GRAMMAR OBJECTIVES

1) Present Perfect Continuous Page - (3)

2) Present Perfect Simple vs. Present Perfect Continuous

Page - (7)
3) First and Second Conditionals (A2-CE)

4) Future Continuous Tense Stative & Dynamic Verbs

Page – (12)
5) Revision of Modal Verbs Page – (17)

6) Modal verbs with perfect infinitive (Perfect Modals)

Page – (23)
7) Linking Verbs Page – (27)
8) Would vs. Used to Page – (32)
9) Would rather vs. Would prefer Page – (37)
10) Simple Past vs. Past Continuous Page – (41)
11) Simple Past vs. Past Perfect Page – (46)
12) Perfect Modal Verbs (Deduction) Page – (50)
13) Relative Clauses Page – (56)
14) Second vs. Third Conditional Page – (61)
15) Wish Clauses Page – (64)
-Conjuctions to replace ‘if’ Page – (69)
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16) The Passive Voice Page – (72)
17) Gerund&Infinitive Page – (79)
18) Intensifiers Page – (85)

19) Expressing Regrets Page-( 90)

20) Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession Page- (94)

21) Noun clauses with "that" Page – (99)

Noun Clauses with "question words" Page- (102)

22) Causative Verbs Page- (107

23)Short forms of noun clauses (without "that") Page –
(111)
24) Noun Clauses with "if" and "whether" Page – (116)

25) Reported Speech Page- (120)

26) Revision of relative clauses Page-(126)

27) Defining vs. non-defining relative clauses Page-(126)

"which" to modify the whole sentence Page-(131)
28)Reporting Verbs Page –(135)

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 1) Teaching Document: Present Perfect
Continuous
Introduction

The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to express actions that started in
the past and are still continuing in the present or have recently stopped but have
visible effects in the present. This tense highlights the duration or ongoing
nature of an activity.

Formulation of the Present Perfect Continuous

The structure of the Present Perfect Continuous tense is as follows:

Affirmative Form:

Subject + has/have + been + verb(-ing) + object (optional)

 Examples:
o I have been working on this project all day.
o She has been studying for two hours.

Negative Form:

Subject + has/have + not + been + verb(-ing) + object (optional)

 Examples:
o They have not been sleeping well lately.
o He hasn’t been practicing the guitar recently.

Interrogative Form:

Has/Have + subject + been + verb(-ing) + object (optional)?

 Examples:
o Have you been waiting for a long time?
o Has she been feeling sick?

Short Answers:

 Yes, I have.
 No, I haven’t.

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Usage of the Present Perfect Continuous

1. To describe actions that started in the past and are still continuing in
the present.
o Example:
"I have been living in this city for five years."
(The action of living started in the past and continues now.)
2. To describe actions that have recently finished but have a present
result.
o Example:
"He has been working hard, so he's exhausted."
(The work has just finished, and he is tired now as a result.)
3. To emphasize the duration of an action.
o Example:
"She has been reading for three hours."
(The action of reading has continued for a period of time.)
4. To express repeated actions or activities over a period of time.
o Example:
"I have been going to the gym every day this month."

Time Expressions with Present Perfect Continuous

The Present Perfect Continuous often uses the following time expressions to
indicate duration or recent activity:

 For (used to express duration):

o "She has been working for two hours."
 Since (used to refer to a point in time):
o "I have been waiting since 8 AM."
 Lately / Recently (used to refer to recent actions):
o "I have been feeling tired lately."
 All day / All week / All month (used to express the duration of an
activity within a specific period):
o "We have been studying all day."

Key Differences between Present Perfect and Present Perfect

Continuous

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 Feature Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous
Focus Focus on the result of the Focus on the duration or ongoing
action. nature of the action.
Use Describes a completed Describes an action that started in the
action with a link to the past and is still continuing or recently
present. finished.
Examples "I have seen that movie." "I have been watching that movie."

Action Emphasizes the Emphasizes the process or duration of

Completion completion of the action. the action.

