone
of sound in water is 1500 m/s, how deep is the 30. A note of frequency 100 is sounding. What is
ocean? the frequency of a note (a) one octave higher (b)
22. Gamma rays bursters are objects in the universe two octave higher?
that emit pulses of gamma rays with high 31.
energies. The frequency of the most energetic
burst has been measured at around 3.x 1021 Hz.
(a) What is the wavelength of these gamma rays?
(ANS: 𝝀 =1.0 x 10-13 m)
(b) What could be their period? (ANS: T = 3.33 x
10-22 s)
23. Differentiate between ultrasonic and infrasonic
vibrations
24. An FM radio station broadcasts electromagnetic
waves at a frequency of 150 MHz .The radio
Topic – 2 Electromagnetism
waves have a wavelength of 2.0 m. Calculate
the speed of the radio waves (ANS: v = 3 x108
m/s) Electromagnetism: Is the effect produced by the
interaction of an electric current

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 24

 with a magnetic field

Direction of Current and magnetic field

 Is determined by applying two rules which are:-
(a) Right hand grip rule
(b) Maxwell’s right hand
screw rule For conductor ,the rule for conduct States that

Right hand Grip Rule

“Wrapping right hand around a conductor your
fingers point in the direction of
F
o magnetic field and the thumb points in the
r direction of current”
s OR
o “Imagine the wire carrying the current is
l gripped by the right hand with the thumb
e pointing in the direction of the conventional
n current (from positive to negative), the fingers
o will curl around the wire pointing in the
i direction of the magnetic field”
d
,
t
h
e
r
u
l
e
s
t
a
t
e M
s a
t x
h w
a e
t l
l
’
“When you wrap your right hand around a solenoid with s
your fingers pointing in the direction of conventional
current, your thumb points in the direction of the R
magnetic north pole” i
g
h
t

H
a
n
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 25
d “If you hold the index finger, the middle finger
and the thumb of your left hand mutually
S perpendicular to each other so that the index
c finger points in the direction of the magnetic field
r and the middle finger points in the direction of
e current in the conductor, then the thumb will
w point in the direction of the force (motion) acting
on the conductor.” See the fig below:
R
u
l
e

T
h
e

r
u
l Force in Parallel Conductors
e
• When the current pass through a two
s conductors in the same direction the conductors
t are attracted to each other Diagram:
a
t
e
s

t
h
a
t
:
“If a right-hand screw advances in the direction of the
• When the current pass through a two
conductors in the opposite direction the conductors
current, then the direction of rotation of the screw
are repulsed to each other See the fig below:
represents the direction of the magnetic field due to the
current.” Diagram:

Electromagnetic Induction

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

• Electromagnetic induction is the production
It describe the direction of force produced by conductor of electromotive force whenever there is
carrying current, which state that change in the magnetic flux (lines) linking a
conductor

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 26

OR
• Electromagnetic induction is the production
of an electromotive force across a conductor
when it is exposed to a varying magnetic field
See the fig below:

(b) When South Pole is pushed towards the coil, a

South Pole is formed at the end of the coil, and when
the South Pole is moved away, a North Pole is formed.
See the fig below
NB:
• An EMF is only induced in a conductor when
there is relative motion between the conductor
and the magnetic field
• EMF produced is called induced
electromotive force and Current produced is
called induced current
• The conductor should moves in perpendicular
to magnetic field N.B
• No current when conductor moves parallel to • When the N –Pole of a magnet is moving into a
magnetic field coil the magnetic flux increases, According to
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction when there is a change in flux, an EMF and
hence induced current is induced in the coil and
 Lenz’s law this current will create its own magnetic field.
 Faraday’s law Now according to Lenz’s law ,this magnetic
field created will oppose its own increase in
through the coil
Lenz’s Law
States that: "the direction of the induced • When the N –Pole of a magnet is moving out of
electromotive force is such that it the coil the magnetic flux decreases, which
tends to oppose the effect (change) producing it” induces an e.m.f in the coil. The resulting
induced current must be in the direction to
 According to experiment of Lenz’s law of oppose this decrease in flux. The induced
electromagnetic induction, the following were (secondary) magnetic field must be in the same
observed direction as the primary field
(a) When North Pole approaches to the end of the
Faraday’s Law
coil, the current in the coil flows such that a North Pole It states that: “The magnitude of induced
is formed at that end. When the North Pole is moved electromotive force (EMF) is proportional to
away, a South Pole is formed. See the fig below the rate of change of the magnetic flux
linking the conductor”

Factors affecting magnitude of Induced E.M.F

 The strength of magnetic field
 The rate of change of magnetic flux (speed )
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  Cross section Area of the conductor
 Number of turns (N)
The Strength of magnetic field
• When strong magnet is used, it results strong
magnetic field which produce high magnitude
of induced e.m.f and vice versa

 In constant current no induced current See the

The rate of change of magnetic flux
figure below:
• Increasing the speed results of the magnet high
rate at which magnetic flux change in which
produces high magnitude of induced e.m.f

Cross Section Area of the Conductor

• Increase in cross section area of the conductor
results high magnitude of induced e.m.f (e.m.f
 A) Mutual Induction
• Is the production of e.m.f in one conductor or
Number of Turns (N) solenoid as a result of changing current in
another conductor or solenoid
• Increasing number of turns results high
magnitude of induced e.m.f (e.m.f  N)

Self-Induction
• Is the phenomenon in which a change in electric
current in a coil produces an induced e.m.f in the
coil itself
OR
• Is the production of e.m.f in a conductor as a NB:
result of varying current in the same • The coil which varies current is primary coil
conductor/solenoid NB: while the coil with induced current is
 If the original current is increasing, then the secondary coil
induced current is smaller than it would be
 If the original current is decreasing, then the Mechanism
induced current adds to it and the measured
current is greater than it would be if no self –
• Primary coil produces magnetic flux which
induced magnetic field was produced in the change magnetic flux in secondary coil to
conductor produce electromotive force
 Back e.m.f is the voltage induced in the coil
due to variation of electric current flowing in Application of Mutual Induction
the same coil  Is used in transformers
 Used in the ignition system
 Used in flash tubes in cameras and strobe light
 In wireless telegraphy
 Generators and motors

Eddy Current
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 28
 • Are induced current loops • Causes heating in electrical components
circulating within a conductor See the appliances
figure below: • They cause energy losses as heat e.g in
transformers

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNET

(a) MOVING COIL GALVANOMETERS

• A galvanometer is an instrument used to detect

Damping of Eddy Current the presence of an electric current in a circuit.
• Eddy current can be minimized by • A moving coil galvanometer is the
insulator materials which have high galvanometer where by the moving part is the
resistance in which eddy current cannot coil.
make loops circulation within a conductor
Diagram:

Methods used to minimize Eddy Current

Therefore Eddy current can be minimized by the • Mode of Action: The pointer rotates due to
following methods the force developed on the coil
 Laminated core: this is the reason to why all (by Fleming’s left hand rule). When the
instruments use principle of electromagnetic current passes through the coil will be
induction are laminated like motor armature, magnetized hence different poles will be
dynamos armature, transformer coils are formed.
wrapped by insulator sheets
 Magnetic material with high resistivity e.g. Advantages
ferrite
• The scale is uniform.
Advantages of Eddy Current
• Useful in heating metals
• Moving coil galvanometer is more accurate.

• Useful in electrical damping • The sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer is

very high.
• Crack detection
• Measurement of material thickness • A moving coil galvanometer can be converted
into an ammeter and voltmeter.
• Measurement of coating thickness
• Measurement of conductivity Factors affecting the Sensitivity of the
Galvanometer

Disadvantages of eddy currents 1. The quantity of the current passing through

• Complicate construction of cores of the coil. The bigger is the current the higher is
electromagnetic coils the sensitivity and vice verse.

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 29

 2. The strength of a magnet. The stronger the • By replacement of the wire of high resistance.
magnet, the higher is the sensitivity. • By replacing a resistor of high resistance known
3. The number of turns of the coil. The bigger as Multiplier connected in series with the
number of turns in the coil the greater the moving coil galvanometer.
sensitivity.
4. Cross sectional areas of the coil. The bigger is
the cross – sectional area of the coil, the higher
is the sensitivity.

Conversion of Moving Coil Galvanometer into

an Ammeter
Where: Rm = Resistance of multiplier
• Ammeter Is an electrical device used to RG = Resistance of the coil of galvanometer
measure the quantity of an electric current in Vm = Potential difference across multiplier
amperes. VG = Across galvanometer
V = Total Potential difference of the full scale
How to convert: deflection

• By replacement of the wires with low resistance. • For series connection: V = Vm + VG (where I
• By connecting the resistor of low resistance is constant)
called SHUNT parallel to the galvanometer • Then: Vm = IR ,VG = IRG
Thus: V = IRG+ IRm → V = I (Rm + RG)

• Multiplier: I s the large or high resistance

• If I = I S + IG which is connected in series with the
• Potential difference across the shunt is equal to galvanometer to give voltmeter reading , Rm =
the Potential difference across the galvanometer
VG., ie VS = VG
• Then: VS = ISRS and VG = IGRG  ISRS = Individual task – 2:1

IGRG  RS , (Since: IS + IG = I)
1. A moving coil galvanometer has a coil of
• Shunt, R is a small resistance which can be resistance 25 and can carry a maximum of
connected parallel to the galvanometer to give 15mA.

out ammeter reading ,ie RS

(a) What is the value of the shunt
The Conversion of a Moving Coil Galvanometer into required to enable the galvanometer to
a Voltmeter register 10A full scale deflection.
(ANS: RS = 0.03Ω)

• A voltmeter is electronically device used to

(b) What is the value of the
multiplier required to enable the
measure the potential difference.
galvanometer to register 10V full scale
deflection. How will be connected?
How to convert: (Rm = 646.67Ω)
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 30
 2. A moving will galvanometer has a resistance of
20 and gives a full scale deflection when a
current of 50mA passes through it. Calculate
the value of the resistance which must be used
so that the meter may measure the potential
difference up to 100V.(ANS: A multiplier of
resistance 1980 must be connected in series
with the galvanometer so that the meter may
measure up to 100V)
3. A moving coil galvanometer which gives a full
scale deflection of 0.005A is converted to a
voltmeter reading up to 5V using an external
975 Resistance what is the resistance of the
galvanometer(ANS: RG = 25 )
Mechanism (working of an electric bell)

• When the switch is pressed and current flows

through the circuit, the electromagnet is
powered and generates a magnetic field that
attracts the iron strip towards it
• The striker strikes the gong, when the striking
arm strikes the gong, the contact is broken and
4. A galvanometer has a resistance of 50mA current stops flowing through the circuit. This
passes through it. Calculate the value of the causes the electromagnet to lose its magnetic
resistance which must be used so that the meter field.
may measures the current up to 2A (ANS: A • The connected spring arm returns the striker to
shunt of 0.5128  must be connected to the
its original rest position  The contact is
galvanometer to give a reading of 2A.)
restored and current flows through the circuit
5. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 40  The process is repeated from the beginning.
and the full scale deflection current 15mA. If it Individual task– 2:2
is to be converted so that it gives a full scale 1. In the electric bell, explain what would happen if
deflection current 1. 5A, then the required the armature is made of steel.
shunt will have a resistance of what size?
(ANS: Rs = 0.1)
• ANS: If the armature is made of steel the
(b) Electric Bell hammer hits the gong and remains there/ the
bell rings once this is because steel acquires
• Is a mechanical bell that functions by means
permanent magnetism
of an electromagnet
• It consists of a gong, an electromagnet , an iron
2. Why is the core of the electromagnet of an electric
bell made of soft iron and not steel?
strip and a contact screw Consider the diagram
below • ANS: Because iron gains and looses
magnetisms easily. It is only magnetized if
there is a magnetic field around it and losses its
magnetism immediately when the field is
removed. It also requires very little energy to
magnetize and demagnetize Reasons for
steel:
(i) Steel forms a permanent magnet

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 31

 (ii) Steel is not easily magnetized and electromagnetic induction by the continuous
demagnetized motion of either a coil or a magnet
• OR: Is a device consists of a coil rotating
Induction Coil (Spark coil) in an external magnetic field to produce
electricity
• Is an electrical device consisting of two coils
(primary and secondary coil) where secondary
coil wound over primary coil on an iron core. Types of Generators
• OR Induction coil is a device for getting a  Alternating current generator (A.C Generator)
high voltage from a low one. The fig below:  Direct current generator (D.C Generator)

Alternating Current Generator (Alternator)

• Is a device which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy
• OR Is the device which produces electricity
on the basis of electromagnetic induction by
the continuous motion of either a coil or a
magnet
• OR Is a device which consists of a coil
rotating in an external magnetic
field to produce alternating current.

Mechanism
• When switch is closed to complete the circuit,
the primary coil produces magnetic fields
which cause secondary coil to induce high
voltage due to large number of turns,
• Induced magnetism on soft iron attracts iron
hammer which open the circuit that incomplete
the circuit by opening the gap in platinum
contacts cause the soft iron to lose magnetism
where spring pullback to platinum contacts to NB: o The direction of motion, current and
complete the circuit. This cycle of events is magnetic field can be shown by Fleming right
repeated automatically hand rule which states that

Application of Induction Coil

“If three fingers of the right hand are held
 It is used commonly in ignition system of mutually perpendicular to each other, then the
internal combustion engines thumb points in the direction of motion, fore
 It is used to trigger the flash tubes used in finger (index finger) points in the direction of
cameras and strobe lights  It is also used the field and the middle finger points in the
in wireless telegraphy direction of the induced current”

Generators Mechanism of Alternator (A.C Generator)

• Generator : Is a device which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy
• OR: Is the device which produces • Starting with the coil in the horizontal position,
electricity on the basis of sides AB and CD are cutting the magnetic lines
of force. Maximum E.M.F is therefore induced

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 in the coil. Current flows from A to B and from commutator segment which is insulated from
C to D other half commutator
• When the coil is in the vertical position, sides
AB and CD are moving along the magnetic Mechanism of D.C Generator
lines of force .The induced E.M.F drops to zero
and current stops flowing
• During the second quarter rotation, the coils  When the coil is vertical NO e.m.f is produced
start cutting the lines of force and induced due to no cutting of the magnetic field on the
E.M.F increases from zero to a maximum coil
value when the coil is in a horizontal position  When the armature rotates at 900 (parallel to
again. Current flows from B to A and from D to
magnetic field) the motion of coil is
C, i.e is reversed  This cycle of events is
perpendicular to the magnetic field hence
repeated automatically hence electricity is
maximum e.m.f is induced
produced (See the fig below)
 When the coil is vertical (at 1800) NO e.m.f
produced due to no cutting of the magnetic field
on the coil
 When the armature rotates after 1800, starting
from vertical position and the side of
commutator segment interchange the loop which
cause the loop of current remains in the same
direction
 This cycle of events is repeated automatically
• The direction and magnitude of the induced
hence electricity is produced See the fig below
e.m.f changes with time depending on the
position of the coil

Direct Current Generator

• Is a device that consists a coil rotating in an
external magnetic field to produce direct current
See the fig below:
Advantage of alternator
1. Commutators are complex and costly to
construct, therefore many d.c generators are
being replaced with a.c generators by using
rectifiers
Rectifiers are devices that allow cu
in one direction only.
2. Transformer works on a.c current only
Helps in conservation of electric power during
transmission by stepping up and down N.B:
 In both a.c and d.c generators, the induced
current can be increased by:
(a) Using stronger magnet
(b) Increasing the number of turns
of the coil
(c) Increasing the speed of rotation
• In d.c generator the Slip Rings are replaced by a
of the coil
commutator in order to prevent reverse of
current. Each half commutator is called

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 (d) Winding the coil on a soft b
iron core so as to increase the o
magnetic flux trough the coil n

b
Electric Motor r
 Is an electrical device used to convert electrical u
energy to mechanical energy s
h
e
s

 Commutator split ring

 Magnetic field
 Rectangular coil of wire

Rectangular coil of wire

• It is formed by winding several turns of wire on
a soft iron core

Mai
Magnetic field
n
• Magnetic fields are formed by two unlike poles
p of permanent magnet
a
r
Commutator (split ring)
t
s • It is formed by dividing copper ring into two
equal halves. It is used to reverse direction of
o electric current flowing through the coil by
f changing the contact

E
Carbon brushes
l
e • Connect power supply and rectangular coil
c
t
r Mechanism of Electric motor
i  When current is passed through the coil a force
c is created on side AB in the upward direction
and on side CD, in the downward direction.
m These cause the coil to turn in the anticlockwise
o direction
t
o  When the coil passes through the vertical
r position, no force acts on it, since the sides AB
and CD are moving along the lines of force and
 are not cutting the lines. However , due to its
momentum, the coil continues with its motion
C
a
r
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 34
 Transformer p
• Is a device that transfers an alternating current
from one circuit to another by the principal of t
mutual induction either by increasing or r
decreasing the voltage a
OR n
s
• Is a device that uses mutual induction between f
two coils to convert alternating voltage across o
one coil to a larger or smaller alternating r
voltage across the other coil m
OR e
• Is a static electrical device that transfers r
electrical energy between two or more circuits
• The coil connected to the source is called o
primary coil and the coil in which
S
e.m.f is induced is called secondary coil
t
e
p

d
o
w
n

t
r
Typ
a
e
n
s
s
f
o
o
f
r
m
T
e
r
r
a
n
s
f Step up Transformer
o • Is the transformer that convert low alternating
r voltage from primary coil to high alternating
m voltage in secondary coil
e OR
r
• Is a transformer that increases voltage from
o primary coil to secondary coil

S
t
e
p

u
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 35
 For primary coil

𝑵𝑷 ∝ 𝑽𝑷 → 𝑁𝑃 = 𝑘𝑉𝑃

𝑵𝑺 ∝ 𝑽𝑺 → 𝑁𝑆 = 𝑘𝑉𝑆
For secondary coil

Divide equation (i) to equation (ii)

Step down Transformer
• Is the transformer that convert high alternating
voltage from primary coil to low alternating

∴� =
�� ��
voltage in secondary coil
• OR Is a transformer that decreases voltage 𝑵� ��
�
𝒔
�
from primary coil to secondary coil ��
Suppose no Power Loss (For ideal transformer)
PP = PS
But: P
= IV

Then: IP x VP = IS x VS……………….. make

the subject

Therefore:
Difference between Step – down and Step Where:
– up transformer
Step – down transformer
• NP and NS are the number of turns in primary coil
Step – up transformer
and secondary coil respectively
Decreases the output voltage Increases the output voltage
• VP and VS are primary and secondary voltage
Has many number of turn in primary coil Has many number respectively
of turns in secondary coil
Primary voltage is higher than secondary voltage • IP and
Secondary voltage IS are than
is higher primary and secondary
primary voltage currents
• PP and PS are the power in primary coil and power
in secondary coil
Current is high on the secondary winding. Current is low on the secondary winding.
Secondary winding is made up of thick insulated Primary winding is made Efficiency
Transformer up of thick insulated
copper wire copper wire.• Is the ratio power in secondary coils to power in
primary coils expressed as a percentage
It is used in doorbell, voltage converter, etc It is used in Power plant, X-rays machine,
microwaves,• [Link]:

Rating of output voltage 110v ,24v, 20v, 10v, etc. Rating of output voltage is 11000 volts or above

%
Transformer Equation
 From the factors affecting the induced e.m.f • But: Ps = Is x Vs and Pp = Ip x Vp
(Faraday’s law)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 36

 �� � � �•� This leads to energy loss as a result of magnetic
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄
= � × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = � � flux � 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % by the primary coils failing to
��� �� �
𝒚
produced
�
� � link up with the secondary coils
�
� � � ��
•� It can be minimized by winding the secondary
Examples coils over the primary coil
1. A transformer with primary coil of 400 turns and 1. Hysteresis losses
secondary coil 200 turns is connected to 240 V • This is the energy lost due to continuous
ac mains. Calculate the secondary voltage. magnetization and demagnetization of the core
Soln:
Given: NP = 400, NS = 200, VP = 240 V, VS
• It can be minimized by the use of soft iron core
which is easily magnetized and demagnetized
=?
1. Eddy currents
From: • Eddy currents circulating through the core
produces a lot of heat
• It can be minimized by laminating the core

Transmission of electricity
2. A transformer with primary coil of 1200 turns • Electricity generated at the power stations is
and secondary coil 600 turns is connected to 240 usually at low voltage and high current.
V mains. If the primary current is 3.0A and • Before transmission, the voltage is first stepped
secondary is 5.0A. up to very high voltages then transmitted over a
What is its efficiency? network of transmission cables known as the
Soln: national grid system
Given: VP = 240 V, NP = 1200, NS =
600, IP = 3.0A, IS = 5.0A Required:
• The national grid system is a network of
transmission cables connecting all power
Efficiency=?
stations in a country to each other and to the
consumers
From:
• Advantage of the national grid system of
transmission is that “to ensure that the power
is available to consumers even when one of
the stations fails’’ N.B:
• The transmission of power over long distance is
usually done at very high voltage and low
current as opposed to low voltage and high
current
Sources of energy/ Power loses in a Transformer
Reason: High voltage transmission of electricity
minimizes power loss during the
• There are four main causes of energy/ Power transmission
loss in a transformer. These are
1. Resistance of coils (Copper losses)
• This is caused by high resistance of copper
wire, which leads to energy loss in form of heat
• The copper losses can be minimized by using
thick copper wires Summary of steps involved during the transmission
1. Flux leakage of electricity

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 37

 voltage
transmi
ssion 
Risk of
electric
shock
due to
the high
voltage
• Risk of fire when the cables touch each other
• Strong electric fields set up by high voltages
are harmful to animals and human beings
Precaution
• To minimize the dangers of high voltage
Power loss during transmission
transmission, the cables are supported high
during transmission , P is
above the ground
given by: P
= I2R
Whereby: P–Power lost during transmission, I– Uses of transformer
Current in the cables, R–Resistance of the cables • Transformers are used in power stations to step
Example up voltage for transmission from the station to
1. A power line from a power substation to a town the area of consumption
some distance away, has a resistance of 0.10 The stepping up reduces the current so that
ohms per kilometer. Determine the rate of losses due to resistance in the transmitting
energy loss in the wires are reduced
transmission of power over 50 km at a current
of 60 Amperes • The transformers are used to step down the
SOLN: voltage to the area of consumption as for as the
Given: Total resistance over 50 km = 0.1 x 50 = value of voltage required for domestic use is
5, I = 60 A connected.
•
∴ 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐𝒙 𝑹 = 𝟓𝒙𝟔𝟎 𝒙𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
From: P = I2R Electricity is transmitted from one part of the

𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
country to another part by grid system
• It can increase or decrease the value of
𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒌 – 2:3
capacitor, an inductor or resistance in an AC
circuit. It can thus act as an impedance
(a) The resistance of a length of power transmitting transferring device.
cables is 10  and is used to transmit 11 kV at a
current of 1.0A. Determine the power loss • It can be used to prevent DC from passing from
(ANS:P = 10 W) one circuit to the other.
(b) If this voltage is stepped up to a 160 kv by a • It can isolate two circuits electrically.
transformer , determine the power loss (Assume Class activity – 2
the transformer is 100% efficient) (ANS:P = 0.048
W)
(c) By what factor is the power loss reduced when the 1. A transformer is used to step down 240V
power is transmitted at 16 kV as opposed to 11 kV mains supply to 12V for laboratory use. If the
(ANS: Power factor primary coil has 600 turns, determine the
number of turns in the
secondary coil (ANS: Ns = 30 turns)

Dangers of 2. A current of 0.6A is passed through a step up

high transformer with a primary coil of 200 turns. A
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 38
 current of 0.1A is obtained in the secondary 7. What is the difference in energy transformation
coil. Determine the number of turns in the between a D.C motor and a D.C generator?
secondary coil and the voltage across if the
primary coil is connected to 240V mains. 8. State five ways by which the electric motor can
(ANS: Ns = 1200 turns, Vs = 1440V) be made to rotate faster (ANS:-
(i)By increasing the current flowing through
the coils (ii) By using stronger magnets
3. A step up transformer has 10000 turns in the (iii) By using many number of turns of the wire
secondary coil and 100 turns through the (iv) By increasing the area of the coil in the
primary coil. An a.c of 5A flow in the primary magnetic field
coil when connected to a 12V a.c supply,
Calculate
(v) By using many coils with more split ring
parts in many planes
(a)The voltage across secondary coil (ANS: Vs =
1200V) 9. What is the main structural difference between
(b)Current in secondary coil if transformer the D.C generator and the A.C generator?
efficiency is 90% (ANS: Is = 0.045A) (ANS: In the D.C generator a split ring
(commutator) is used , while in an A.C
generator, a set of slip rings are used)

4. With a secondary transformer output of 1,320 10. A power line from a power substation
watts and a primary input of to a town some distance away, has a resistance
1,800 watts, calculate the efficiency of the of 0.4 per kilometer. Determine the current
transformer. (ANS: 73.33 %) flowing through the power lines if the rate of
energy loss in the transmission of power over
5. How Does a Transformer Work? 100 km is 100,000 W (ANS: P = 50 A)
Answer: 11. What is meant by the national grid
system?
 Transformer consists of two coils. If one
coil is connected with ac voltage 12. What is the advantage of having a
source then it will produce alternating national grid in power transmission?
flux in the core. Most of the flux is 13. Why is the electricity transmitted at
linked with second coil hence mutually very high voltage and low current?
induced emf will be produced in the
second coil as per faraday's law of 14. During the transmission of electricity
electromagnetic induction. over long distances, an alternating current is
passed over alluminium cables at high voltages
and low current. (a) Why
is alternating current (a.c) used in preference to
direct current (d.c)?
6. Can DC be applied to Transformers? ANS
ANS: NO
(i) Alternating current can be easily stepped up
 Because: Transformer works on and down since transformers
Faraday's law of Electromagnetic work only on a.c not on d.c
Induction for which current in coil
must change. If DC is applied current (ii) Direct current requires thick overhead
cables which will be expensive to buy
will not change and transformer will
not work. Practically winding and support
resistance is very small. For DC, (b)Why are alluminium cables preferred to
inductive reactance is zero and copper for long distance
frequency is zero. Therefore transmission of electricity (ANS:)
impedance is low. Thus winding draws (i) Alluminium has lower density than
more current which may damage the copper.(It is lighter than copper, therefore easy
winding.

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 39

 to support. Use of copper wires will require
very strong poles to
support since copper wires are fairly heavy)
(ii) Alluminium is a better conductor of
electricity than copper
(iii) Alluminium does not corrode easily,
unlike copper 22. A Transformer has 1000 turns in its
primary coil, which is connected to a 250 V
15. A transformer is used to step down
a.c supply. The secondary coil is connected to
120V mains to 24volts, for kitchen use. If the
an ammeter via a 100 ohm resistor .Determine
primary coil has 400 turns, find the number of
the number of turns in the secondary coil if the
turns is the secondary coil (NS = 80)
ammeter reads 1.5 A (ANS: NS = 600)
16. Explain why soft iron is better material 23. A student is designed a transformer to
to be used for the core than steel? supply a current of 10 A at a potential
17. A step up transformer has 5000 turns in difference of 60 V to a motor from an a.c mains
the secondary coil. And 500turns through the supply of 240 V. If the
primary coil. An alternative current of 5A flows efficiency of the transformer is 80%. Calculate
in the primary coil when connected to a 12V (a) The power supplied to the transformer
A.C supply. (ANS: PIN = 750 W)
(a)Calculate the voltage across the secondary (b) The current in the primary coil
coil. (ANS: VS = 120V) (ANS: IP = 3.125 A)

(b)If the transformer has an efficiency of 90% 24. A low voltage outdoor lighting system
what is the current in the secondary coil? uses a transformer to step down a 240 voltage
(IS = 0.45A) house hold voltage to 24 voltages. The lighting
system has 6 lamps
18. A step down transformer is used to with a total resistance of 10Ω
light a 12V, 24W lamp from 240 volts mains.
The current through the primary coil is 125mA. (a)What is the current in the secondary coil of
What is the efficiency of the transformer? the transformer (ANS:I =24 A)
(ANS: Eff = 80%) (b)What is the current in the primary coil
19. A transformer is used to step down (ANS: I = 2.4 A)
24V mains supplier to 12V for laboratory use, 25. The ratio of the number of in the
if the primary coil has 600turns. Find the secondary coil in a transformer to that in the
number of turns in the secondary coil. (Ns = 30 primary coil is 16:[Link] the current in the
N) secondary circuit is 4.0A. What is the current in
the primary circuit? (ANS: IS = 0.25A)
20. A current of 0.6A is passed through a
step up transformer with a primary coil of 200 26. Could a transformer be used to increase
turns. A current of 0.1 A is obtained in the the voltage of a battery? Explain
secondary coil. Find the number of turns in the 27. Explain the function of the commutator
secondary coil and the voltage across if the in a DC electric generator
primary coil is connected to 240V mains (ANS:
NS = 33 N, VS = 39.6V) 28. A transformer is used on a 240 V a.c
supply to deliver 12 A at 120 V to a heating
21. The figure below shows a step – down coil. If 20% of energy taken from the supply is
transformer connected to a 240 V mains socket. dissipated in the transformer
The primary coil P, has 4000 turns while the
secondary coil, S, has 200 turns. The efficiency (a)What is the current in the primary coil?
of the transformer is 60% and a current of 50 A (ANS: IP = 7.5 A)
flows through P. Calculate the current through (b)Give three causes of 20% energy
S dissipation in the transformation above

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 40

 29. Sketch the magnetic field patterns due winding of 200 turns .If the output voltage is
to a current passing through: 150 V ,find the input voltage
(a) a long straight line (b) a ,assuming the transformer is 100 % efficient
circular coil 39. Describe the structure of a step – up
(c) a long solenoid. Indicate clearly the transformer
direction of current and magnetic field 30. Two 40. A transformer with primary and
transformers T1 and T2 are connected as shown in
secondary windings of 200 and 100 turns
the figure below
respectively is connected to 250 V
mains .Calculate the secondary voltage if the
transformer is 75 % efficient

Topic –3: Radioactivity

Given that N1 =10, N2 = 200, N3 =100, N4 = 50 • Radioactivity is the process in which an

and V1 =240 V, what is the value of V4? unstable atomic nucleus loses energy
by emitting radiation in the form of particles or
electromagnetic wave.
31. A laptop computer is plugged into the
230 V mains .The lap top is left on standby .Its
power consumption from the mains is 3.2 OR Radioactivity is the spontaneous breaking up of
W .The lap top’s transformer changes the 230 unstable nuclei with the
V mains to 9.2 V which goes to the emission of one or more types of radiation
laptop .What is the current passing through the OR Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration
laptop? of the nucleus of unstable
32. Transformers are designed to use
alternating current .Describe what change elements with the emission of
happens when a step – up transformer is used radiations NB:

33. What is meant by the national grid • Radioactivity is also called radioactive decay
system? • Disintegrated atom is called parent nuclide
34. Explain how transformers are used to • The new atom formed is called Daughter
improve the efficiency of power transmission in nuclide
the national Grid.
35. A step – down transformer in a mobile Terms used
phone charger converts 230 V mains into 5 Matter
V .The phone needs a current of 3 A when • Matter is anything that occupies space and has
charging .What current is required from the weight. Eg, water, iron, meat,etc
mains? Element
36. Describe the structure and working of a • Is a pure substance that is made up of only one
simple d.c motor kind of atom and cannot be broken down into
37. A d.c generator has a resistance coil of simpler parts by a chemical means.
10 ohms and is connected to a bulb of • For example, helium (H), hydrogen (He), iron
resistance 100 ohms .Calculate the induced (Fe) etc
e.m.f if the current flowing in the bulb is 5 Atom
amps
• Is the smallest particle of an element that has
38. A step – down transformer has a all the chemical characteristics of an element.
secondary winding of 100 turns and primary

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 41

 For example, helium (H), hydrogen (He), iron • It is denoted by small letter p. its charge and
(Fe) etc its mass is +1.6 x 10-19 C and
Molecule 1.6726 x 10-27 kg respectively
• Is a group of atoms. For example, water
molecule (H2O), hydrogen molecules (H2)
Neutrons

Strong Force • Neutron is the neutral charged particle of an

atom.
• Is the force that hold protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus oppose and overcome • It is denoted by small letter n. Its charge and
repulsion between protons its mass are 0 C and 1.6749 x 1027 kg
respectively
Binding Energy
Electrons
• Is the energy that holds protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus oppose and overcome • An electron is the negatively charged particle
repulsion between protons of an atom.
• It is denoted by small letter e. Its charge and
Nuclear Binding Energy mass are -1.6 x 10 −19 C and 9.1094 x 10−31 kg
• Is the energy required to split the nucleus of an respectively. The electron always revolve
atom into its components around the nucleus

Atomic Number
• Atomic number is the number of protons
present in a nucleus of a particular atom.
• It is denoted by capital letter Z
Structure of Atom
According to Rutherford atom Mass Number
• Mass number is the sum of protons and
“Atom has a structure like a small solar system, in neutrons particles.
which the planet is electron and the place of the sun is
taken by a small heavy positive charged particle called
• Also is called atomic mass/weight. It is
denoted by capital letter A
nucleus (Protons and Neutrons)” (see the fig. below)
Mathematically: A = Z + N
• In a given atom/elements (X) mass number
(A) located as Superscript while atomic
number (Z) located as Subscript. i.e
Isotopy
• Is the existence of atoms of the same element
with the same atomic number but differ in
atomic mass.
• Therefore atoms are made up by subatomic
(three types of) particles namely Protons(p), • Elements which can form isotopy are called
Neutrons(n) and Electrons(e) isotopic elements (isotopes) Isotopes
• Are the atoms of the same element having the
Protons same atomic number but different mass
number
• Proton is the positively charged particle of an
atom. Isotopic Elements and their Isotopes

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 Elements Z Isotopes Individual task – 3:1
1. Tin (Sn) has a total of twenty-five isotopes; the
Hydrogen 1 Hydrogen - 1 lightest is represented by the symbol 108Sn50.
Deuterium Given that all twenty-five isotopes of tine exist,
Tritium
isotopes (ANS: 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑺𝒏)
write down the symbol for the heaviest tin

Carbon 6 Carbon - 12
Carbon - 13 Stable Atom
Carbon - 14
• Is the atom whereby its binding energy is strong
Oxygen 8 Oxygen - 16 enough to hold nucleus of an atom together.
Oxygen - 17 • N.B: Stability of an atom decreases as the
Oxygen - 18 atomic number increases
Chlorine 17 Chlorine - 35 Unstable Atom
Chlorine - 37
• Is the atom whereby its binding energy is not
Uranium 92 Uranium - 234 strong enough to hold nucleus of an atom
Uranium - 235 together.
Uranium - 238
Types of Radioactivity
lead 82 Lead - 202  Natural radioactivity
Lead - 206
Lead - 207  Artificial radioactivity
Lead - 208
Natural Radioactivity
• Is the process in which an unstable atomic
NB: nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation in
•
neutron (1 01𝑛 )
The different isotopes always differ by one the form of particles or electromagnetic wave
OR

• Isotopes of particular element/atom; the larger • Is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable

the mass number (A) the heaviest of element atoms (nuclei).
and vice versa
• For example, unstable isotopes such that
carbon-14 and heavy elements such as lead
Isobars and uranium etc NB:
• Isobar is the different elements having the  In natural radioactivity the nucleus of the
same mass number but different atomic elements disintegrate on their own accord
number.  Materials exhibit radioactivity is called
radioactive material
Isotones  In the periodic table all elements above lead
• Isotones are different elements having the exhibit natural radioactivity
same number of neutrons.  Examples of radioactive material are thorium
(Th), uranium (U), Radon (Rn), Radium (Ra),
Example 1 Polonium (Po) etc

3. One isotope of chlorine has the symbol How Natural Radioactivity Occurs?

A = Z + N → 37 = 17 + 𝑁
Calculate the number of neutrons in this isotope
Soln: from
• Natural radioactivity occurs when atomic
nucleus has many number of protons in the
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 20
→ 37 − 17 = 20
nucleus, due to the law of charges, like charges
repel therefore repulsion force is larger enough
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 43
 to overcome strong force (binding energy) • Example 2: Radium-222 undergoes an alpha
resulting unstable atomic nucleus disintegrate decay to produce radon-218
(decay) into smaller nuclei (daughter nuclide)
which are smaller and more stable than parent
nuclide Solution:

Nuclear Radiation
•Is the energy or particles or electromagnetic Properties of Alpha Particles
waves emitted by unstable atom (radioactive • It is helium in nature
element)
Types of Radiation • It is a positively charged particle. it has relative
charge of 2+
 Alpha (𝛼) particle
• It has very low penetrating power since it is the
 Beta (β) particle
heaviest particle
 Gamma (γ) rays • It can be stopped/shielding by a few cm of air,
thin sheet of paper, skin, clothes etc
Alpha Particle (𝛼) • It can cause some materials to fluorescence i.e.
• Is the particle emitted by radioactive material to give out light
which is equivalent to helium nucleus particle ( • It affects/blackens photographic plate (film)
• It is a heaviest particle due to its biggest mass
and charge
Effect on Nucleus • It has very high ionizing power, since it is a
• When a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha heaviest particle
particle its atomic number decreases by two  It is emitted up to speed of 0.1of light
and mass number decreases by 4. • It can be deflected by electric and magnetic
• The effect tend to form other element and the field
nuclear equation is given by:
Beta Particle (β)


• Is the particle emitted by radioactive material
W which is equivalent to electron
he
re

𝑋
by:
𝐴
 𝑍 Is parent nuclide Effect on Nucleus

 Is daughter nuclide • When a radioactive nucleus emits beta particle

its atomic number increases by one (1)and mass
 The parent nuclide can give more number remains constant.
than one daughter nuclide
• The effect tend to form other element and the
nuclear equation is given as:
• Example 1: Uranium-238 undergoes an alpha
decay to produce thorium-234
 Example 1: Carbon-14 undergoes beta
decay to produce nitrogen-14
Solution: →
Solution:

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 44

 • Example 2: Iodine-131 emits beta particles to • The effect tend to form other element and the
produce xenon-131 nuclear equation is given by:

Solution: →
Chemical reaction with alpha particle

Properties of Beta Particles

Example 1: Cobalt-60 by emitting a beta

 It is electron in nature particle to produce nickel-60 and
gamma rays
 It is a negatively charged particle. It has
relative charge of -1
 It has high kinetic energy electrons
 It has moderate penetrating power due to its Example 2: Iodine-131 emits beta particles to
low mass produce xenon-131 and gamma rays
 It can be stopped by a few mm of metals like
aluminium, Plastic, glass, light metals etc
 It has moderate ionizing power due to its low
mass
 It is emitted up to speed of 0.9C where C = 3 x Properties of Gama Rays
8
10 m/s  They are electromagnetic waves in nature
 It affects/blackens photographic plate (film)  They are neutral in charge i.e have zero relative
 It causes some materials to fluorescence i.e. to charge
give out light  They have very high frequency electromagnetic
 It has smaller mass and charge than the alpha radiation
particle  They have very high penetrating power since
 It can be deflected by either electric or they have no mass
magnetic field  They can be stopped by a thick layer of steel
N.B or concrete, dense metal, but even a few cm of
 Beta particles have less ionizing powers dense lead doesn't stop all of it
compared to alpha particles. This is because
beta particles have smaller mass than alpha
 They have lowest ionizing power since have no
mass
particles
 They have no mass since they are rays
Gamma Rays (𝛾) (radiations)
• Are electromagnetic waves with very short  They move with a speed of light i.e 3 x 108 m/s
wavelengths and high frequencies
 They affect/blacken photographic plate (film)
• It is released during emission of alpha or beta
particle (γ). It is also called gamma radiation  They cause some material to fluorescence i.e.
to give out light

Effect on Nucleus
 They cannot be deflected by electric field or
magnetic field
• When a radioactive nucleus emits gamma rays
its atomic number and mass number remain the
Consider the figure below showing the
same.
penetrating powers
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 45
 Following this stage 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 decayed to
stage via and .