Context-Based Scenarios
1. Scenario 1: Waiting for a Friend
o Context: You're at a cafe, waiting for a friend who is late.
o Situation: You want to explain how long you've been waiting for
your friend.
o Sentence: "I have been waiting for you for 30 minutes!"
o Explanation: The action of waiting started in the past (30 minutes
ago) and continues until the present moment.
2. Scenario 2: Working on a Project
o Context: You're discussing a project you've been working on.
o Situation: You want to express that you've been working on the
project for some time.
o Sentence: "I have been working on this project all day."
o Explanation: The action of working started earlier today and
continues or has just finished, and it is still relevant now.
3. Scenario 3: Exercise Routine
o Context: You're talking about your fitness routine with a friend.
o Situation: You want to explain your current workout schedule.
o Sentence: "I have been going to the gym every day this week."
o Explanation: The activity of going to the gym has been happening
regularly throughout the week.
4. Scenario 4: A Recent Visit
o Context: You're talking to someone about a recent visit to a
museum.
o Situation: You want to explain that you've just visited the museum
and it has affected your current feelings.
o Sentence: "I have been visiting the museum, and now I'm feeling
inspired."

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 oExplanation: The action is recent, and its effect (feeling inspired)
is present.
5. Scenario 5: An Ongoing Problem
o Context: You're talking about an issue you've been dealing with at
work.
o Situation: You want to express an ongoing problem.
o Sentence: "We have been facing a lot of challenges with this
project."
o Explanation: The challenges have been happening over time and
continue to affect the present.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Incorrect use of Present Perfect instead of Present Perfect

Continuous:
o Wrong: "I have studied for three hours."
o Correct: "I have been studying for three hours."
o Explanation: Use the Present Perfect Continuous to emphasize the
ongoing nature or duration of the action.
2. Confusing the use of "for" and "since":
o Wrong: "I have been working since two hours."
o Correct: "I have been working for two hours."
o Explanation: "For" refers to a duration (e.g., two hours), while
"since" refers to a specific point in time (e.g., 10 AM).

Exercises

1. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in Present Perfect
Continuous:

 I __________ (study) for two hours.

 She __________ (wait) for the bus since 7 AM.
 We __________ (work) on this project all week.
 They __________ (live) here for five years.

2. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:

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  He has been go to the gym for three months.
 I have studied all morning, now I am tired.
 They has been working hard since last year.

3. Choose the correct answer:

 "I __________ (write) my report for the last two hours."

 a) have written
b) have been writing
c) wrote
 "She __________ (wait) for her friend since 10 AM."
 a) has waited
b) has been waiting
c) waits

2) Teaching Document: Present Perfect

Simple vs. Present Perfect Continuous
Formulation of the Present Perfect Simple and Continuous
Present Perfect Simple:

The Present Perfect Simple tense is used to talk about experiences, actions completed at an
unspecified time in the past, or actions with a present result.

 Structure:
Subject + has/have + past participle (verb 3)
o Examples:
 I have finished my homework.
 She has traveled to many countries.

Present Perfect Continuous:

The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to focus on the duration or the ongoing nature
of an action that started in the past and continues in the present, or an action that has just
recently finished but has visible results.

 Structure:
Subject + has/have + been + verb(-ing)
o Examples:
 I have been working all day.
 She has been studying for three hours.

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 Key Differences between Present Perfect Simple and Present
Perfect Continuous

Feature Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous

Focus Focuses on the completion Focuses on the duration or
of the action. ongoing nature of the action.

Usage Used for finished actions, Used for ongoing actions or

experiences, or actions with actions with visible present
a present result. results.

Examples "I have seen that movie." "I have been watching that
movie."

Time Action has happened at an Action started in the past and is

reference unspecified time or has a still continuing or has just
result in the present. finished.

Duration No emphasis on how long Emphasizes the duration of the

the action lasted. activity.

Usage of Present Perfect Simple

1. Experiences or actions that happened at an unspecified time in the past (the exact
time is not important or unknown).
o Examples:
 "I have visited Paris."
 "She has never eaten sushi."
2. Actions that have a present result or consequence (though the action itself is
finished).
o Examples:
 "I have lost my keys." (The action is finished, but the result is
important now.)
 "He has cleaned the house." (The house is clean now.)
3. Actions that have occurred repeatedly over time.
o Examples:
 "I have read that book many times."
 "They have played football several times this month."

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Usage of Present Perfect Continuous
1. Actions that started in the past and are still continuing in the present.
o Examples:
 "I have been studying for two hours."
 "They have been working at this company since 2005."
2. Actions that were happening recently and have visible effects in the
present.
o Examples:
 "She has been crying. Her eyes are red."
 "I have been waiting for you for an hour."
3. To emphasize the duration of an activity or the ongoing process of an
action.
o Examples:
 "We have been traveling for three months."
 "He has been talking for over an hour."

Time Expressions with Present Perfect Simple and

Continuous
 Present Perfect Simple often uses:
o Just, already, yet, never, ever, for, since
 "I have just eaten."
 "She has already finished her homework."
 "We have known each other for five years."
 "They have never been to Japan."
 Present Perfect Continuous often uses:
o For, since, lately, recently, all day/week/month/year
 "I have been working for two hours."
 "He has been living in London since 2010."
 "They have been studying all afternoon."
 "She has been feeling sick lately."

Examples and Comparison

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1. Duration vs. Completion

 Present Perfect Simple:

"I have finished my homework."
(The homework is completed, and it's important that it’s finished now.)
 Present Perfect Continuous:
"I have been doing my homework for two hours."
(The homework started two hours ago and is still in progress, or it just
finished, with an emphasis on how long it took.)

2. Experience vs. Ongoing Action

 Present Perfect Simple:

"She has visited many countries."
(The focus is on the experience of visiting countries at unspecified times
in the past.)
 Present Perfect Continuous:
"She has been traveling around the world for two years."
(The focus is on the ongoing nature of her travel, which has lasted for a
period of time.)

Context-Based Scenarios
1. Scenario 1: A Friend Asking About a Recent Trip
o Context: You’ve just come back from a trip, and a friend asks
about it.
o Present Perfect Simple Answer:
"I have visited several places in Europe."
(The focus is on the fact that you visited different places, without
specifying when.)
o Present Perfect Continuous Answer:
"I have been traveling in Europe for the last month."
(The focus is on the ongoing nature and duration of your travels.)
2. Scenario 2: Talking About Work
o Context: You're explaining your current workload to a colleague.
o Present Perfect Simple Answer:
"I have completed the report."
(The report is finished, and it’s important that it is done now.)
o Present Perfect Continuous Answer:
"I have been working on the report all day."
(The report work is ongoing, and the focus is on the time spent
working on it.)
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 3. Scenario 3: Discussing a Long-Term Project
o Context: You’re talking about a long-term project you’ve been
involved in.
o Present Perfect Simple Answer:
"We have achieved great results this year."
(The focus is on the accomplishments of the project up to this
point.)
o Present Perfect Continuous Answer:
"We have been working on this project for six months."
(The focus is on the ongoing work and how long the project has
been in progress.)

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Incorrect use of the Present Perfect Continuous for finished actions:
o Wrong: "I have been visited Paris."
o Correct: "I have visited Paris."
o Explanation: Use the Present Perfect Simple for actions that are
complete, not ongoing.
2. Using the Present Perfect Simple for actions that emphasize duration:
o Wrong: "I have worked here for five years."
o Correct: "I have been working here for five years."
o Explanation: Use the Present Perfect Continuous to emphasize the
ongoing nature or duration of the action.

Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in Present Perfect
Simple or Present Perfect Continuous:

 I __________ (work) here for two years.

 She __________ (not/see) that movie yet.
 We __________ (study) English for five years.
 I __________ (finish) my homework already.

2. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:

 He has been wrote a book for three months.

 They have been traveled around the world.
 I have worked all the morning, and now I am tired.

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3. Choose the correct answer:

 "I __________ (live) here since 2015." a) have lived

b) have been living
c) lived
 "She __________ (run) for an hour and now she is tired." a) has run
b) has been running
c) ran

3) Teaching Document: Future Continuous

Tense & Stative vs. Dynamic Verbs
1. Future Continuous Tense: Overview
The Future Continuous tense is used to describe actions or events that will be happening at a
specific point in the future, emphasizing the ongoing nature of the action.

Formulation of the Future Continuous Tense

 Affirmative Form: Subject + will + be + verb(-ing)
o Examples:
 "I will be working tomorrow."
 "She will be traveling at this time next week."
 Negative Form: Subject + will + not + be + verb(-ing)
o Examples:
 "I will not be attending the meeting."
 "They won’t be sleeping when you arrive."
 Interrogative Form: Will + subject + be + verb(-ing)?
o Examples:
 "Will you be coming to the party?"
 "Will they be studying at 8 PM?"

Short Answers:

 Yes, I will.
 No, I won’t.