-particle only
(a)Write balanced equation of the stage decay
process from and determine
the value of x, y, z and q

(ANS Isotopes is Radon; 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 and

(b) Identify isotopes and isobars

𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏, Isobars is 𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 and 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏)

𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐
The figure below shows the deflection in an
5.
92, emits two 𝛼-particles and two 𝛽-particles and
electric field A uranium nucleus, U-238 with atomic number

finally forms a thorium (Th) nucleus. Write the

nuclear equation for
this process

6. Radioactive uranium 23892𝑈 emits an 𝛼-particle to

become thorium. Thorium emits a 𝛽-particle to

𝛽-particle. What are the atomic number, mass

become praseodymium which then emits another

number and number of final atom produced?

(ANS: Uranium has atomic number 92
 Alpha particles deflected toward south pole, beta therefore the final product is uranium)
particles deflected toward north pole while
gamma rays is not deflected
Application of Natural Radioactivity (Radio
Individual task – 3:2 isotopes)

1. Uranium 23892𝑈 emits an alpha particle to become In hospital (medicine)

equation 23892𝑈 → 𝐴𝑍𝑋 + 𝐴𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒.

another element, as shown in the following (a) Gamma rays from cobalt 60 are used
to sterilize surgical equipment
Determine the value of A and Z (ANS: A = 234 ,
Z = 90) (b) Radioactive sodium is used to
2. The element Thorium (Th) has atomic number 90 monitor blood circulation
and mass number 234. The element decays by (c) Used to trace and treat maligned
emitting a beta particle to form Protactinium (Pa). growth. E.g. cancer and tumors (d)
Write a Used to measure correct patient dosages
nuclear equation for this decay of radioactive pharmaceuticals (e) Used
in molecular biology and genetics
research.
3. The following reaction is part of a radioactive
series. Identify the reaction x and determine the (f) Radioactive iodine 131 is used to monitor the
function of thyroid gland
𝟖𝟑𝑨 𝟖𝟒𝑨 𝒁𝑸
values of c and z
𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝑪

(ANS: x is beta particle, c = 206, z = 82) In industry

4. (ii) Define the terms isotope

(a) Used to measure and control the thickness or
(ii) Uranium decayed to Polonium density of metal and plastic sheets (b) Used in
-particle emission at each
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 46
 preservation of food by killing microorganisms that  Artificial radioactivity occurs when an atom is
cause spoilage bombed with an accelerator or exposing it to
slow moving neutrons in a nuclear reactor
In agriculture
Method of Inducing Radioactivity

(a) It is used to kill weeds  Neutron activation

(b) It is used to check cracking in pipes used for  Photonuclear reaction
irrigation purpose
Neutron Activation
(c) It is used to measure the moisture of materials
stored in soils • Is the process whereby neutron radiation
induces radioactivity in materials
(d) It is used to measure amount of moisture
content stored in grains and control pests • Example: Stable cobalt-59 undergo neutron
radiation to emit cobalt-60

In transport
(a) It is used to inspect passenger’s
luggage before boarding the plane (b) It
is used to inspect airline luggage for Photonuclear Reaction
hidden explosives
• Is the radioactivity induced by bombarding the
target nucleus with high energy X-rays or
Science Field gamma rays
(a) It is important aid to biomedical researchers • Example: In each of the nucleus reaction
studying the cellular functions and bone listen below what is the atomic
formation in mammals number, mass number and a name of the
particle produced?
(b) It is used in research in red blood cell survival
studies
(c) It is used to tell researchers whether oil wells (i) Boron 𝐵 bombarded with a
neutron gives lithium 73𝐿𝑖 particle
10
5
are plugged by sand or not
(d) It is used in biological research, agriculture, (ii) Aluminium 2713𝐴𝑙 bombarded
pollution control, and archeology (e) It is used by 𝛼-particle to give silicon 3014𝑆𝑖
to analyze electroplating solutions particle
(iii) Sodium 2311𝑁𝑎 is bombarded
by 𝛼-particle to give aluminium
Archaeological field.
13𝐴𝑙 particle
(a) It is used for carbon – dating to determine 27
the age of ancient remains
(iv) Chlorine is bombarded
Artificial Radioactivity
with proton gives Sulphur
Artificial radioactivity is the emission of particle
radiation due to bombardment of small and
stable nuclei by high energetic particles.
ANS: (i) Particle is alpha (helium) (ii)
It is also called induced radioactivity or Atom produced is proton
man – made radioactivity
(iii) Atom produced is neutron (iv)
In artificial radioactivity, the nucleus must Two electrons are produced
be excited by injection of a neutron for
radioactivity to start
Application of Artificial Radioactivity
How Artificial Radioactivity Occurs?
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 47
  Neutron activation is one of the most sensitive  Nuclear fission of heavy element is a highly
and accurate methods of traceelement analysis exothermic reaction that is why it is used as a
source of energy in form of heat
 Neutron activation uses nuclear reactors for
nuclear energy generation  If neutron is bombarded with atom the decay
will continue until stable atom form, since
 Neutron activation uses nuclear reactors for
neutron decreases to finish. This chain is called
making nuclear bombs
chain reaction
Hazards/Effects of Nuclear Reaction
Application of Nuclear Fission
 It is used in nuclear power plants to generate
 Skin burning and Redding when exposed in electricity
radiation  It is used in making nuclear bombs
 Death by killing human body cells
Nuclear Fusion
 Cancerous tumors
• Is the process whereby lighter nuclei joining
 Genetic mutation together to form heavier nucleus.

Precaution to be taken from hazard

• Example: Nuclear fusion of deuterium and
tritium yield helium, neutron and
heat energy
 Limiting the time of exposure
 Increase the distance from the source of → + energy NB:
radiation  Nuclear fusion of heavy element than iron or
 Using materials such water, concrete or lead to nickel is endothermic reaction
absorb the radiation  Nuclear fusion of lighter element is exothermic
 Hold radioactive material by using mechanical reaction
tong  Nuclear fusion occur naturally in stars
 Keep it out of the environment a material  Nuclear fusion occur artificially in human
containing the radiation source enterprises

Types of Nuclear Reaction Application of Nuclear

Fusion o It is used
in nuclear power
Nuclear fission
plants to generate
Nuclear fusion electricity
o It is used in making nuclear bombs. For example,
hydrogen bomb

Carbon – 14 Dating
Nuclear Fission  Is the scientific method which is used to
determine age of dead living and nonliving
• Is the process whereby unstable nucleus of organism
an atom split into two or more smaller
nuclei.
𝑈 𝐾𝑟
Half-life of Radioactive Nucleus (Decay)
•
+ 14056𝐵𝑎 + 2 0𝑛
238 94
Example: 92 → 36
1
NB:
• Half-life is the time required for one half of
the nuclei present to decay.
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 48
 • It is represented by the symbol (𝑡1/2) But: Decay constant, is given by
• Each radioactive material has its own half-life
(Where by ln2
= 0.693)

• Generally the final amount remaining after

time t is given by

𝒕
� = 𝒐𝒓 � = � 𝑶 𝟐
�𝑶 ( −𝒕𝟏/ 𝟐)
Activity
• Is the rate of disintegration of radioactive �𝟐𝒏
material with time � � �
OR
Where by N Final mass/activity/Amount
• Activity is the number of atoms decayed per remaining after time t
unit time N O Initial (Original)
amount/fraction/activity/percentage
• Activity also is called count rate. SI unit of
t Total time taken/Time taken to
activity is count rate per second, (c.p.s)
decay t1/2 Half life

Mathematically Decaying
constant

NB:
 Negative means as time goes the number of
atoms decrease
 Activity is directly proportional to the original
number of atoms presents
The half life of a radioactive element can be
Mathematically calculated by using
Activity (A) Original number of
atoms presents (N) 1. Linear method
– removing the • This involves dividing the initial mass/
proportionality constant percentage /fraction by two after each half life 
In general, If No is the initial mass and t1/2 the
half life then:

�𝑶 �𝑶 � 𝑶N O
But:

𝟐 𝟒 𝟖
(
Proportionality/decay Example: The count rate of a radioactive indium falls
constant) from 3200 counts per minute to
200 counts per minutes in 220 minutes. Determine the
half – life of the radioactive isotope Soln:

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 49

 3200
1600 800 400 Consider the fig below
200
Total number of half lives = 4
Total time taken = 220 minutes

2.
Formu
la method 
The formula
used is:
𝒕
𝟏 𝒕𝟏/𝟐
= ( ) 𝑶 = 𝟐𝒏
𝟐
� �
Whereby;

𝑶
𝑹
�
� �𝑶
�
whereby: � • �1T1/2 = First half life, 2T1/2 =Second half life
and 3T1/2 =Third half life period Example
1. From the figure below determine the half
life
Example: If a radioactive isotope has a half –life of
2.5 hours, how long will it take for 256 grams of the
isotope to decay to 32 grams? Soln:

From:

3.
Graph
ical method
• This method involves plotting a decay curve,
then using the curve to work out the half life

Radioactive Decay Curve 4. Isotope has a half-life of 1min and 1000 nuclei
initially present, after 1min will decay to 500 nuclei,
next 1min will decay to 250 nuclei, and next 1min
will decay to 125 nuclei and so on Graphically
• Is the exponential curve drawn with number of
atoms on the vertical axis and time for
disintegration on the horizontal axis
(Is a graph of either mass, count rate,
activity, percentage e.t.c against time)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 50

 (ANS: If the half –life is long/large, the
activity remains at a very high level for a very
long time resulting in a health hazard)
7.
two alpha and beta particles to form 𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟑𝒀.
A radioactive isotope M decays by emitting

What is the atomic number of M. After 224

days, 1/16 of mass of M remained. Determine
the half life of M.(ANS: Atomic number =
87, t1/2 = 56 days)

Detection of Nuclear Radiations

 Nuclear radiation is detected by its ability of
ionizing the atom/molecules of gas passed
through the detector, we have about many
NB: devices but the first-three are the common
detectors includes
o Half-life is the same for isotope
(a) Geiger Muller tube (GM tube)
o Half-life is independent to physical state,
temperature and pressure o Radioactive
(b) Spark counter
isotope never decay to zero value (c) Cloud chamber

Individual task – 3:3 (d) Photographic plate (film)

1. A sample of a radioactive contains 120 nuclei. (e) Bubble chamber
Calculate the number of half-life it takes for
the sample to decay so that there are only 15 (f) Gold leaf electroscope
nuclei left undecayed (ANS: n =3)
2. What is the half life of a radioactive material if Geiger Muller Tube
its activity falls to 1/8 of its value in 3360  Is a device which detects radiations by ionization
seconds of noble gas such as argon in a closed tube
3. The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. A sample
contains 800g of iodine-131. How much of the
sample will remaining undecayed after 40 days
(ANS: 25 g)
4. The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. A sample
contains 16g of iodine-131
(a) Draw a graph to represents
(b) From the graph determine mass
of the sample which will remain Composition of Gm Tube
undecayed after 20 days  Hollow tube consists of noble gas (argon)
5. Archaeologist can determine the age of coated metallic film maintained at a high
organic matter by measuring the proportion of negative voltage relative to the collector
carbon -14 present in a sample. Assuming that  Mica thin window at one end where radiation
carbon -14 has a half –life of 5600 allowed passing through mica during detection
years ,Calculate the age of a piece of wood
found to contain  A collector wire at the centre of tube
1/8 as much carbon -14 as in a living material
(ANS: t = 16 800 yrs) Mechanism of Gm Tube
6. Explain why long half –life of nuclear waste
products presents a health hazard
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 51
 • When radiation enters the tube, it causes • In calculations the Background count rate is
electrons to be ejected from the gaseous atoms treated as zero. i.e. not allowed (it is subtracted
and are then accelerated toward the positively– from recorded count rate)
charged collector wire
Individual task – 3:4
• Then an electron strikes the wire causing a brief
pulse of electric current to be produced 1. The activity of a radioactive element when
measured using the Geiger Muller tube was
• Finally the current can cause a ‘’click’’ in a found to be 63 counts per minute. Given that
speaker or be counted by a scalar the background radiation was 8 counts per
minute, determine
Background radiation (a) The actual activity of the radioactive
element (Actual Activity = 63 – 8=55
• Is the natural radiation that is always present in c.p.m)
the environment (b) The half –life of the element if the activity
• It comes from (sources) the earth’s crust, the dropped from 128 counts/minute to 23
atmosphere, cosmic rays and radioisotopes counts per minute in 6 hours (ANS: t =
2hrs)
Background Count Rate 2. In an experiment to determine the half –life of
the radioactive element, the following data was
• Are the radiations present in the environment obtained.
even when there is no apparent radioactive
Activity (counts) per minute 52 44 34
material around
Time (minutes) 0 0.5 1.0

OR Is the number of counts recorded by a radiation

detector from background radiation (a) Given that the background radiation is 10
counts per minute, Plot a decay curve for
the element
OR Is the evidence or effect on a detector of radiation (b) Estimate from your graph, the half –life of
caused by background radiation the element (t1/2 = 1.15 minutes)
Source of Background Count Rate
3. A Geiger Muller tube connected to rate meter is
• Earth’s radioactive impurities hold near a radioactive source, the corrected
count rate(allowing for Background count rate
• Residue of nuclear radiation present in G.M.T
is 400 c.p.s. 40 min the corrected count rate is
• Cosmic rays escape from outer space through 25c.p.s. What is the half-life of the source?
ozone layer NB: (ANS t1/2 = 10 min)
• A GM tube left well away from a radioactive 4. A rate meter records a background count rate of
source will still count some radioactive 2 c.p.s, when a radioactive source is held near
emissions (The background count). the count rate is 162 c.p.s. if the half-life of the
source is 5 min. what will the recorded count
• If the GM tube is placed close to a radioactive
rate be 20 min? (ANS N = 10 c.p.s)
source, it will count the emissions from the
source and the background count
• Background radiation count must be subtracted
from the total count registered by a detector to
obtain the actual /correct count of the source
Spark Counter
• Example if the background was 5 Bq and the  Spark counter is the device used to detect the
count recorded is 45 Bq, then the count from presence of radiation based on their ability to ionize
the source is ( 45 – 5 = 40 Bq) dry air molecules by producing sparks Diagram

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 52

Composition of Spark Counter
 Piece of wire gauze
 Long wire Composition of Cloud Chamber
 Power supply with voltage below level required
to cause a spark
 Felt ring soaked in alcohol: to supply alcohol
vapour to the chamber
Mechanism of Spark Counter
 When radiation pass through dry air cause dry air  Radioactive source: produce radiation and
to ionize which increases conductivity of dry cause ionization of vapour
air allowing electrons to pass through them to  Dry ice: uses to cool the alcohol vapour until it
form sparks is saturated
NB:
The number of sparks produced depends on the types of  Alcohol vapor condensation: to form liquid
radiation emitted droplets around the ionized molecule
 When Alpha ( ) particles are emitted the  Lamp: uses to light track which cause to view
largest number of sparks are produced due to it clear
highest ionization effect  Foam: support dry ice
 When Beta (β) particles are emitted the least
 Plastic lid: the eyepiece
number of sparks are produced due to moderate
ionization effect
Mechanism of Cloud Chamber
 When Gamma (γ) rays are emitted the few
number of sparks are produced due to lowest
• The air inside chamber is ionized by the
ionization effect radiation in its path.
• This leads to the formation of air ions
Wilson Cloud Chamber • Alcohol vapor condenses on these air ions
• Is a device used to detect presence of radiation forming droplets along the path ie forms some
tracks
by producing tracks of light
• It is sealed environment containing a • These droplets/tracks are visible and so
supersaturated vapour of water, alcohol or any radiation is detected
other compound that can be kept near its • Each radiation forms a definite pattern. The
condensation point by regulating the radiation is identified by analyzing the nature
temperature of the chamber. Supersaturated of the pattern formed
vapour of water refers to a vapour of a
compound (water) that has a higher (partial)
pressure than the vapour pressure of that
compound (water).

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Individual task – 3:5 special nursing radiations can be dropped (ANS : t
A snap shot photograph of a cloud chamber shows 40 = 16 days)
tracks well defined alpha particle track. A second snap 2. The half life of iodine – 131 is 8 days .A sample
shot taken 2 min later shows only 10 tracks. What is the
contains 16 g of iodine – 131
half-life of the alpha source? (ANS: T1/2 = 1 min)
(a)Draw a graph to represent the decay of the sample
Photographic Film (b)From the graph determine mass of the sample
which will remain undecayed after 20 days (ANS:
• Radiation exposes the film
(a) Draw graph (b) 3g)
Bubble Chamber 3. A sample contains 800 g of iodine – [Link]
much of the sample will remain undecayed after 40
• It is similar to a cloud chamber but bubbles are days ? (The half life of iodine – 131 is 8 days)
formed in a liquid along the path of the (ANS: 25 g) 4. Isotope A has a half – life of 36 s
radiation. It detect alpha and beta particles and decays by emission of alpha particle to Isotope
B . Isotope B has a half life of 18 s and decays by
Gold Leaf Electroscope emission of beta particle to isotope C which is
stable .A sample initially contains 120 mg of pure
• Charged leaf of the electroscope collapses Isotope A. After 72 s :
when a radioactive source is brought nearby.
Then the air surrounding the leaves become (a)What mass of Isotope A remains?
ionized, the charge on the leaf can “leak” away (b)What mass of Isotope B has been
produced?
Advantage of diffusion cloud chamber detector over (c) Of the mass of Isotope B produced, how
charged electroscope much remains?
• It can detect alpha, beta and gamma radiations (d)What mass of Isotope C has been
unlike a charged electroscope which can only produced?
detect alpha particles (e)After which of the following times would
Difference between X-Rays and Gamma Rays there be less than 1 mg of isotope A
 x-rays are caused by energy transition in remaining? ((a) 120 s (b) 160 s
electron while gamma rays are caused by (c) 240 s (d) 280 s)
nuclear reaction within the nuclear 5. The half life of Technetium 99m is 6h. If 12 mg of
 metal (e.g. tungsten) used to produce x-rays not Technetium 99m is injected into a patient and starts
decaying while metal used to produce gamma to decay into Technetium 99m .Calculate the
rays decaying amount of Technetium 99m present in the patient
after 24h ANS:
 Wavelength of x-rays determined by nature of
target and operating voltage while gamma rays 6. After 24 days, 2 mg of an original 128 mg sample
depending on the nuclear for their wavelength remain .What is the half – life of the sample?
(ANS: 4 days)
 X-rays are emitted by stable atoms of heavy
nucleus while gamma rays formed nucleus of
7. U – 238 has a half life of 4.46 x 109 years .How
energetically unstable to became stable much U – 238 should be present in a sample 2.5 x
109 years old .If 2 g was present initially ? (ANS:
1.36 g remain)
Class Activity – 3
8. How long will it take for a 40 g sample of I–131
(Half – life = 8.04 days) to decay to 1/100 its
original mass? (ANS 53.4 days)
1. A patient suffering from cancer of thyroid glands is
given a dose of radioactive iodine 131, with a half- 9. If a radioactive element has a half – life of 40
life of 8 days, to combat diseases. He is temporarily minutes. Initial count rate was 1000 per minute ,
radioactive and his nurse must be changed regularly then how long will it take for count rate to drop to
to project them. If his radiation is initially 4 times 125 per minutes?(ANS:120min) 10. A particular
the acceptable level, how long is it before the radioactive has a half-life of 2.0 hours. A sample
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 54
 gives a count rate of 2400 per second at 11:00 am. second. 40 min later the corrected count rate is 25
When will the count have dropped to approximately counter rates per second. What is the half life of the
300 per second in the same counting system? source? (Half life = 10 minutes)
11. 8 x 108 atoms of Radon were separated from 19. The rate os disintegration of a radioactive
Radium. The half life of Radon is substance is recorded after every 3 days ,as shown
3.82 days. How many atoms will disintegrate after in the table below .Back ground radiation is 10
7.64 days? (ANS: = 6 x 108 atoms) counts/day .Plot an appropriate graph and use it to
determine the half – life of the substance .Show
12. The half life of a radioactive element is 10
how you obtained your answer
minute. Calculate how it takes for 90% of a
given mass of the element to decay.(ANS: Time(days) 0 3 6
Therefore, time = 33min) Counts/day 123 95 66
13. A radioactive material has a half life of 16
days. How long will it take for the count rate to
20. The following symbol represents an isotpe of
nickel: 6028𝑁𝑖
fall from 160 counts /min to 20counts/min?
(ANS: t= 48 min) (i)
What do the superscript and subscript represent?
14. The half life of the Bismuth is 20min what
(ii) How many protons and neutrons are there in the
fraction of a sample of this radioactive bismuth nickel isotope?
remain after 2 hours? (ANS: 21. The half – life of Thorium – 234 is 24
days .Calculate the mass remaining
unchanged of 0.64 g of the substance after
15. A radioactive nucleus is denoted by the symbol (a) 48 days (b) 72 days (c) 96 days

write down the composition of 22. Chlorine exists in two forms – chlorine – 35 and
the nucleus at the end of each of the following chlorine – 37 .The atomic
stages of disintegration. number of chlorine is 17
(a) The emission of an alpha particle. (b) The (a)What name is given to different forms of the
further emission of a beta particle. same element ?
(ANS
(b)Write down the number of protons and
neutrons in each type of chlorine atom
16. The count rate recorded by Geiger Muller tube 23. Radon has a half – life of 91 h 12 min .How long
and counter close to an alpha particle source is will it take until only 1/8 0f a sample of radon
400 per minute after allowing for the back remains unchanged ?
ground count. If the half life of the source is 4
days. 24. A radioisotope has a half – life of 8 hours. At 12
(i)What will be the count rate 12 days later? noon on 2 march a GM tube measures an activity
of 2400 Bq.
(ii) What should be determined over period of
several minute rather than over a few second? (a)Calculate the activity at 4.00 am on 3 march
(ANS: C = 50 count/min, This is because the rate (b)Determine the time at which an activity of
of emission was so fast). approximately 75 Bq will be measured
17. A rate meter record a background count rate of 25. The limit of carbon dating is about 50 000 years.
2 counts per second when a radioactive source Explain why?
is held near the count rate is 162 counts per
second. If the half life of the source is 5 minute 26. Archaeologists are analysing ancient bones from a
what will be the recorded count rate be 20min human settlement. They discover that a sample of
later? bone has one – sixteenth of the carbon – 14 of
(ANS: Therefore C = 10counts /sec, Hence the modern human bones. Determine the age of the
recorded count rate = 10 + 2 = 12 counts/sec) 18. A setllement (Given that the half – life of acrbon – 14
Geiger Muller tube connected to a rate meter is held is 5700 years)
near a radioactive source. The correct count rate
allowing for background count is 400 counts per
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27. A radioactive material has a half life of 2 minutes. 31. State two ways in which X – rays differ from
Explain what that means . Determine how much of gamma rays
the material will be left after 8 minutes 32. A radioactive nucleus is denoted by the symbol
28. A radioactive source is known to emit one type of 𝟐𝟖𝟒
𝟗𝟎 𝑿 Write down the composition of the
radiation only, i.e ∝, 𝛽 𝑜𝑟 𝛾. The source was nucleus at the end of the following stages of
placed in a holder as shown in the figure below , disintegration
first without a magnet and then a magnet was (i) Emission of an alpha (∝)particle
introduced . A detector was placed at positions
1,2 and 3 and the count rates recorded in the table (ii) Further emission of beta(𝛽) particle
below (iii) Further emission of a gamma (𝛾)
radiation
33. A particular radioactive has a half – life of 2.0
hours. A sample gives a count of
2400 per second at 11:00 a.m. When will the count
have dropped to approximately
300 per second in the same counting system?
(ANS: will be 5:00 p.m)
34. Identify the type of radiation from the evidence
supplied below:
(a) Absorbed in a few centimeters of air
deflected by a magnetic field. (b) Very
penetrating rays, not deflected by a
Table magnetic field, harmful to living things
Counts per minute (c) Mostly absorbed by a few millimeters of
Detector position Magnet not present alluminium, deflected by a magnetic field
Magnet present
(d) Has a wavelength of several meters, an aerial
is required for the transmission of these
1 26 295
waves
2 300 28
35. Complete the following decay equation
3 28 26

(e) What is the reason for placing the two

metal plates in front of the source? 36. Determine the superscripts and subscripts of the
(f) What is the value of the background following
counts per minute? (ANS: 27 c.p.m)
(g) Define the background count
29. A radioactive element has an initial count rate
of 1200 counts per minute measured by a scale
and this falls to 150 counts per minutes in 15 hours 37. s
(a) Determine the half – life of the element
(ANS: Half life = 5 hours)
(b) If the initial number of atoms in another
sample of this element is 3.0 x 1020, how
many atoms will have decayed in 25 hours?
(ANS: 9.375 x 10 18 atoms)
30. Give any four uses of cathode ray
oscilloscope(CRO)

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  They travel in straight lines.

Topic – 4 Thermionic Emission  They carry negative charges.

 They cause fluorescence (glow) when they
strike materials.
• Thermionic emission: is the discharge of
electrons from the surfaces of heated
 They have energy and momentum.
materials.  They are deflected by electrical and magnetic
OR fields (toward South Pole).
• Thermionic emission is the process by which  Cathode rays can ionize gas atoms if the
free electrons are emitted from the surface of a potential difference is large and the gas
metal when external heat energy is applied pressure is not high.
• N.B The rate of escaping (discharging) of  They can penetrate thin sheets of paper or
electrons from a metal surface increases with metal foils depending on their energy.
the increase in temperature  They affect photographic plates.
 They produce X-rays when stopped suddenly
How Thermionic Emissions Occur?
• Thermionic emission occurs when kinetic The Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
energy of electrons from the surface of the • Is an evacuated vacuum tube containing
heated metal overcome the work function of the electron gun used to accelerate and deflect the
metal electron beam(s) onto the phosphorescent
screen to create the image
OR
Work Function
• Is an electronic tube designed to display
• Is the minimum kinetic energy needed by an electrical data (see the fig. below)
electron for it to escape completely from the
surface of the metal
OR
• Is the minimum energy needed to remove an
electron from a solid to a point in the vacuum
immediately outside the solid surface.

Types of Thermionic Emission

• Cathode rays
• X- rays

Cathode Rays
 Are fast moving electrons emitted from cathode
moving to the anode in a cathode ray tube Why Cathode-Ray Tube is evacuated?

• Cathode-Ray Tube is evacuated so as to

minimize air or electric resistance in order to
make electrons travel without colliding with
other particles

OR The tube is evacuated so as to prevent the

Properties of Cathode Rays electrons from losing their energy as a result of
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interacting with air particles before reaching the • This controls the brightness (intensity) of the
screen beam by controlling the rate of flow of
electrons
What would happen if CRT not vacuums?
• If gas is maintained in the tube (at atmospheric
or high pressure), the tube will behave like an (d)Accelerating anode
open circuit (insulator), when p.d across it is
strong enough it will cause an electric spark
• This is a metal disk maintained at a high
positive voltage of 5 000 V to 50 000 V used to
which will ionize the air and make it conduct
pull electrons from cathode to focusing anode
electricity
• Therefore if the gas is maintained in the tube
there is no production of cathode rays thus the (e)Focusing anode
fluoroscope screen will not form image NB:
• This is a metal disk maintained at a high
• Conduction in gases and response of the tube, positive voltage of 5 000 V to 50 000 V used to
depend on pressure of gas. At atmospheric pull electrons received from accelerating anode
pressure of a gas will behave simply as an to deflection system up to fluoresce screen
insulator

2. Deflection system
Components of the Cathode-Ray Tube
• Electron Gun
• It is used to deflect the electron beam either
vertically or horizontally
• Deflection system
• It is used to control the image produced by
• Fluorescent Screen controlling the position that the electrons hit the
screen

1. Electron Gun
• It consists of horizontal (x) deflection plates
and vertical (y) deflection plates
• It is used to produce electrons at a high fixed
velocity. (a)Horizontal (X) Deflection Plates
• This is done through the process of thermionic
• They are used to deflect the electron beam
emission
horizontally (left or right).
• It consists of Heater, cathode, control grid,
(b)Vertical (Y) Deflection Plates
accelerating and focusing anode.
(a)Heater • They are used to deflect the beam vertically (up
or down)
• Its heating element is used to heat cathode to
high temperatures from 800°C to several 3. Fluorescent Screen
thousand degrees Celsius either directly by an
electric current or indirectly • This is the display component of the CRT where
image displayed.
• It is phosphor coated so that it emits light wherever
(b)Cathode the electrons strike it NB:
• This is a metal filament such as tungsten heated • The horizontal and vertical deflection plates can
by electron gun resulting metal electrons attains direct the beam towards any point on the screen. In
enough kinetic energy than a Work Function of some devices, the electrically charged plates are
a metal and escape the cathode by thermionic replaced by poles of electromagnets.
emission
• The deflection plates move the electron beam to
different points on the screen resulting in the
(c) Control grid formation of an image for a short time about (20-1
sec) or 0.05 Hz
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 The image is formed by varying the intensity of the
Operation of the Cathode-Ray Tube electron beam that strikes the different phosphors NB:
• The intensity of the electron beam can
be varied by changing the voltage on
Cathode is heated indirectly by a heater (electric gun)
the grid located between the cathode
until thermal electron emission. The electrons emitted
and the anode
are controlled by grid towards anode. After travelling
through the hole in the anode the electrons hit the • The grid has a negative charge and so
luminescent screen, causing them to slow down and repels the electrons coming from the
excite the phosphor in the screen to fluorescence cathode
• By changing the grid’s voltage it
Applications of the Cathode -Ray Tube allows more or fewer electrons to pass
on to the anode and ultimately to the
 computer display (Monitor) screen
 Televisions (TV) • Some color televisions use a single
 As a display device in RADAR electron gun whereas others use three
 cathode-ray oscilloscopes (CRO) • The process where plate voltage
(signal) converted to image on
Televisions (TV) fluorescent screen is called scan
• It may be black and white television or coloured • The horizontal and vertical motion of
television electrons towards fluorescent screen is
called scanning

The Computer Displays

• Computer displays work in the same
way as the television

The Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

• The cathode-ray oscilloscope is
typically used to display signals in
Operation of black and white television wave forms. It operates in a way
similar to a television
The signal is first amplified and then applied to the Operation of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
vertical deflection plates to deflect the beam vertically.
At the same time, a voltage is applied to the horizontal • The signal is first amplified and then
deflection plates thus causing the beam to be deflected applied to the vertical deflection plates
horizontally. The image is formed on the screen by to deflect the beam vertically. At the
varying the brightness at thousands of points on the same time, a voltage is applied to the
screen. The brightness of a point on the screen depends horizontal deflection plates thus
on the number of electrons that strike it causing the beam to be deflected
horizontally at a uniform (constant)
Operation of colored television, rate. The signal applied to the vertical
plates is thus displayed on the screen as
a function of time. The horizontal axis
The signal is first amplified and then applied to the
serves as a uniform time scale. The
vertical deflection plates to deflect the beam vertically.
screen of the CRO is covered with a
At the same time, a voltage is applied to the horizontal
grid to facilitate measurements.
deflection plates thus causing the beam to be deflected
horizontally. The image is formed on the screen
(phosphors of primary colour: red, green and blue). Uses of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

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  Measuring frequencies • The cathode is concave shaped so that it can
 Measuring Voltages focus the electrons onto the target
 Measuring phase differences • The anode is made of a good conductor of heat
such as copper. This is used to ensure that the
 Measuring small time intervals
heat generated when electron hits the target is
 Comparison of frequencies quickly conducted away from the target

Advantages of the C.R.O for use as a Voltmeter

• The target is made of tungsten because tungsten
has a high melting point therefore can
• It can measure both direct and alternating withstand the heat generated without melting
current • Cooling in X –ray tube is enhanced by
• It can measure very large voltages without (i) The
getting damage coolin
• It does not take any current due to its high g fins
resistance and therefore does not interfere with outsid
the circuit e the
tube
(ii)The oil circulating through the channels in
the copper anode
(iii)The anode made of a good conductor of
heat (copper)
X-Rays • The tube is highly evacuated so that electrons
• Are electromagnetic waves with very high don’t collide with air particles on their way to
frequencies and short wavelengths the target. The air particles can cause the
electrons to lose some of their kinetic energy

How are they produced?

• X –ray tube is surrounded by lead shield .This
is used to absorb and stray X-rays
• X-rays are produced whenever fast moving
electrons are sopped suddenly by metallic
targets

The X-Ray tube

• Is a vacuum tube that converts electrical input
power into X–Rays
OR

• Is a device for generating X- Rays by

accelerating electrons to high energies and
causing them to strike a metal target from
which the X–Rays are emitted
OR
Alternative diagram
• Is the highly evacuated glass bulb contains
cathode and anode made of platinum and
tungsten or heavy metal of high melting point

X – Rays tube consists of:-

• Heater – produce heat.

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 • They have high energy and more penetrating
power

Differences between hard and soft x-rays

Hard x-rays Soft x-rays
Produced by high accelerating potential Produced by lo
Have shorter wavelength (high frequency) Have longer wa
They have higher energy They have less
Have higher penetrating power Have lower pen
N.B
How it works to produce X –rays? • The quality (hardness or softness) of X-rays is
controlled by the potential difference between
• Current flows through the filament, which then
the filament and the target. The higher the
becomes hot and electrons are then emitted by
potential difference, the harder the X –rays
the process of thermionic emission
produced
• The emitted electrons are then accelerated
• The intensity (amount) of X –rays produced is
towards the target (anode) by the high potential
controlled by the heating current .The higher
difference between the anode and the cathode
the heating current , the more the electrons
• When the electrons hit the tungsten target, they emitted and hence the higher the intensity of
are stopped and X–rays are produced the X-rays
• Only 0.5% of the kinetic energy of the
electrons is converted to X –Rays. The rest is Properties of X-Rays
converted to heat  They travel in straight line at the velocity of
light
Energy changes occurring in the X –ray tube during the  They cannot be deflected by electric or
production of X –rays magnetic field
• Electric energy → 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 
𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
They can produce fluorescence

𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑿 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
 They affect photographic film
 They penetrate matter but depend on density of
Types of X-Rays matter  They ionize gases.
• Soft X-rays
Application (Uses) of X-Rays
• Hard X-rays

1. In the medical field soft X-rays are used

Soft X-Rays
• Are the X-rays that produced by lower
• To detect broken or fractured bones or some
disease in soft tissue
accelerating potential with longer wavelength
and lower range of frequency • Treatment of cancer
• They have less energy and less penetrating • To detect growth inside the body
power • To detect foreign objects in the body

Hard X-Rays
2. Crystallography: Experimental study of the
• Are the X-ray produced by high accelerating arrangement of atoms in solid (study
potential with short wavelength and higher of arrangement of crystals)
range of frequency.
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3. Astronomy: X-rays emitted by celestial objects are 6. (a) Write two properties of (i) X rays
used in observational astronomy (ii) cathode rays
(b)(i) Give any four uses of cathode ray
4. X-ray microscopic analysis: involves the use of
oscilloscope (CRO)
electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray band to
(ii) State two ways in which x – rays differ
produce image of very small objects
from gamma rays
5. X-rays fluorescence: technique in which X-rays 7. (a) Explain briefly the following
are generated within a specimen and detected. The
outgoing energy of the identified composition of (i) Thermionic emission
the sample (ii) The production of a stream of
6. Security installation: They are used for non- electrons in cathode ray oscilloscope
(C.R.T) (b) What method in
invasive security searches at airports and seaports
a device using the thermionic emission
7. In industries: principle ensures that the
electrons produced
(i) It is used to inspect metal-casting and (i) Do not accumulate at the source? (ii)
welded joints for hidden faults Reach their range undeviated?
(ii) They are used to sterilize surgical (iii) Travel without meet other forms of
equipment before packing particles on their way to the target?
8. (a) (i) Explain why cathode ray tube (CRT)
Effect of X – Rays to Human Beings are evacuated (ii) What happens to
 Destroy body cells and can cause cancer the CRT when a gas is maintained?
(iii) If gas is maintained in a CRT, will the
 Can cause mutation due to destroy of genitals image be formed onto the screen? Explain (b) In
the production of X – rays what are roles of:
Precautions (i) Low voltage (ii) High
• Exposure to X –rays should be limited to short voltage? (iii) Tungsten target? (c)
time intervals How is hard X – rays produced?
• Concrete walls should be used for rooms that 9. (a) (i) Define thermionic emission
store X- rays tubes (ii) What is X – rays? (iii)
Mention two uses of X – rays
• X –rays tubes should be surrounded by lead
shield to protect operators from stray X–rays (b)With the aid of a diagram, explain how X – rays are
produced
(c) Draw a well labeled diagram of a cathode ray
Class Activity
oscilloscope.
1. (a) State one way in which cathode rays differ
from electromagnetic waves and describe an 10. State one property of X –rays which makes it
experiment which illustrates this difference possible to detect fractured bones
(b) Draw a labeled diagram of a longitudinal 11. The penetrating power of x –rays is normally
section view of the cathode ray oscilloscope varied depending on the intended use. Explain
tube showing its main features briefly how this is done
5. (a) (i) What are the two types of X – rays? 12. X –rays are passed through the air
(ii) X – Rays are said to have harmful effect surrounding a charged electroscope. State
to human beings when used for a long what is observed.
time. Explain the effect that X – rays cause to human 13. How can the intensity of X-rays in an X –ray
beings (b) Describe how X – rays are
tube be increased
produced in X – ray tube
(c) Show the three main parts of cathode ray 14. The figure below shows a circuit of a special
type of a cathode ray tube
oscilloscope on a well labeled diagram