Usage of the Future Continuous

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 1. To describe an action that will be in progress at a specific point in the
future.
o Example:
"At 8 PM tomorrow, I will be watching TV." (The action of
watching TV will be ongoing at a particular future time.)
2. To describe two actions happening at the same time in the future.
o Example:
"While I will be studying, my friend will be playing basketball."
(Both actions will happen simultaneously in the future.)
3. To express an action that is planned or expected to happen in the
future.
o Example:
"We will be meeting at the restaurant at 7 PM." (The meeting is
planned for the future.)
4. To describe a future action that will be interrupted by another event.
o Example:
"I will be working when you call." (The action of working will be
ongoing, but will be interrupted by the call.)

Stative vs. Dynamic Verbs

Stative Verbs
Stative verbs describe states or conditions that are typically static and unchanging. These
verbs generally do not appear in the continuous forms (including the Future Continuous
tense) because they refer to situations or states of being rather than actions.

 Examples of Stative Verbs:

o Be (e.g., "I am tired.")
o Know (e.g., "I know the answer.")
o Understand (e.g., "She understands the problem.")
o Love (e.g., "They love each other.")
o Believe (e.g., "He believes in ghosts.")
o Have (used to indicate possession, e.g., "I have a car.")

Note: Although stative verbs typically do not take continuous forms, some can be
used in continuous tenses when they describe temporary situations or actions:

o "I am having a great time." (Here, have is used in a dynamic sense, describing
an experience rather than possession.)

Dynamic Verbs
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Dynamic verbs describe actions, processes, or events that can occur over time and can be
used in continuous tenses, including the Future Continuous. These verbs refer to activities that
involve movement, change, or development.

 Examples of Dynamic Verbs:

o Run (e.g., "She is running.")
o Play (e.g., "I will be playing football tomorrow.")
o Work (e.g., "He will be working late tonight.")
o Talk (e.g., "They will be talking during the meeting.")
o Write (e.g., "She will be writing her essay.")

Stative Verbs Dynamic Verbs

Definition: Verbs that describe a state, Definition: Verbs that describe actions,
condition, or situation that doesn’t processes, or activities that can be in
change. progress.
Examples: Examples:
- Be (e.g., "I am happy.") - Run (e.g., "She is running.")
- Know (e.g., "I know the answer.") - Play (e.g., "I will be playing football.")
- Believe (e.g., "I believe in ghosts.") - Work (e.g., "He will be working
tomorrow.")
- Understand (e.g., "She understands - Talk (e.g., "They will be talking during
the problem.") the meeting.")
- Love (e.g., "They love each other.") - Write (e.g., "She will be writing her
essay.")

Tense Usage: Tense Usage:

- Stative verbs do not appear in - Dynamic verbs are commonly used in

continuous tenses, including the Future continuous tenses, including the Future
Continuous. Continuous.

Example of Incorrect Usage: Example of Correct Usage:

"I will be knowing the answer "I will be working at 8 PM."

tomorrow."
Correct Form (Simple Future):
"I will know the answer tomorrow."

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Key Differences: Stative vs. Dynamic Verbs in Future Continuous
1. Stative Verbs:
o Do not usually appear in the Future Continuous because they
describe states or conditions that are unchanging.
o Example:
 Incorrect: "I will be knowing her tomorrow."
 Correct: "I will know her tomorrow."
 Explanation: "Know" is a stative verb and is not used in the
continuous form.
2. Dynamic Verbs:
o Can be used in the Future Continuous to describe actions that will
be in progress at a certain future time.
o Example:
 "I will be studying at 9 PM."
 Explanation: "Study" is a dynamic verb, so it can be used in
the Future Continuous to indicate an ongoing action.

Context-Based Scenarios

1. Scenario 1: Describing a Future Action in Progress

o Context: You’re telling your friend what you’ll be doing tomorrow
evening.
o Future Continuous Example:
"At 8 PM tomorrow, I will be watching the new movie." (The
action of watching TV will be ongoing at a particular future time.)
2. Scenario 2: Discussing Future Plans
o Context: You're talking to a colleague about your schedule next
week.
o Future Continuous Example:
"I will be attending a conference next week." (The action of
attending will be ongoing at a specific time.)

3. Scenario 3: Future Action Interrupted by Another Event

o Context: You’re explaining that you will be doing something when
someone calls you.

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 o Future Continuous Example:
"I will be working when you call." (The action of working will be
in progress and interrupted by the call.)

4. Scenario 4: Stative Verbs in Future Continuous

o Context: You want to express something you will know in the
future.
o Correct Future Simple Usage:
"I will know the results by tomorrow." (The verb "know" is stative
and does not take the continuous form.)