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 (a) Name the parts labeled A and B (a) Name the parts labeled A,B and C(ANS: A
(ANS: A = Cathode B = Grid ) =cooling fins B=metal target C= Filament
cathode) (b) Explain how X –Rays are produced
(b) C is a metal can mounted inside the in a tube
tube and is connected externally to a (d)Why it is necessary to use an evacuated
negatively charged electroscope with its
tube? (ANS: In order to minimize the
casing earthed. The p.d across the metal
chance of electrons colliding with air
L and M was then adjusted so that the
molecules)
cathode rays were deflected into the can
and it was observed that the (e)What are the purposes of high and low
electroscope leaf rose steadily voltages.
(i) Why did the leaf rise steadily? • Low voltage heats up the cathode
(ANS: The leaf rose steadily due to filament to emit electrons
the extra accumulation of negative
charges. Like charges repel)
• High voltage accelerates electrons
towards the metal target
(ii) What does the result in (ii)
(f) With reason, state the most appropriate
above tell you about the charge on
metal to be used to make part B
the cathode rays (ANS: cathode
(ANS: tungsten/molybdenum, It has a high
rays are negatively charged) (iii)
melting point)
State one other property of cathode
rays not mentioned above 17. In the production of X – Rays what are the roles
of
15. (i) What is thermionic emission?
(ii) Name two factors on which the rate of
(i) Low voltage? (ii) High voltage?
(iii) Tungsten target?
emission depends.
ANS: (i) Used for heating the cathode
ANS.
(i) Thermionic emission: The phenomenon due to (ii) Used to provide a high p.d between the
electrodes, for accelerating the electrons
which free surface of the
metal emits electrons, on being heated (iii) Used for absorbing highly energetic
electrons and emit X – Rays.(Converting
(ii) Factors determining the rate of emission of
K.E of electrons into electromagnetic
thermion:
waves and heat)
 It is inversely proportional to
the work function of a material.
 It is directly proportional to
the temperature of the surface emitting
thermions.  It is directly proportional to the
surface area of the surface emitting thermions.
16. The figure below shows an X –rays tube

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 Types of Electronic Components

(a) Passive Electronic Components

• Are electronic components that consume energy
but do not produce energy
• These include power sources (battery or
generator), resistors, capacitors and inductors.

(b) Active Electronic Components

• Are electronic components that consume energy
in the form of voltage or current and supply
energy in the form of voltage or current.
• They include semiconductor devices such as
diodes, transistors and integrated circuits

Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Topic – 5: Electronics An Insulator

Electronics • Is a material which resists the flow of electrical

Is a branch of physics that deals with the charges through it.
emission, behavior and • Insulator has infinite resistance and zero
effects of electrons in materials conductance.
OR
Is the study of how • For example glass, mica, paraffin, hard
to control the flow of electrons rubber and also many plastics
NB:
 The various electronic components connected to Why resists the flow of electrical charges?
each other to form systems or circuits called
Electronic systems (Electronic circuits)
• It has no free electrons which are responsible to
pass through electrical charges
 An electronic circuit is used to perform a wide
variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits • The atoms have tightly bound electrons
are: Conductor:
o Conversion (ac to dc) and distribution of • Is a material which allows the flow of electrical
electric power. charges through it

o Controlling and processing of data • For example all metals and some non-metals
such as graphite (carbon)

Electronic Component A semiconductor

• Is any basic discrete device or physical entity in • Is a material in which its electrical conductivity
an electronic system used to affect electrons or intermediate between that of conductor and
their associated fields insulator.
• For example power sources, resistors, • For example silicon, germanium, cadmium
capacitors, diodes, transistors, and integrated sulphide and gallium arsenide
circuits etc.
• A semiconductor behaves as an insulator at
very low temperature o Has a significant

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 electrical conductance at room temperature, Valence Band
however, much lower than that of a conductor • Is the lower part of semiconductor in which
there is completely filled with electrons
Band theory
• The valence band is the highest range of
• Is the theory which explains about energy levels in electron energies where electrons are normally
a solid in terms of energy band present at the absolute zero temperature

Forbidden energy gap (Fermi energy level).

Energy Band
• Is the energy gap between the valence band and
• Is a collection of closely spaced energy levels conduction band which cannot be occupied by
OR electrons
• Is the series of “allowed” and “forbidden” energy • The band obtained by separating conduction
bands that it contains Diagram: band and valence band is called forbidden
energy band or forbidden gap.
• The figure below shows the conductor,
semiconductor and insulator in terms of their
energy level (band gap)

• We have about three bands in which a band

electrons possesses energy called energy level
 Conduction band
 Band gap (forbidden band)
 Valence band
For conductor
Conduction Band
• There is no forbidden gap available, the valence
• Is the upper most part of semiconductor in which and conduction band overlap each other (figure
there is few or no electrons a)
• It is sufficient to make the electrons free to
• The electrons from valence band freely enter
accelerate under the influence of an applied electric
into conduction band
field and thus constitute an electric current
N.B In conductors some electrons occupy the • Due to the overlapping of the valence and
conduction band conduction bands, a very low potential
difference can cause the continuous flow of
current

Band Gap (Forbidden energy gap) For semiconductor

• Is the energy gap between the valence band and
• The forbidden gap is very small (fig b)
conduction band which cannot be occupied by
electrons • There are no electrons in the conduction band.
The valence band is completely filled at 0 K
• (OR Is the energy required to shift an electron from
valence band to conduction band) • With a small amount of energy that is supplied,
the electrons can easily jump from the valence
band to the conduction band

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 • For example, if the temperature is raised, the When an electron moves out of a valence band
forbidden gap is decreased and some electrons it leaves behind a small space called a hole.
are liberated into the conduction band Electrons and holes in the conduction and
valence bands, respectively, are referred to as
• Germanium and Silicon are the best examples free charge carriers.
of semiconductors with forbidden energy gap
of 0.7 eV and 1.1 eV respectively Effect of temperature on metal conductivity
For insulator
• Increase in temperature tends to increase the
• The forbidden energy gap is very large (fig c). random motion of electrons. It reduces the
It is more than 3 eV and almost no electrons are electrical conductivity of metals
available for conduction
• Therefore, a very large amount of energy must Types of Semiconductors
be supplied to a valence electron to enable it to
move to the conduction band
• If the electron is supplied with high energy, it o
can jump across the forbidden gap. When the
temperature is increased, some electrons will I
move to the conduction band. This is the n
reason, why certain materials, which are t
insulators at room temperature become r
conductors at high temperature i
n
Difference between conductor, insulator and s
semiconductor i
c
Conductor Insulator
The conductivity of conductor is The conductivity of insulator is s
very high. very low. e
m
It has very low resistivity. It has very high resistivity. i
c
It has no forbidden gap. It has large forbidden gap. o
Has positive temperature Has negative temperature n
coefficient of resistance. coefficient of resistance. d
u
Both the effect of resistance and The effect of resistance c
temperature are increasing decreases with the increase of t
temperature o
r
There is large number of There is small number of s
electrons available for electrons available for
conduction. conduction. o

Examples: are Metals Paper, Wood, Mica glass. E

(aluminium, [Link]) x
t
How Semiconductor Conducts Electricity r
i
• As the temperature is increased, some of the n
electrons in the valence band acquire thermal s
energy that is greater than the forbidden gap i
energy and move to the conduction band. c
Therefore, the material becomes a conductor.

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 s Difference between intrinsic from extrinsic
e semi-conductor
m
i intrinsic extrinsic
c
o Is the pure form of semi-conductor Is an impure form
n It has equal number of holes and electrons in It has unequal nu
d conduction and valence band respectively
u
c
t Its electrical conductivity depends on Its electrical c
o temperature only temperature and
r
s It has low conductivity It has high condu
It is of no practical use It is used in electr
I
n Doping
t Is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic
r semiconductors to alter their properties
i
n
OR Is process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic
s
crystal to produce an extrinsic semiconductor.
i
c
OR Is the process of adding impurities in a pure
semiconductor in order to increase electrical
S
conductivity
e
m
i Terms used In Doping
c  Hosts are atoms which can accept or donate an
o electron. Example All group IV elements
n (Tetravalent) ie Silicon and Germanium
d
u
 Acceptor atoms are atoms which receive
c electrons from other atoms.
t Example all group III elements (Trivalent)
o  Donor atoms are atoms which supply electrons
r to other atoms. Example all group V elements
s (Pentavalent)
 Dopant is the element/impurity which added to
• These are pure semiconductors in which there modify the conductivity of an atom NB: o
is no addition of impurities. Heavily doping a semiconductor increases its
• Examples are silicon and germanium conductivity. That is why heavily doped silicon
is often used as a replacement for metals
• Conductivity in intrinsic semiconductors is
o Silicon and Germanium are the best
limited hence ,they do not conduct electricity
semiconductors as they are used to make the
Extrinsic Semiconductors most common electronic devices/components
such as transistors and diodes (This is because
• These are impure semiconductors materials the energy required to break their covalent
which contains added impurities bonds is very small ie 0.7 eV for Ge and 1.1
• Examples are N – Silicon , N – Germanium P eV for Si)
– Silicon and P – Germanium

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Types of Doped Mechanism of Doping
Semiconductor
(Extrinsic
• Consider the silicon with four valences (with
semiconductor) o N-type four electrons in their outer most shell)
semiconductor combine with Dopant (group III) of less than
four electrons in their outer most shell they
o P-type semiconductor will share the three electrons results the
semiconductor with less electrons (holes) to
N-type Semiconductor attain stability, since the silicon atoms with
three valence atoms have a less electron to
• Is the type of semiconductor in which the “acceptor”, they are called acceptor atoms
majority carriers are electrons
• Is formed when pure semiconductors are doped
with pentavalent elements
• The purpose of n-type doping is to produce an
abundance of mobile or carrier electrons in the
material

Mechanism of Doping
• Consider the silicon with four valences (with
four electrons in their outer most shell)
combine with dopant of more than four
electrons they will share the four valences
results the extra electrons from dopant (group
V) remaining as extra (free electrons). This
extra electron is only weakly bound to the atom
and can easily be excited into the conduction
band, since the silicon atoms with five valence
atoms have an extra electron to “donate”, they
are called donor atoms  Diagram of silicon
after doping (n-doping with Antimony, Sb)
[

P-type Semiconductor
• Is the type of semiconductor in which the
majority carriers are holes
• Is formed when pure semiconductors are doped
with trivalent elements
• The purpose of p-type doping is to produce an
abundance of holes in the valence band.

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 • Diagram of silicon after doping (P-doping
with boron)

Terms used in P-N Junction

1. Diffusion of charge is the spreading out of charges

(holes and electrons) which can result repelling and
COMPARISON BETWEEN N – TYPE AND P – attraction of charge
TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
2. Potential barrier is the maximum voltage at the
N – TYPE P – TYPE
junction when there is no further diffusion of
charge
Produced by adding pentavalent impurities to a Produced by adding trivalent impurities to a pure
pure semiconductor. 3. Depletion layer
semiconductor.
• Is a region in a P–N junction diode where no
The number of free electrons exceed the number of The number of holes exceeds the number
mobile charge of free
carriers are present
holes. electrons.
• It acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of
The majority charges are negative charges. electrons
The majority charges are from
positive n – side and holes from p –
charges.
side
The donor energy level is just below the bottom of The acceptor energy level is just above the valence
the conduction band. band.
Biasing of the P – N Junction
JUNCTION DIODE • A p–n junction is said to be biased when a
potential difference is applied across it
• This is the p–n junction semiconductor material • When a P- N junction is connected to a power
which is connected to supply voltage. supply it is said to be biased
• A P- N junction allows current to flow only in
P–N Junction one direction when the p – side is connected to
the positive terminal of the power source and n
– side to the negative terminal of the power
• This is the junction made up by two source
semiconductor material of n – type and p – type
melted together to form a junction. • There are two modes of action of P-N junction,
these are
• The boundary (junction formed) between the p
– side and n – side is referred to as a p – n (a) Forward – bias
junction (b) Reverse- bias

(a) Forward- Bias of P-N Junction

• A p–n junction is said to be forward biased when
the p–type region is connected to the positive
terminal while the n–type region is connected to the
negative terminal of an external cell or battery

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• In forward bias, the positive charge applied to the
• When the diode is connected in this manner, the
p–region repels the holes while the negative charge
holes in the p-type are attracted away from the
applied to the n–type repels the electrons .As the
junction by the external negative potential. Also
electrons and holes are pushed toward the junction,
electrons are attracted away from the junction
the distance between them decreases This reduces
by the external positive potential. This increases
the size of depletion layer and lowers the potential
the thickness of the depletion layer .Thus the
barrier
potential barrier and hence the resistance of the
• Therefore the charge carriers interact easily and junction is increased .A very small current
makes the flow of an electric current possible (leakage current) may flow in the circuit due to
the flow of minority charge carries.
• The graph of voltage against current for forward is
given below
• The graph of voltage against current for
reverse bias is shown from the fig below

• When the voltage of the battery is greater than

potential barrier majority charge carries (holes and
electrons) are pulled towards and large electric
current flowing • When the voltage of the battery is greater than
barrier potential majority charge carries
(b) Reverse - Bias in P-N Junction (holes and electrons)are pushed away and very small or
• A p–n junction is said to be reverse biased when no electric current is flowing
N.B
the p–region is connected to the negative
terminal of the cell or battery while the n–region • Potential barrier is the potential required to
is connected to the positive terminal of the overcome the barrier at the PN junction
battery • Zener/Break down voltage Is the reverse
Voltage at which p-n junction breaks down with
the sudden rise in reverse current.
• Knee voltage Is the forward biased voltage at
which the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.

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 • Reverse (leakage) current Is the current in a  The metal-semiconductor diode is used for very fast
semiconductor device when the device is reverse switching and microwave applications.
biased

• Saturation current (Scale current) Is that part

of reverse current of the reverse current in a
semiconductor diode caused by diffusion of
minority carriers from the neutral regions to the Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
depletion layer
• Is a semiconductor diode that emits light when
an electrical current is applied in the forward
Diodes
direction of the diode
 A diode is an electrical device that allows current
to flow through it in one direction.

NB:
 LEDs are made from a variety of
semiconductor materials depending on the
wavelength of the light required

NB:
 The most commonly used materials for visible
LEDs are gallium phosphide and gallium
 When the junction is reverse-biased, the diode arsenic phosphide
blocks the voltage
 LEDs have a wide range of applications, from
 When the junction is forward-biased, the diode simple indicator lamps and huge display
conducts screens to optical fiber communication links
 The magnitude of the current through the
diode depends on the current in the external Zener Diode
circuit  Zener diodes are specifically manufactured and
designed to be operated in the reverse breakdown
Types of Diode voltage.
 Semiconductor diode  Every Zener diode is manufactured for a specific
reverse breakdown voltage called the Zener
 Metal semiconductor diode voltage.
 Light-emitting diode Its symbol:
 Zener Diode

Semiconductor Diode NB:

 Most semiconductor diodes are made up of silicon • Zener diodes are used as voltage regulator
or germanium. devices.
 Semiconductor diodes are most used for • It allows required voltage to pass through
rectification
Advantage of semiconductor junction diode over
vacuum tube diodes
• They are less expensive to make
• They consume less power
Metal Semiconductor Diode
• They are reliable in circuits
 These types of diodes are formed by the deposition
of a metal on the surface of a metal conductor. • They are much easier to produce

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 • They occupy less space due to their small size in pulse (half rectified) because the diode
allows current to flow during the first half of
the cycle when it is forward biased and stops
APPLICATIONS OF JUNCTION DIODES IN the current during the second half when it is
RECTIFICATION reversed biased
o The diode conducts on every half- cycle
• A rectifier Is an electrical device used to o The rectified voltage is d.c and is always
convert an alternating current into a direct positive in value o If the diode is reversed,
current by allowing a current to flow through it then the output voltage is negative o The
in one direction only  OR Is a device that voltage is not steady and needs to be
is used to convert alternating voltage into a smoothed (by putting a large capacitor, C in
direct (unidirectional) voltage parallel with the load) for it to be useful (see
• Rectification Is the process of converting fig below)
alternating current to direct current
• OR Is the process of conversion of
alternating voltage to direct voltage
• Diodes are used in rectification because they
offer high resistance when reverse biased and
low resistance when forward biased o The capacitor is charged during the positive
There are two types of rectification half-cycle of the a.c. and discharges through
 Half-wave rectifiers the load in the negative half-cycle

 Full -wave rectifiers

Advantages of half wave rectification

Half-Wave Rectification • Low cost of construction, since it includes few

components
 The half wave rectification is achieved by
connecting a single diode in series with the load • Easy to constructs
across which a unidirectional voltage is
required

Disadvantages of half wave rectifier

• Power loss. This is because it allows either a

positive half cycle or negative half cycle. So the
remaining half cycle is wasted
Mechanism
 During the first half-cycle of the AC sine • Pulsating direct current. It produces impure
wave, A is positive and B is negative. The direct current which is not much useful 
diode is forward-biased and current flows Produces low output voltage
around the circuit formed by the diode, the
transformer winding and the load (R) Full – Wave Rectification
 During the second half-cycle, A is negative  There are two ways of achieving full – wave
and, B is positive. The diode is reverse-biased rectification:
therefore no current flows in the circuit NB: (a) Using two diodes and center –
o The output signal can be displayed on a CRO tapped transformer
screen which outlines the above trace o The (b) Using four diodes (the bridge
output voltage of half wave rectification flows rectifier)
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 72
 • In both half cycles, the direction of flow of
current through the resistor is the same. The
(a) Using two diodes
resultant output will therefore take the form
• In this circuit both halves of the a.c. cycles are shown below
transmitted but in the same direction. One way
of achieving this is to have a transformer whose
output has a Centre tap, that is, its output can
be taken at two points one being half the other