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Using stative verbs in the Future Continuous:

o Wrong: "I will be knowing him by next week."
o Correct: "I will know him by next week."
2. Using dynamic verbs incorrectly (when the meaning is static):
o Wrong: "I will be having a car."
o Correct: "I will have a car."
o Explanation: "Have" refers to possession in this context, which is
a stative use, so it should not be in continuous form.

Exercises

1. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in Future Continuous:

 At this time tomorrow, I __________ (study) for my exam.

 We __________ (have) dinner at 7 PM.
 She __________ (work) on the project all week.
 They __________ (travel) to New York next month.

2. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:

 I will be knowing him by next week.

 She will be being happy when she gets the job.
 We will be having a meeting at 2 PM tomorrow.

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3. Choose the correct answer:

 "At 10 AM tomorrow, I __________ (take) a flight to Paris."

 a) will take
b) will be taking
c) takes

Teaching Document: Revision of Modal

Verbs
1. What are Modal Verbs?
Modal verbs are a special category of verbs that work with the main verb to express modality.
Modality refers to the speaker's attitude toward the action or event.

Common Modal Verbs:

 Can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, need to, dare

2. Structure of Modal Verbs

 Affirmative Form:
Subject + modal verb + base verb (no "to" after modal)
o Example:
"She can speak Spanish."
"They will come tomorrow."
 Negative Form:
Subject + modal verb + not + base verb
o Example:
"She cannot come to the party."
"I should not go there."
 Interrogative Form:
Modal verb + subject + base verb?
o Example:
"Can you help me?"
"Will they arrive soon?"

3. Uses of Modal Verbs

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1. Ability
 Can and could are used to express ability.
o Can (present ability):
"I can swim."
o Could (past ability):
"I could swim when I was younger."

2. Permission

 Can, may, and could are used to give or ask for permission.
o Can (informal):
"You can leave early today."
o May (formal):
"May I sit here?"
o Could (polite request):
"Could I borrow your pen?"

3. Possibility

 Can, may, and might are used to express possibility.

o Can (general possibility):
"It can rain a lot here."
o May (slightly formal, possible future):
"I may go to the store later."
o Might (less certain possibility):
"She might come to the party."

4. Obligation/Necessity

 Must, have to, ought to, and should express necessity or obligation.
o Must (strong necessity):
"You must wear a helmet."
o Have to (general necessity):
"I have to go to work."
o Ought to (advice or mild obligation):
"You ought to apologize."
o Should (suggestion or mild obligation):
"You should eat more vegetables."

5. Advice

 Should and ought to are used for giving advice.

o Should:
"You should study for the exam."

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 o Ought to:
"You ought to try the new restaurant."

6. Future Prediction

 Will and shall express future actions or predictions.

o Will (prediction or willingness):
"I will call you later."
o Shall (formal, often with "I" or "we"):
"We shall see what happens."

7. Request

 Can, could, will, and would are used for making requests.
o Can (informal):
"Can you help me with this?"
o Could (more polite):
"Could you please pass the salt?"
o Will (for offers or informal requests):
"Will you close the door?"
o Would (polite request):
"Would you mind helping me?"

8. Prohibition

 Must not (mustn't) and cannot express prohibition or something that

is not allowed.
o Must not (strong prohibition):
"You must not smoke here."
o Cannot (general prohibition):
"You cannot park here."

9. Offers and Suggestions

 Shall and would are often used for making offers and suggestions.
o Shall (formal offer or suggestion with "I" or "we"):
"Shall we go for a walk?"
o Would (polite suggestion or offer):
"Would you like some coffee?"

10. Preference

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  Would rather expresses preference.
o "I would rather stay home tonight."

4. Chart: Uses of Modal Verbs

Modal Use Example
Verb

Can Ability, Permission, "I can swim." / "You can leave

Possibility now." / "It can rain tomorrow."

Could Past Ability, Polite "I could read when I was young." /
Permission/Request "Could you help me?"

May Permission, Possibility "May I leave?" / "I may go to the

party."
Might Possibility (less certain) "She might join us."

Must Necessity, Obligation "You must finish this today."

Have to Necessity, Obligation "I have to work tomorrow."

Ought to Advice, Obligation "You ought to exercise more."

Should Advice, Obligation "You should apologize."

Will Future Prediction, "I will go tomorrow." / "I will help."