Mechanism
• In the positive half-cycle, point A is positive
with respect to O. Diode D1 conducts but diode
D2 is reverse-biased. The current passes through
D1, C, R and back to O
• In the negative half-cycle, point B is positive (b) Using four diodes (bridge rectifier)
with respect to O. Diode D2 conducts but diode • A bridge rectifier uses four diodes such that in
D1 is reverse- biased. The current passes each half cycle two diodes are forward biased
through D2, C, R and back to O and the remaining two are reversed biased (see
the fig. below)

Alternatively (other way of expressing this)

Mechanism
• During the first half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3
are forward biased while D2 and D4 are reversed
biased. Current thus flows through diode D1 and
D3 via the resistor R.
Mechanism • During the second half cycle, diodes D1 and D3
are now reversed biased while D2 and D4 are
• During the first half cycle, diode D1 is forward
forward biased. Current thus flows through D2
biased while D2 is reverse biased. Hence current
and D4 via the resistor R
flows through AD1BCA
N.B
• During the second half cycle, diode D2 will now
be forward biased while D1 reversed
• In both half cycles current flows through the
biased .Thus current flows through DD2BCD. resistor R in one direction [Link] from end A to
B. This kind of rectifier can be used with very
N.B
high voltage

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 • If a smooth rectified wave is needed, then a Transistor Is a semiconductor device for
capacitor is connected across the resistor amplifying, controlling, and generating
electrical signals.
OR
Is a semiconductor device used to
amplify or switch electronic signals and
electrical power

Terminals of Transistor
• There are three terminals namely emitter (E),
collector (C) and base (B)
Advantages of the bridge rectification
• A smaller transformer can be used, because Emitter (E)
there is no need for centre – tapping
• Is a terminal used to supplies (remove /push)
• It is suitable for high voltage regulation charge carriers to Collector
• It is the negative lead (region)
Disadvantage of the bridge rectifiers
• High cost of making. Since it uses four diodes Collector (C)
• The value of the diodes used should be precise, • Is a terminal used to receive charge carriers
else there will be an error in rectification repelled from emitter terminal
N.B
• It is the positive lead (region)
• In general, the full wave rectifier gives a
stronger and smoothened output than the half – • The maximum possible current obtained at the
wave rectifier. If a capacitor is connected output (collector) is called Saturation current
across the resistor, the rectified output is Base (B)
smoothened. The capacitor is therefore used • Base is a terminal between emitter terminal and
in this case to smoothen the output of the
collector terminal
transformer
• It is used to control the flow of charge carriers
Advantages of center tapped full wave rectifier from E to C or C to E N B:
 Output and efficiency are high because an AC  Some transistors are packaged individually but
supply delivers power during the both half most are found in integrated circuits, IC (more
cycles than one transistor)
 Base terminal is thin and lightly doped
Disadvantages of center tapped full wave
rectifier Types of Transistors
• It is difficult to locate the center on the  Field-effect transistors (FETs)
secondary winding for the tapping  Bipolar transistors (BJT)
• The diode used must be capable of bearing
high peak inverse voltage (PIV). This is Field-Effect Transistor (Unipolar transistor)
because PIV coming across each diode is
twice the maximum voltage across the half of • It is a type of transistor which uses an electric
the secondary winding field to control the flow of current
• It requires only one charge carrier to operate
Transistors (eg N–channel FET or P–channel
FET are used for conduction)
• The three terminals of FET are source, gate
and drain
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 • Examples of FET’s are MOSFET, JFET etc
• Are used in low noise amplifier, buffer
amplifier and analog switch

N.B: In this section (according to our level) we will

only consider bipolar transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

• Is a type of transistor that uses both electrons
and holes as charge carriers NB:
• It is a three-terminal device that acts as • The outward arrow shows that the direction
electrically controlled switch or as amplifier of current in npn transistor is from the collector
controls. through the base to the emitter ( NPN →
Never Points iN)
• It consists of a pair of p -n junction diodes that
are joined back-to-back (sandwich form). The Construction of NPN Transistor
leads (regions) are labeled as base (B), collector • The construction of NPN transistor is shown in
(C) and emitter (E) (Fig below) the figure below. The emitter–base junction is
connected in forward biased while the
collector–base junction in reverse biased

Types of Bipolar Transistors

• n-p-n transistor
• p-n-p transistor

Operation of NPN Transistor

NPN Transistor • The forward biased is applied across the emitter
• Is a type of transistor in which one p–type –base junction while the reverse biased is
material is doped with two n–type materials applied across the collector–base junction.(See
the fig below)
• The diagram and symbol of npn transistor is
shown in the figure below • The emitter is heavily doped. When the
forward bias is applied across the emitter, the
majority charge carriers (electrons) move
towards the base. This causes the emitter
current IE .The electrons enter into the P–type
material and combine with the holes
• Since the base is thin and lightly doped. Thus
only a few electrons are combined with holes
and the remaining (most of electrons) are
moved towards the collector to constitute the
base current IB. This base current enters into the
collector region
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 • The reversed bias potential of the collector • The inward arrow shows that the direction of
region applies the high attractive force on the current in pnp transistor is from the emitter to
electrons reaching the collector junction. Thus collector (PNP → Points iN Permanently)
attract or collect the electrons at the collector
Construction of PNP Transistor
• The construction of PNP transistor is shown in
the figure below. The emitter–base junction is
connected in forward biased while the
collector–base junction in reverse biased
• The emitter in forward biased attracts the
electrons towards the battery and hence
constitutes the current to flow from emitter to
collector

• The whole of the emitter current is entered into

the base. Thus, we can say that the emitter
current is the sum of the collector or the base
current (IE = IC + IB)
N.B
• The collector current in any transistor is less
than the emitter current because of the
recombination of holes and electrons
occurring in the base area
• In order for a transistor to work, the emitter
should always be connected in forward biased
while Collector is always connected in reverse
biased
• The main difference between PNP and NPN
transistor is that, the current conduction in NPN
• The base of the transistor is always kept
positive with respect to the collector so that the
carried by electrons while the charge carriers in
hole from the collector junction cannot enter
PNP are carried by holes
into the base
PNP Transistor • And the base–emitter is kept in forward due to
• Is a type of transistor in which one n–type material which the holes from the emitter region enter
into the base and then into the collector region
is doped with two p–type materials  The diagram
by crossing the depletion layer
and symbol of pnp transistor is shown in the figure
below
Working of PNP Transistor
• The emitter base junction is connected in
forward biased due to which the emitter pushes
the holes in the base region. These holes
constitute the emitter current  When these
holes move into the base, they combine with
electrons.
• Since the base of the transistor is thin and very
lightly doped .Hence only a few holes combine
with the electrons and the most (remaining) are
moved towards the collector space charge
layer. Hence develops the base current (See the
fig below)

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 • Addition reason: Silicon is used to make N
type semiconductors. Since it is found
abundantly in nature

Uses of Transistors
• They are used in virtually all electronic devices
such as calculators, televisions, radios,
computers, etc.

Application of Transistor
 As an amplifier (electronic amplifier)
 As a switch (electronic switch)

Transistor as Regulator/Amplifier/Active Mode

• The collector base region is connected in
reverse biased. The holes which collect around
the depletion region when coming under the Electronic amplifier is the circuit that increases the
impact of negative polarity attracted by the amplitude (intensity) of a given input
collector. This develops the collector current. OR is the magnification of input
The complete emitter current flows through the signal
collector current IC
• Thus, we can say that the emitter current is the Types of electronic Amplifiers
sum of the collector or the base • Single-stage
current (IE = IC + IB) amplifier
• Multi-stage
amplifier NB:
o Relationship between the input and output of an
amplifier is called the transfer function o The
Difference between PNP and NPN transistors magnitude of the transfer function is referred to as
the gain
PNP Transistor o
NPN Transistor Amplifiers commonly used in radio and television
It consists of antransmitters and receivers, stereo equipment,
It consists of an N–type sandwiched by two P– P–type sandwiched by two N–
microcomputers and digital musical instruments
type semiconductor type semiconductor
o Transistors are commonly used as amplifying
It has holes as majority charge carriers It has electronselements
as majority charge
o In carrierswe will consider Single-
this section
It is slower than NPN because holes are slower It is faster than Stage Amplifiers
PNP because Only are faster
electrons
than electrons than holes

Less preferred than NPN Most preferred than PNPAmplifier

Single-Stage (most used)
Both collector and base are negative with respect The collector• is Is
positive with
the type of respect to which
amplifier both consists of only one
to emitter emitter and baseamplifying device.
• It consists of transistor (amplification stage) which
Why always NPN most used rather than PNP? is connected to a load resistor through which a
load current flows
• This is because the mobility of electrons in N
type material is more than the mobility of holes
in P type material Types of Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Common-collector (CC) amplifiers
 Common-base (CB) amplifiers
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  Common- emitter (CE) amplifiers o C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct
current isolation at the input and output of the
amplifier
Common-Collector Amplifier
Common-Emitter Amplifier
 The base terminal of the transistor serves as the
input, the emitter the output, while the collector • The base terminal of the transistor serves as the
is common to both. The emitter-base junction is input, the collector as the output, and the
forward-biased by the power supply VEE while emitter is common to both. The emitter-base
the collector- base junction is reverse-biased by junction is forward-biased by power supply
VCC VBB while the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased by power supply VCC

Mechanism Mechanism
 The input signal is fed to the base-collector • The input signal is fed to the base-emitter
circuit while the output signal is tapped from circuit and the amplified signal is tapped from
the emitter terminal with respect to the ground the collector terminal with respect to the
 C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide ground emitter circuit
direct current isolation at the input and output • C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide
of the amplifier direct current isolation at the input and output
of the amplifier
Common-Base Amplifier
 The emitter terminal serves as the input, the Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)
collector as the output, and the base is common • Is a semiconductor device whose resistance
to both. The emitter-base junction is forward-
depends on the light falling on it
biased by the power supply VEE while the
collector base junction is reverse-biased by • Is used to switch on or switch off automatically
VCC street lamp

Thermistor
 Is a semiconductor device whose resistance
depends on thermal energy  It is used to
control maximum temperature of hot liquid

Example Form IV NECTA 2002 QN: 10 SECT. C

(a)Explain how an extrinsic semiconductor is
constructed
Mechanism
o The input signal is fed to the emitter-base circuit
(b)Describe the model of action and application of PN
junction diode
while the output signal is tapped from the collector-
base circuit (c) The diagram below shows a circuit in which
important components A and B are removed

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 • Electrical signals may represent information
Answer the following questions by changing factors such as their voltage,
current, frequency or total charge. The
(a) What does A and B represents?
information is converted from some physical
(b) Describe briefly the purpose of form (such as sound, light, temperature,
component A and B pressure) to an electrical signal by a device
known as a transducer
(c) Draw a well labeled circuit
diagram for the circuit above
Transducer: Is a device that converts an input
signal of one form into an output signal of
Integrated Circuit (IC) another form
OR Is a device which converts a
• Is a combination of several resistors, capacitors physical variation such as temperature,
or transistors which are built out of the same
pressure or sound to an electrical signal
crystal
OR Is a device which converts energy
OR from one form to another
• Is an electronic device made of semiconductor
material containing up to billions of electronic
Digital Signals
circuits and components such as transistors in a
small space (chip) • Are electrical signals that convey or store
information by means of variation in a non-
• Two or more transistors can be joined together
continuous wave form
to increase the amplification
• An integrated circuit is sometimes known as a
chip or microchip

Information Signals
 Are current or voltage variations (waveforms)
through which information is relayed in
electronic circuits • Digital signals have only two amplitude levels,
usually called nodes. This means the values
can only be given in one of two ways. The
Types of Information Signals
values may be specified, for Example, as 1 or
• Analogue signals 0, TRUE or FALSE, and HIGH or LOW
• Digital signals • Digital signals are often derived from analogue
signals
Analogue Signals • The main advantage of digital signals over
• Are electrical signals that convey or store analogue signals is that the signal level or
information by means of variation in a value need not be precise
continuous wave form
• It can be approximated within a fixed number
of digits or bits
• The process of approximating the precise
value within a fixed number of digits is called
quantization

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  Produce distortion in the output signal
 With the change in transistor parameters or
temperature rise, the operating point may
shift and the amplifier output will be
unstable
7. Which of the transistor currents is always the
largest? Which is always the smallest? Which
• Signal can be distorted during transmission two currents are relatively close?
can still read correctly ANS: The emitter current IE is always the
largest one. The base current IB is always the
smallest one .The collector current IC and emitter
current IE are relatively close in magnitude
8. Why collector is made larger than emitter
and base? ANS:
Collector is made physically larger than emitter
and base because collector is to dissipate much
Class Activity – 5 power
1. Explain why an ordinary junction transistor is 9. Why silicon type transistors are more often
called bipolar? used than germanium type? ANS: This is
ANS: Because, the transistor operation is because:
carried out by two types of charges carriers (i) At room temperature, Silicon
(majority and minority carriers) crystal has fewer free electrons than
2. Why transistor is called current controlled Germanium crystal. This implies
device? that Silicon will have much smaller
collector cut off current than
ANS: Because, the output voltage, current or
Germanium
power is controlled by the input current in a
transistor (ii) The variation of collector cut off
3. What is the significance of the arrow –head in current with temperature is less in
the transistor symbol? Silicon compared to Germanium
ANS: Is to show the conventional direction of (iii) The structure of Germanium
current flow.(From emitter – to – base in case of crystals will be destroyed at higher
p-n-p transistor and from base – to – emitter in temperature while Silicon crystal
case of n – p –n transistor) N.B: Arrow head is are not easily damaged by excess
always marked on the emitter and not for heat
collector, since collector always reverses its
leakage current opposite to the direction of 10. Why the width of the base region of a transistor
emitter current is kept very small compared to other region?
(ANS: In order to pass most of the injected
4. Discuss the need for biasing the transistor. charge carriers to the collector)
ANS: For normal operation, base–emitter 11. Why emitter is always forward biased?
junction should be forward biased and the
ANS: Emitter is always forward biased with
collector base Junction reverse biased
respect to base so as to supply the majority
5. What are the differences between a charge carriers to the base.
semiconductor and an insulator in terms of their
conductivity
12. Why collector is always reverse biased w.r.t
base? ANS: In
6. In case the transistor is not biased properly, what order to remove the charge carriers from the
would happen? base–collector junction 13. A diode has a certain
ANS: It would characteristic when operating. Explain this
 Work inefficiently characteristic. ANS: The main operating
characteristic of a diode is that it allows current
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 80
 in one direction and blocks current in the
opposite direction.
14. Distinguish between semiconductors and
conductors and give one example for each
15. What must the conditions be for a LED to emit
light?
ANS: A LED emits light when the diode is (a) What does the term rectification means?
forward biased allowing current to flow.
(b)The rectification described by the circuit
16. Transistors have two main functions, what are above is half wave rectification. Sketch its
they? waveform which would be seen on a
ANS: Amplification and switching. suitably adjusted CRO and explain why the
output voltage is so rectified
17. Define doping. (ANS: The process of adding
impurities to the intrinsic or pure 26. The output power of a signal is 50 W and the
semiconductor ) input power is 0.1 W .Calculate the power gain
18. What are the differences between a conductor, 27. What is an IC?
semiconductor and insulator in terms of their 28. State the majority carriers for a p – type semi
energy levels? conductors
19. Your provided with a diode, a resistor R an a.c 29. Explain how doping produces an n – type
source of low voltage and connecting wires , semiconductor
Sketch the circuit diagram for a half – wave
rectifier and indicate the terminals where the
30. Study the circuit diagrams in the figure below
output voltage vo may be connected ANS: carefully. Which of the two circuits will light a
bulb?

20. What is meant by Donor impurity in 31. Name two semiconductors which are widely
semiconductors?
used in electronics
(ANS: Is an atom introduced into the
semiconductor (doping) to provide an extra 32. Explain why semiconductor solid state diodes
electron for conduction) are fast replacing the vacuum type diodes in
many applications
21. Explain how intrinsic semiconductor can be
changed into a transistor 22. Mention two types 33. (a) Give an illustration of a p – n junction diode
of : (a) Semiconductors (b) Diode and its symbol (b) How does a junction diode
23. What is the difference between analogue and work?
digital signals? 34. How is an intrinsic semiconductor different
24. (a) What is the difference between PNP and from an extrinsic semiconductor? .Explain how
NPN transistors? an extrinsic semiconductor is constructed?
(b) Draw their circuit symbols, label them and 35. Define the following terms (a) Transistor (b)
describe each connection Doping (c) Rectification
25. The semiconductor diode can be used as a 36. Draw the circuit diagram of the (a) half wave
rectifier as used in the circuit below rectification (b) Full wave rectifier(use 2 diodes)
Topic – 6: Elementary Astronomy

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 • The word astronomy is derived from two
Greek words: astron for “star” and Nomo’s
for “law”.
• Astronomy is the study of the universe and
celestial bodies.
OR

• Astronomy is the branch of science that deals

with the study of the origin, evolution,
composition, distance and the motion of all Heliocentric Theory (Sun centered)
bodies and scattered matters in the universe.
• Is the astronomical model in which the Earth
• People who are involved in astronomy are and planets revolve around the Sun at the center
known as astronomers. of the solar system
• Universe is all of the space and everything in • It was put forward by Nicolaus Corpenicus to
it replace the Geocentric Theory
OR
• Universe is the totality of space and time
together with matter and energy.

Importance of Astronomy

 Measurement of time
Duration of the day, month and year were The Solar System
determined by using position and phases of the • The solar system is the collection of heavenly
sun, moon and stars  Development of bodies that revolve around the sun.
calendars.
Were used to predict seasons for agriculture by
• The Solar System composed of dwarf planets,
studying position of stars in space eight planets and their moons, as well as
asteroids, comets and meteors.
 Navigation on land and sea uses the
knowledge of astronomy
 To study the origin of the earth and life Stars
 Used in space exploration • A star is a large celestial body made up of hot
gases known as plasma.
Geocentric Theory (Earth centered) • Plasma refers to an ionized gas in which a
certain proportion of electrons are free rather
• Is the theory which considers that the earth is at than bound to an atom or molecules.
the centre of the universe and other heavenly
bodies such as the Sun and other planets to be • Stars radiate energy derived from the
orbiting around it  It was based on religious thermonuclear reactions in the interior region.
beliefs, observations and common-sense.  The sun is the largest star.
• The sun is the closest star to the earth at a
mean distance of 149.60 million kilometers
• This distance is known as Astronomical Unit
(AU) and is used to measure distances across
the solar system
• 1AU = 1.4960×1011m

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 • Light year Is the distance that light travels in (ii) Venus
one year, or about 6 trillion miles 
[Light Moves about a distance of 186,000 miles Is the
per second (3 x 108 m/s)] second planet from the sun and
• Variable star Is a star whose brightness has no moon
changes over the course of days, weeks, months 
or year It is also
known as morning star or
• Super Nova is the end of life of a star in a huge evening star
explosion

• Double Star (Binary Star) Are two stars that It is the
lie very close to, and are often orbiting each hottest planet in the solar system
other (4820 C)

Galaxy It has
very thick atmosphere 90 times
• A Galaxy is a giant collection of stars, gas and
that of the earth Question,
dust. Mercury is the closest planet to
• Most of stars in the universe are in the the sun but not hotter than
galaxies. Venus, Why?
ANS:
Milky Way • This is because any heat that mercury receives
from the sun is quickly lost back into space
• Is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. because it does not have any atmosphere to
• Nearly all of the stars visible in the night sky trap and hold heat
are within our galaxy, the Milky Way. • Similarly Venus is the hottest due to presence
of very thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide.
This atmosphere makes the surface of Venus
Planets hotter because heat does not escape back into
• A planet is a major (large) object which is in its space (Greenhouse effect)
orbit around a star (sun).
• The planets revolve around the sun. They are (i) Earth
held in orbit by the gravitational pull of the
sun.
 Is the third planet from the
sun and largest terrestrial
• Planets do not give their own light, but rather planet
reflect the sun’s light.  Is the only planet to host
• These planets are living beings and the only
one known to have liquid
(i) Mercury water on its surface
 It is the closest planet to the  It has atmosphere which
sun supports life
 It gets more direct heat, but  It is the only known planet
even it isn’t the hottest to have current geological
planet (4270 C) activity
 It is the smallest planet in  It has a radius of 6371 km
the solar system and its distance is 1.0 AU
 It has no moons, no rings from the sun
and an atmosphere  It has one large moon

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 (ii) Mars (viii) Neptune
 Is the fourth planet from the sun  Is the eighth planets from
 It is reddish planet. The red the sun
color comes from iron oxide or  It has a radius four times
rust in the soil  It experiences that of the earth as Uranus
frequent planet – wide wind
storms
 It has the atmosphere made
of methane
 It’s colder than earth. The
 Its surface temperature is
surface temperature ranges from
about -2140C
-1130 C to 00 C
 It has 13 moons and a faint
ring system orbit the planet
(v) Jupiter NB:
 Is the fifth  All of these planets excepts the Earth, have names
planet from from Greek or Roman mythology
the sun  Is
the largest
(a) Mercury means god of commerce
because it moves so quickly across the
planet in the
sky
solar system
 It has 63 (b) Venus means goddess of love and
moons and a beauty due to beautiful sight in the sky
faint ring (c) Mars means god of war due to its red
system color
(d) Jupiter means King of the Gods due to
(vi) Saturn its biggest size in the solar system

 Is the sixth planet from the (e) Saturn means god of agriculture,
Sun. It is also a gas giant (f) Uranus (the ancient Greek deity of the
planet heavens ) means the earliest supreme
 It has the rings that orbit the god
planets in a thin band about (g) Neptune means god of the sea due to
a mile thick  Its radius is its beautiful blue color
about 9.5 times that of the
Earth.
(h) Pluto means god underworld because
it’s so far away from the Sun

(vii) Uranus.
Types of planets
 It is the seventh planet from  The planets in the solar system are divided into
the Sun two types namely:-
 It has a diameter of about (i) Terrestrial planets (innermost planets)
50,723 km
(ii) Jovian planets (Outer
 It is made of a large planets / Gas giants)
atmosphere of methane with
a dense core of frozen
methane. The difference between the
 It has a faint ring system two types of planets
and 27 moons in its orbit 
It has a radius four times Terrestrial planets Jov
that of the earth Are the planets which are made of solid Ar
surfaces sur

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 Examples are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Because all the light is coming from a single
Mars point, its path is highly susceptible to
atmospheric interference
They are small in size
They are closer to the sun Satellite
They have few number of moons  Satellite is the celestial body that revolves
around the planets.
Their core are more denser

Types of Satellite
Characteristics of Planets
(i) It is a celestial body that orbits a star. 1. Natural Satellite
(ii) It is massive enough so that its own gravity • Natural satellite is the natural celestial in which
causes it to assume a spherical shape.
revolves around the planet. Example, moon
(iii) It has cleared the neighborhood around
its orbit.
2. Artificial Satellite
Dwarf Planet • Artificial satellite is the man made satellite and
 Is a celestial body orbiting the Sun that is spacecraft that orbit the planet.
massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity
but has not cleared its neighboring region and
hasn’t satellite.  Pluto is an example of dwarf Uses of the earth Satellites
planet • The moon leads to ocean tides
•Man – made satellite used to reflect radio
Difference between Stars and
waves for communication
Planets
Asteroids (minor planets)
Stars • Asteroid is a large rocky body in space that
Emit their own light Do not emit their ownrevolve
light around the sun
OR
Twinkle at night. Do not twinkle at night.
• Asteroid is an astronomical body smaller than
Planets move around planets
the sun that
fromorbit
westthe
to sun
[Link]:
Appear to be moving from east to west.
 Asteroids are of different sizes and shapes
 Asteroids
Their temperatures depend are
on their distances
mostly fromsystem
small Solar the bodies
Their temperatures are usually very high. sun. composed mainly of rocky and metallic non-
volatile minerals
Countless in number. There are eight in the solar system.
 They lie between mars and Jupiter
Very big in size but they appear small because they
are very far away. Very small inMeteors
size as compared to stars.
• Are asteroids which enter the earth’s
Are in gaseous form Are in solid form atmosphere and burn completely before
reaching the earth’s surface
Question: Why stars twinkle at night? • Are also called shooting stars
ANS: Stars are so distant such that they appear as
pinpoints of light in the night sky, even Meteorites
when viewed through a telescope.
• Are meteors that survive the passage through
the earth’s and reach the ground OR A

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 meteorite is a piece of rock or metal that has • Whereby: G is the universal gravitation
fallen to the earth’s surface from outer constant , m1 is the mass of the first body,m2 is
space as a meteor the mass of the second body and r is the
• In Tanzania a 16 ton piece of meteorite found distance between the two bodies
at Mbozi Mbeya called Mbozi meteorite
Gravity
• Is the gravitational force that attracts a body
towards the centre of the Earth
Comets
 Comet: Is a small icy celestial body that when • This is the force that holds us on the ground
passing close to the sun heat up and and causes objects to fall back to the ground
emit gas displaying a visible atmosphere and a after being thrown up in the air
tail • The further you move away from the center of
OR the earth, the weaker the force becomes
• Is a small icy celestial body that revolves • The measure of the force of gravity on an
around the sun object on the earth’s surface is called the
• They can often be seen by naked eyes. They weight
stop glowing once the gaseous materials are all
burnt off or when they are once again far away
• As we go above the surface of the earth,
from the sun acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing,
Meteoroid • That is why, the astronaut in space can float
• Is a smaller body than asteroid that moves in without falling because the gravitational
the solar system that would become a meteor if force is almost zero in the outer space NB:
it entered the earth’s atmosphere • If the astronaut goes in the outer space he
needs a spacesuit. This special suit is
Gravitational Force important because it is used to:- (i) Protect
his body from low pressure
(ii) Supply astronaut with oxygen to
• Gravitational force is the attractive force breath
existing between any two objects that have
masses
(iii) Supply water to drink during
spacewalks
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (iv) Protect his body from being
The law States that injured from impacts of small bits of
space dust
“Any two bodies in the universe attract each other with
a force that is directly proportional to the product of (v) Protect the astronaut from cold and
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of dangerous radiation
the distance between them”  What could happen if an
Consider the fig. below astronaut would not put on a spacesuit?

(i) Boiling blood. The lower the

pressure, the lower the boiling point,
in space there no air pressure. So
boiling point could easily drop to his
• The gravitational force is given by F = body temperature .That means his
blood would start to boil
(ii) Cell mutation. He also be bombarded
with dangerous radiation from the sun
and other stars .This radiation could
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 warp his cells and cause poisoning or Seasonal Constellations
cancer and eventually cause death • Seasonal constellations are the constellations
(iii) Loss of bowel control. He that appear at some time of the year and are not
could lose control due to severe lack seen at other times of the year.
of oxygen • In Tanzania and in central Africa are close to
(iv) Bloating. If the liquid in his the equator so we do not see any circumpolar
blood stream started boiling, it would stars or circumpolar constellations. Hence In
turn into gas that would make his skin Tanzania night sky we see only seasonal
swell constellations

Zodiac
• The astronaut use small jets of gas in his • Is a set of constellations situated along the
movements (maneuvers) instead of swimming ecliptic in the sky, through which the sun,
like fish because there is no matter (no moon and planets move
atmosphere) to cause resistance of his
movements to move forward (due to Newton’s
third law of motion) Zodiac Light
• Is very faint cone of light in the sky, visible in
• Gravitation Is the force of attraction which the east just before sunrise and in the west just
acts between two bodies in the universe after sunset
• The Sun’s gravity keeps the planets in their • It is probably caused by the reflection of
orbits sunlight from cosmic dust in the plane of the
Constellations ecliptic
• A Constellation: Is a group of stars that form
a definite shape or pattern
when viewed from the earth Asterism:
OR • Is any prominent star pattern that is not a whole
• Constellations: Are small groups of bright constellation
stars that form patterns in the sky Black Hole
which resemble familiar with • Is a concentration of mass so dense that nothing
animals and objects on the earth. – not even light – can escape its gravitational
pull once swallowed up
Celestial Coordinate: Is a grid system for locating
• Some of known constellations are: LEO, things in the sky
IRON, SCORPIO, URSA MAJOR,
CORPUS, CANIS MAJOR, Significance (importance) of Constellations
PISCES, GEMIN and the
SOUTHER CROSS  There are
about 88 known constellations. The study of the constellation is important since they
are used by the man from ancient times up to the
present.
Types of Constellations
 Circumpolar constellations
 Seasonal constellations  Religion
Early religions believed that constellations
 Zodiac constellations were God’s way of communicating to people
on the earth
Circumpolar Constellations
• Are seen all of the year round in the night sky
for observers in high northern or high southern  Agriculture:
latitudes because of the rotation of the Earth Early farmers used constellations to determine
the different seasons for growing crops

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 (b) Mountains rise up to 5km high

 Navigation:
Can help travelers to determine the direction of Maria
their destinations by locating neighboring • Maria is an Italian word Means Sea
constellations • Maria is the dark region on the surface of
the moon
Earth’s Moon • It is caused by hug impact craters that were
 Moon is a natural satellite that moves in a later flooded with molten lava.
circular orbit around the earth, held on orbit by • Most of Maria is covered with regolith, a
gravitational force. mixture of fine dust and rocky debris produced
by meteor impact
Properties of Earth’s Moon o The moon’s
gravitation field is one sixth of the earth’s field (gmoon Ocean tides
= 1.6N/Kg) o It takes 27.3 days to revolve around the
earth. This period called sidereal month o It has a • Are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of
diameter of 3476 km o It has a mass of 7.35 x 1022kg water
o Moon Surface temperature are on • Tides energy: Is the rising and falling of the
the average of 1070 C during the day ocean level
and -1530 C during night
o It has non molten iron core so its Causes of Ocean tides
haven’t magnetism o Iron core is • Are caused by the gravitational pull (force)
surrounded by a rocky mantle and between the earth and the moon
crust o It revolves in an
anticlockwise direction around the
earth o Moon has no atmosphere How Ocean tides Occurs
N.B  Due to different in gravitational force the earth
 Perigee: Is the moon’s position when it is pulls the moon to keep it in orbit also the moon
pulls the earth and the sun pulls the earth to
nearest the earth. Perigee is 356,000 km
keep it in orbit also the earth pull the sun. This
 Apogee: Is the moon’s position when it is gravitational interaction tends to pull earth’s
furthest from the earth Apogee is 406,000 km fluid (gas and liquid especially in ocean) results
 Proxigee (Closest Perigee): Is the moon’s in rising and falling of the ocean level. As the
position when it is usually close to the earth earth rotates on its axis two tides occur each
day
Surface features of the moon
There are two primary types of terrain on the moon,
these include the following
 Lunar highlands
 Maria

Lunar Highlands
Types of Ocean Tides
• Are bright zones on the surface of the moon
 Spring tides
• A lunar highland is the bright area viewed with
unaided eye. It consists of;  Neap tides
(a) Craters caused by impact of meteorites. The
young craters are often surrounded by lines of Spring Ocean Tides
splash material
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 • Spring tides occur when the sun, moon and 1. What is solar system?
earth line up in a straight line  They typically
occur around a full or new moon and they are
2. How many known planets are there in our
solar system? Name them. 3. Briefly
strong tides
explain how astronomy gave rise to the 12
months of the year
4. Why is Pluto not a planet as it used to be?
5. (a) Which one is the largest planet in our
solar system? (ANS: Jupiter) (b)Which
planets in the solar system have satellites?
6. What is a milk way
7. What are the real names of objects in the
sky which are commonly known by the
• The Spring tides are called Proxigean spring following names?
ocean tides (i) An evening star (ii) A morning star
• Are rare and unusually high spring tides which (iii) A shooting star
occur when the moon is both unusually close to 8. Can humans breathe normally in space as
the earth and the new moon phase they can on Earth? (Give reason)
Neap Ocean Tides
9. Why Venus is hotter than Mercury, although
Mercury is very closer to the Sun than
• Neap tides occur when the gravitational forces Venus?
of the moon and the sun are perpendicular to
one another (with respect to the earth) 10. State reasons why an astronaut in space
(a) Needs a special space
• Neap tides occur during quarter moons. At this
suit to prevent blood from
time, the sun and the moon are pulling at right boiling (b) Can float
angles to each other causing their gravitational without falling
forces to cancel each other. They are weaker
(c) Uses small jets of gas in his
tides
maneuvers(movements) instead of
swimming like fish in water
11. What planet is famous for its big red spot on
it
12. What planet is famous for the beautiful rings
that surround it?
13. Differentiate between spring and neap tides
14. The distance of Jupiter from the sun is 7.80
x 108 km and one year of Jupiter is
equivalent to 12 earth years. Calculate the
(i) The distance of its path in one year (ANS:
Advantage of tides d = 4.903 x 109 km)
 During high tides the water level in the harbor rises, (ii)Speed of the planet in km per hour (ANS:
This enable bigger ships to move into harbor and v = 46.6 x 103 km/hr)
unloaded
15. (a) How a star differs from a planet
 The high tides clear the sea shore from garbage, etc (e) Name two objects in space which are
 High tides are used for generating electricity the earth’s nearest neighbors (f) What
planet is known as the red planet?
Class Activity–6

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 (g) What is the hottest Topic – 7: Geophysics
planet in our solar system?
Geophysics: Is a branch of science which deals with
(h) What is the name of the composition, properties and behaviors of
the force holding us to the earth? 16. the earth
What is the name of Saturn’s largest
moon? (ANS: Titan) Interior Structure of the Earth
17. How do the planets stay in orbit around The Interior earth structure is divided into three zones
the sun? namely
18. Who was the first person to walk on  Earth's Core
the moon? (ANS: Neil Armstrong - 1969)  Earth's Mantle
19. Olympus Mons is large volcanic  Earth's Crust
mountain on which planet? (ANS: Mars)
20. The earth appears to be stationary, but
it is always in motion. Calculate the unnoticed
speed of a man along the equator in km/h due
to:
(a) Rotational motion of the earth about
its axis
(b) Revolution of the earth around the sun
(Take 1 year = 365 days) Earth's Crust
21. Define star and give the name of the • The crust is the outer solid layer of the earth.
one closest to the earth • The earth’s crust ranges from 5 km – 70 km
22. Mercury planet is 58 x 106 km from the • It is divided into two layers namely
sun and it takes 88 days to complete one orbit continental crust and oceanic crust
around the sun .Calculate the speed of the
planet in km/hr to 3 significant figures. (ANS:
1.73 x 105 km/hr)
23. (a) Name two largest planets in the
solar system
(b) Name two brightest planets in the solar
system
Continental Crust (under the land)
24. State the following terms (a)
Heliocentric theory (b) Geocentric theory • Continental crust is thick (25 km – 70 km) and
light because it is made of rocks with a low
25. A communication satellite appears to density (about 2 – 2.8 tones per cubic meter).
be stationary over one point on the earth’s
surface when it is moving in a circular orbit of • It is composed mainly by granites and
radius 42,000 km. Find its speed in km/hr given sedimentary rocks.
that it must complete one orbit in 24 hours (v = • Land mass and mountains are located at
11 x 103 m/s) 26. x continental crust.

Oceanic Crust (under the sea)

• Oceanic crust is basaltic with high density
(about 3 – 3.1 tonnes per cubic metre).
• It is thin ( 6 – 11km) and heavy because it is
made of rocks (volcanic rocks) that have a
high density
• It covers two third (2/3) of the earth’s surface
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NB:
• The low density of the thick continental crust
allows it to "float" in high relief on the much
higher density mantle below
• Mohorovicic discontinuity(Moho) is the
boundary that separates the crust and mantle
Earth's Mantle
• Earth's Mantle is starting from Moho and
extends to a depth of 2900km below the earth Outer Core
surface up to its boundary with the earth’s • The outer core is the second largest layer and
core. composed of liquid of molten nickel and iron
• Gutenberg Discontinuity is the boundary known as magma. It is about 2200 km thick
between the mantle and the core • The magma surrounds the inner core and
creates the earth’s magnetic field

The inner Core

• The inner core is the hottest part of the earth.
Its surface temperature is estimated to be
approximately 5700 K(54300 C) which is as hot
as the surface of the sun
• It is made of solid iron and nickel that are under
so much pressure they cannot melt
N B: • It is 1200 km thick (radius) and heavy
 Mantle contains about 70% of the earth’s mass radioactive elements within the core generate
the intense heat as they decay
 It is made by plastic rocks (both in solid and molten • Inner core is a solid even though its
state) temperature is higher than the outer core. This
 Upper part of mantle has a temperature of about is because it is composed of very dense
8700C materials – like iron and nickel alloys. The
 Lower part of mantle has a temperature of about materials are solid due to the high pressure
at the depth of more than 5000 km below the
22000C
earth’s surface.
 The lower limit of brittle behavior is the boundary
between the upper and lower mantle Tectonic Plates
 This steady increase of temperature with depth is • Tectonic plates are the huge pieces of cracked
known as the geothermal gradient earth’s crust and mantle parts which float over
semi-molten rock.
 The heat energy is the source of force that causes
continental movement like volcanism and • Also is called lithospheric plate. Tectonic
earthquakes plates are in slow [Link] movement
means continents are moving apart and toward
each other. This process in which continents
Earth's Core
move is called continental drift.
• Earth's Core is the innermost part of the earth.
• It extends from Gutenberg discontinuity to Boundary
earth’s geometric center. • Boundary is the line where two tectonic plates
• It consists of two distinct regions which are the meet
outer core and the inner core
Types of Boundary
 Destructive/ converging boundary
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 Constructive/diverging boundary under the upper plate. Magma forces away
through weak points in the crust
 Conservative boundary

Destructive (Convergent) Boundary Volcanoes at Constructive boundaries

• Is the kind of boundary in which edges of two • At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates
plates are moving toward each other diverge from one another. For example, the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of
volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates
pulling apart

Volcanoes at far from Plate Boundaries

• This eruption occurs when mantle is hotter
Constructive (Divergent) Boundary than normal. The magma formed is forced
toward earth’s surface. For Example,
• Is the kind of boundary in which edges of two Nyamalagira volcano located at Congo. This
plates moving away each other
kind of volcanoes are called Hot-sport
volcanoes

Types of Volcanoes

Conservative Boundary • Fissure volcanoes

• Is the kind of boundary in which two plates • Central volcanoes
slide moving each other in opposite or the same
direction
Fissure Volcanoes
• Fissure volcanoes are kinds of volcanoes
which occur along cracks in and between
tectonic plates.

Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are places where molten rock called
magma leaks out through a hole or a crack in
the earth’s crust

Causes of Volcanoes
Central Volcanoes
• Volcanoes are caused by movement of molten
rock and heat energy inside the earth. These • Central volcanoes are a single vertical main
movements are called subterranean vent through which magma reaches the earth’s
movements surface.
• Most volcanoes form along constructive and • It is a cone shaped, builds up from successive
destructive boundaries and few form far from layers of lava and ash
plate boundaries • The process by which magma is forced from
• Magma that reached the earth’s surface is interior of the earth through a vent in the earth
called lava crust is called Vulcanicity

Volcanoes at destructive boundaries

 When ocean plate plunges under another plate,
the ocean plate rubs against the plate above it
and gets hot. Rock melts resulting magma

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 aircraft where the particles can be melted by the
high operating temperature.

Positive effects of volcanoes

o Landscape formation: Volcanoes lead to
formation of mountains ,islands , plateaus and
valley
o Tourism: Provide extraordinary scenery, so
Classification of Volcanoes beautiful and natural that they attract tourists to the
Active Volcanoes area, bringing in some economic value.
• Active volcanoes are those that erupt regularly o Geothermal energy: Places close to volcanic
in recent times. activities tend to have higher potential for
• Example, Mt. Nyiragongo–Congo, Santa geothermal energy, which can be an advantage to
Maria–Guatemala and Ol Doinyo Lengai–Tz the towns and cities
o Soil: Ash and lava breakdown become soil that are
rich in nutrients, and become good areas for crop
Dormant Volcanoes
planting activities o Mineral: it brings valuable
• Are those that have erupted in historical times mineral to the earth’s surface
but are now quiet but can erupt again Earthquakes
• Example, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and • Earthquakes are the rumblings, shaking or
Mt. Fuji in Japan rolling of the earth's surface.
• The study of earthquakes and seismic waves
Extinct Volcanoes that move through and around the earth is
known as “Seismology”
• Are those which have not erupted in human
• Scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic
history, probably never erupt again
waves is called seismologist
• Example Mt. Thielsen in Oregon in the US
Causes of Earthquakes
Effects of Volcanoes  Movements of tectonic plates
 Volcanic eruptions
Negative effects of volcanoes
• Destruction property and loss of human life : How earthquake occur?
Eruptions occurring close to human settlements • Earthquakes are usually caused when rock
may spill and destroy lives and property underground suddenly breaks along a fault. This
sudden release of energy causes the seismic
• Environmental Pollution : Ash discharged waves that make the ground shake.
very high into the stratosphere can have
negative consequences on the ozone layer
• When two blocks of rock (plates) are rubbing
against each other, they stick a little , after a
• Lahars: Ash and mud can mix with rain and while the rocks break ,and the earthquake occurs
melting snow, forming lahars. NB:
Lahars are mudflows flowing at very fast Hypocenter(Focus) is the point within the
pace earth where an earthquake originates Wave
energy released by earthquakes is called
• Acidic rain: Gas emissions from volcanoes are seismic waves
a natural contributor to acidic rain Epicenter Is the point on the earth’s surface directly
• Accident: Ash thrown into the air by eruptions above where an earthquake occurs and spread
can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet

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Seismic Waves • When S wave propagates, it shears the rock
• Are mechanical waves through which sideways at right angles to the direction of
earthquake energy is transmitted and released travel. If a liquid is sheared sideways or
OR twisted, it will not spring back; hence S waves
cannot propagate in the liquid parts of the earth,
• Is the energy released by earthquakes from such as oceans and lakes.
hypocenter

Types of Seismic Waves Surface Waves

There are two main types of seismic waves namely:-
• Are seismic waves which originate from and
• Body waves: Are the waves which can travel radically from the epicenter
travel through the earth’s inner layers OR
• Surface waves: Are the waves which can
only move along the surface of the planet • Surface wave is the seismic waves which
like ripples on water propagate in earth’s surface.

Types of Surface Waves

Types of body waves  Love waves  Rayleigh waves
• Primary waves or P waves
• Secondary waves or S waves Love Waves
• Are the waves that travel by a transverse
motion of particles that is parallel to the
ground surface
Primary Waves (P waves)
• Are the first earthquake waves released • They make the ground shifting from one side
from the hypocenter to another
• Its motion is the same as that of a sound wave • The surface waves do damage to surface
in that, as it spreads out, it alternately pushes structure such as buildings and hydroelectric
(compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock. power plants
These P waves are felt as a sudden jolt
• Love waves generally travel faster than
• It travels through the Earth's core and through Rayleigh waves
both solid rock, such as Granite
Mountains, and liquid material, such as volcanic
magma and the water of the oceans.

Rayleigh
• Rayleigh are seismic surface waves which
create a rolling movement and makes the
Secondary waves (S waves) ground to move up and down
• Are seismic waves produced after primary
waves and which are felt as a series of side to
side tremors

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 • Earthquake can only have one magnitude but,
its intensity reduces as the seismic waves
spread out from the Hypocenter
Seismograph
NB: • Is an instrument used to record ground
 P waves is faster than S wave to be detected at movements caused by earthquakes.
seismic station • The seismograph records both the magnitude
 Surface waves travel more slowly than body and the intensity of the earthquake.
waves (P and S) T
y
 Love waves (do not propagate through water) can p
effect surface water only insofar as the sides of e
lakes and ocean bays pushing water sideways like s
the sides of a vibrating tank
 Rayleigh waves propagates through water due to o
f
vertical components of their motion
S
Earthquake Scales
e
• The nature of an earthquakes described in i
terms of their magnitude and intensity s
m
Earthquakes Magnitude o
g
• The magnitude of an earthquake Is a measure r
of the energy it releases. a
• It is usually measured on the Richter scale. p
h
• The Richter scale is based on the amplitude
of the largest seismic wave recorded for an o
earthquake, no matter what type of wave was
the strongest S
• The Richter scale magnitudes are based on a i
logarithmic scale (base 10) m
p
• The scale has no upper limit l
• The small magnitude expressed in negative e
numbers while large magnitude expressed in
positive numbers p
e
n
Earthquakes Intensity
d
• The intensity of an earthquake Is a measure of u
its strength based on the changes it causes to l
the landscape. u
m
• The intensity of an earthquake is usually
measured on the Modified Mercalli scale. The
S
scale is calibrated from 1 to 12. On this scale,
e
level 1 is a minor tremor that CAUSES NO
i
DAMAGE whereas level 12 causes TOTAL
s
DEVASTATION.
m
o
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g  Snow slopes: Earthquakes can also trigger
r avalanches on snow slopes which can collide
a with people, house etc
p
h  Tsunamis: Tsunamis are the hug water waves
cause water to rise or fall. When a tsunami
o reaches shallow water, it slows down, its
wavelength reduces and its height grows.
I  Collapsing of buildings: A strong earthquake
n can flatten a whole city. An example, is the
v Japanese city of Kobe which was completely
e flattened by an earthquake measuring 7.2 on the
r Richter scale
t
e  Fire outbreak: Breaking of gas or oil pipes
d and collapsing of electricity lines
activate a fire outbreak
p  Loss of Life: People in areas where an
e
earthquake has stricken may get buried under
n
buildings and soil or get hurt or even get killed
d
when items fall on them
u
l  Destruction of property: When earthquakes
u occur in places with buildings
m can lead to collapse of buildings and structures
:
 Floods: Tsunamis lead to coastal floods since
S ocean water suddenly rises above its normal
e  Backward rivers: Tilting ground can also
i make rivers change their course. This can
s result in the creation of earthquake lakes that
m cover huge tracts of previously settled land
o
g
r Earthquake Warning Signs
a • Thermal indicator:
p Few months before the earthquake, the average
h temperature of particular area increasing. On the
day of the earthquake, the temperature of a place is
about 5 to 9 degrees Celsius above the average
Recording the Pendulum Motion normal temperature for that day.

• The recording of the motion of the pendulum

can be done through Optical mechanical or
electronic methods • Water indicator: About one or three days before an
earthquake, there is
Effect (Hazards) of Earthquakes 1. Sudden rise or fall in water levels in wells.
The rise can be as high as one meter. The
well water may turn muddy
 Landslides: Earthquakes can cause unstable 2. At times a fountain appears inside the well.
hillsides, mountain slopes and cliffs to move Sometimes a fountain may appear in the
downwards, creating landslides ground. This normally happens a few hours
before the quake
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 3. There is also a sudden and rapid increase or Structure and composition of the atmosphere
decrease of water flow in the rivers. This
happens about one to two days before the Atmospheric Structure
quake
• The atmosphere is a layer of gas and dust that
• Seismo electromagnetic indicator: surrounds the earth
When temperature raises results geomagnetic
field to reduce which affects the propagation of
Layers (Regions) of Atmosphere
electromagnetic waves (radio, television and
telephone). This is a very reliable indicator. It is • Atmosphere is divided into five regions based
usually recorded about 10 to 20 hours before the on its thermal characteristics (temperature
quake. changes), chemical composition, movement and
density
• Animal indicator: Between 10 and 20 hours before
the occurrence of an earthquake, the entire animal
kingdom becomes highly disturbed and restless. Therefore there are five regions includes
 Troposphere region
• Human indicator:
Sensitive patients in hospitals become highly  Stratosphere region
disturbed before an earthquake. They exhibit a  Mesosphere region
sudden rise in blood pressure, heart trouble,
headache, migraine and respiratory disorders.  Thermosphere region
Indeed, the number of outpatients in hospitals  Exosphere region
increases by five to seven times, some 10 to 20 Troposphere Region
hours before the quake
• Troposphere region is the region nearest to the
Precaution taken during an earthquake earth.
 If you are indoors during an earthquake, drop, • It extends to an altitude of up to 10 km above
cover and hold on. Get under a desk, table or bench. the poles and 20 km above the equator.
Hold on to one of the legs and cover your eyes. If NB:
there is no table or desk nearby, sit down against an  This region is the densest part of the atmosphere. It
interior wall. contains 80% by mass of the atmosphere. It
 Pick a safe place where things will not fall on you contains most of the atmosphere’s water vapor

 Wait in your safe place until the shaking stops, then  The temperature in this region decreases with
check to see if you are hurt altitude at an average rate of 6°C/km

 Move carefully and watch out for things that have  Air molecules can travel to the top of the
fallen or broken, creating hazards. Be ready for troposphere and back down again in just a few
additional earthquakes called aftershocks days. This mixing encourages changing weather

 Be on the lookout for fires. Fire is the most  Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere.
common earthquake-related hazard due to damaged Clouds and rain are formed within this region.
gas and electrical lines.  Boundary separates the troposphere and the
 If you must leave a building after the shaking stops, stratosphere is called the tropopause
use the stairs and not the elevator.  Temperatures stop decreasing with height and
become constant
Similarities between earthquakes and volcanoes
 They are both caused by movement of molten Stratosphere Region
rock and heat deep inside the earth • Stratosphere Is a region that starts from the
 They mostly occur near tectonic boundaries tropopause and extends to about 50 km high.
• This layer is more stable, drier and less dense
compared to the troposphere.
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 • The temperature in the stratosphere slowly • This layer is also known as the upper
increases with altitude atmosphere
• Temperature increase due to the presence of • The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to
the ozone layer which absorbs ultraviolet rays 550 km above the earth’s surface, called
from the sun. The ozone layer lies in the ionosphere
middle of the stratosphere between 20 and 30
km. Ozone(O3) is a triatomic form of oxygen
• This region containing a high concentration of
charged particles called ions and free
• This layer plays the important role of electrons
absorbing ultraviolet radiations which would
otherwise reach the earth’s surface .This
• The large number of free electrons in the
radiation is harmful to both animal and plant ionosphere allow the propagation of
life on earth electromagnetic waves

• The stable air of the stratosphere also prevents

• Ionosphere also absorbs dangerous radiation.
The radiation absorbed in the ionosphere
large storms from extending much beyond the
includes hard and soft X-rays and extreme
tropopause
ultraviolet (EUV) radiation.
• Planes also fly in the stratosphere. This is
because it has strong steady horizontal winds
which are above the stormy weather of the Importance of Ionosphere
troposphere  The ionosphere plays an important role in
communications. Radio waves can be reflected off
• Troposphere and stratosphere are collectively the ionosphere allowing radio communications over
known as the lower atmosphere long distances
• Boundary separates the stratosphere and the
other layer is called stratopause
Exosphere Region
Mesosphere Region • Exosphere region is the outermost region of the
atmosphere
• Mesosphere is region that starts just above the
stratosphere and extends to 85 km high • Atmospheric gas pressure is very low. Light
atoms such as hydrogen and helium may
• Temperature at this layer decreases with acquire sufficient energy to escape the earth’s
altitude. The lowest temperature of the gravitational pull
atmosphere (-90°C) occurs within this region
• The upper part of the exosphere is called
• Mesosphere is the layer in which most meteors magnetosphere. The motion of ions in this
burn while entering the earth’s atmosphere region is strongly constrained by the presence
• Boundary separates the mesosphere and the of the earth’s magnetic field  Is the region
thermosphere is called mesopause where satellites orbit the earth

Thermosphere Region
Importance of the Atmosphere
• Thermosphere Is region that starts just above  The troposphere controls the climate and ultimately
the mesosphere and extends up to 690 km high determines the quality of life on the earth
• Temperature increases with increase in altitude  The troposphere is important for life on the earth.
due to the sun’s heat The layer contains gases which include o Oxygen
• The temperature in this region can go as high which is used for respiration by animals o Carbon
dioxide which is used by plants in photosynthesis
as 1, 727°C
• Chemical reactions occur much faster here o Nitrogen found in this layer also provides
than on the surface of the earth. an inactive environment for many chemical
processes to take place

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 o Gases also support many important (deforestation) o Burning
chemical processes such as combustion, of fossil fuels (coal, oil
weathering and oxidation and natural gas)
 The stratosphere prevents harmful ultraviolet
radiation from reaching the earth Methane (CH4)

 The mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere also • Is one of the trace gases in the atmosphere that is
considered to play a major role in the greenhouse
prevent harmful radiation such as cosmic rays from
effect
reaching the earth’s surface
 Communication is also made possible by some • The main source of methane is;
layers of the atmosphere, specifically the (i) Agricultural activities. It is released
ionosphere from wetlands, such as rice fields and
Greenhouse Effect from animals, particularly cud-chewing
• Is the process in which the emission of radiation by animals like cows.
the atmosphere warms the earth’s surface (ii) Mining of coal and oil (Fossil methane
OR emission during the exploration and
transport of fossil fuels)
• Is the trapping back of Sun’s energy by a planet
from atmospheres (iii) Biomass burning (Forest fires,
OR charcoal combustion and firewood
burning)
• Is the process that occurs when gases in Earth’s
(iv) Anaerobic decomposition of organic
atmosphere trap the sun’s heat
waste in landfills
How Greenhouse effect occurs
 When a planet’s surface is heated by sunlight it emits
radiation which is absorbed by the greenhouse • Note: Methane molecules have a lifetime of 10
gases in the atmosphere. The atmosphere reflects years in the atmosphere
back thermal radiation in all directions to the Nitrous Oxide (Dinitrogen Oxide – N2O)
earth’s surface. Over time, this increases the  Is the third most important GHG for the enhanced
planet’s temperature due to presence of greenhouse greenhouse effect after CO2 and CH4  Nitrous oxide
gases is produced from both natural and human-made
processes.
Sources of Greenhouse Effect
 Water vapor Human activities includes
 Combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and power
 Ozone layer stations
 Carbon dioxide  Use of nitrogenous fertilizers  Burning of
 Methane vegetation
 Chlorofluorocarbons  Animal waste.

 Nitrous Oxide (Dinitrogen Oxide) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

• Chlorofluorocarbons are organic compounds made
up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon.
 Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas. The gas
contributes over 50% of the greenhouse effect. • The sources of CFCs in the atmosphere include
fridges, air conditioners, sprays and aerosols

The following are some of • CFCs are extremely effective greenhouse gases. A
the sources of carbon CFC molecule is 10 000 times more effective in
dioxide o Clearing and trapping heat than a carbon dioxide molecule
burning of vegetation
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Global Warming conditions favorable to pathogens and mosquitoes
• Global warming is the increase of the average  Change in world’s climate patterns
temperatures near or on the earth’s surface
caused by greenhouse gases Solutions to minimize Global warming
OR • Reduce the use of fossil fuels by using public
• Global warming is the increase in temperature transport which will minimize the number of
near or on the surface of the earth resulting into vehicles in the roads
greenhouse effect • Use of fuel-efficient cars

Causes of global warming • Use of renewable sources of energy such as solar

and wind.
• Global warming is mainly caused by
greenhouse gases • Afforestation. Replant trees that would absorb
carbon dioxide
How Global warming occurs? • Countries to make a policy of minimizing the
• A Global warming occurs when green house emission of greenhouse gases.
gases collect in the atmosphere and absorb Example, Kyoto protocol
sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced
off the earth’s surface Class Activity – 7:1
• Normally this radiation would escape into 1. (a) Define the term earthquake
space – but these pollutants in the atmosphere , (b) Briefly explain the meaning of the following
trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter terms as used on earthquake
(Greenhouse effect)
(i) Hypocenter
(ii) Epicenter
Effects of Global Warming (c) (i)What is global
 Increase in the temperature of the oceans warming?
 Rise in sea levels due to melting of land ice. This (ii)Name four gases that contribute to global
warming and give one source of each
will lead to coastal flooding of the coastal land.
(d) (i) Mention two merits and two demerits of
 Acidification of the oceans CO2 dissolves in water volcanoes
and forms a weak carbonic acid and hence concept (ii) Briefly explain two
of PH of ocean
hazards associated
 Extreme weather events which include floods, with earth quakes
drought, heat waves, hurricanes and tornadoes 2. What is meant by the following terms as used
 Destroying of agriculture and fisheries. This is in geophysics
due to forests, farms and cities will face (i) Magma (ii)Tsunami
troublesome new pests, heat waves, heavy
ANS: (i) Magma: Are molten rocks inside the earth’s
downpours and increased flooding.
mantle which are ejected during a volcanic
 Melting glaciers, snowmelt and severe droughts eruption
will cause more dramatic water shortages and (ii) Tsunami is a sea wave which is caused by
increase the risk of wildfires disturbance of the ocean floor either
 Extinction (Death) of some animal and plant by an earthquake or a volcanic activity
species. Disruption of habitats such as coral reefs
and Alpine meadows could drive many plant and
animal species to extinction
 Diseases outbreaks. Asthma, allergies and other
infectious diseases will become more common due
to increased growth of pollen – producing ragweed,
higher levels of air pollution and the spread of REFERENCES

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 • Ordinary Level Physics:(A.F Abbott)
• PHYSICS FORM 4 STUDENTS’ BOOK
(TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION)
• PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICS
• PHYSICS FOR ZANZIBAR SEC SCHOOLS
BOOK 4 (OXFORD,UNIVERSITY PRESS)
• NECTA REVIEW
• ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
• WIKIPEDIA
• https.//[Link]
• [Link]

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