Willingness
Shall Formal suggestion/offer "We shall see you soon."
(with I/we)

Would Polite request, Suggestion, "Would you like some tea?" / "I
Offer would prefer coffee."

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Cannot Prohibition "You cannot park here."

Must not Prohibition "You must not smoke in here."

Would Preference "I would rather stay home."

rather

5. Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Confusing "will" and "shall":

o "Shall" is used in formal contexts and mostly with "I" or "we,"
while "will" is more common in everyday speech.
 Correct: "I shall help you" (formal).
 Correct: "I will help you" (informal).
2. Using "can" for future predictions:
o Use will or may instead of "can" for future predictions.
 Incorrect: "The weather can be sunny tomorrow."
 Correct: "The weather will be sunny tomorrow."
3. Misusing "could" for present ability:
o Use can to talk about present ability, not could.
 Incorrect: "I could swim now."
 Correct: "I can swim now."
4. Overusing "should" for strong necessity:
o Use must for strong necessity or obligation.
 Incorrect: "You should clean your room immediately."
 Correct: "You must clean your room immediately."

6. Context-Based Scenarios

1. Scenario 1: Asking for Permission

o Context: You want to ask your teacher if you can leave early.
o Correct Use of Modal Verb:
"May I leave early today?"
2. Scenario 2: Offering Help
o Context: You want to offer help to a friend who is carrying
heavy bags.
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 o Correct Use of Modal Verb:
"Shall I help you with those bags?"
3. Scenario 3: Giving Advice
o Context: You want to advise someone to exercise more.
o Correct Use of Modal Verb:
"You should exercise more to stay healthy."
4. Scenario 4: Future Prediction
o Context: You’re talking about the weather forecast.
o Correct Use of Modal Verb:
"It may rain tomorrow."

7. Exercises

1. Fill in the blanks with the correct modal verb:

 You _______ (finish) your homework before you go out.

 I _______ (help) you with that if you like.
 She _______ (arrive) by 6 PM, but we’re not sure.
 We _______ (go) to the cinema later if you want.

2. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:

 You must not eat too much sugar, it can be bad for your health.
 I can to meet you at 3 PM tomorrow.
 He might can help you with your project.
 May I to borrow your pen?

3. Choose the correct answer:

 "______ you go to the concert with me?" a) Can

b) Could
c) May
 "You ______ eat more vegetables." a) must
b) should
c) will

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 Teaching Document: Modal Verbs with
Perfect Infinitive (Perfect Modals)
1. What are Perfect Modals?
Perfect modals are formed by combining a modal verb (can, could, might, must, should,
would, etc.) with the perfect infinitive of a verb. The perfect infinitive is the base verb
"have" followed by the past participle of the main verb (e.g., have seen, have done, have
gone).

Structure of Perfect Modals

 Modal verb + have + past participle

o Examples:
 "She must have forgotten about the meeting."
 "They could have gone to the party."

2. Uses of Perfect Modals

Perfect modals are used to express different meanings depending on the context. Below are
the primary uses of perfect modals:

1. Speculation About the Past

Perfect modals can be used to speculate about what happened in the past. They allow us to
express uncertainty or possibility about past actions or events.

 Examples:
o "She must have been at the party last night."
(Speculating that it is highly likely she was at the party.)
o "He might have missed the bus."
(It’s possible that he missed the bus.)
o "They could have taken a different route."
(It’s possible they took a different route.)

2. Expressing Strong Deduction About the Past

When we are almost certain about something that happened in the past, we use must have
with a past participle.

 Examples:
o "She must have lost her keys."
(We are certain that she lost her keys.)
o "They must have left already."
(It is very likely they have already left.)

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3. Expressing Regret or Criticism (Should Have)

Should have is often used to express regret or to criticize a past action. This form indicates
that something was expected to happen, but it didn’t.

 Examples:
o "I should have studied harder for the exam."
(Regret: I didn’t study enough.)
o "You should have told me earlier."
(Criticism: It would have been better if you had told me.)

4. Expressing Past Obligation (Ought to Have, Must Have)

We use ought to have or must have to express past obligation or something that was
expected to happen but didn't.

 Examples:
o "You ought to have finished the project by now."
(It was your obligation to finish the project.)
o "He must have known about the meeting."
(It was expected that he knew about the meeting.)

5. Expressing Possibility (Might, Could, May Have)

Perfect modals like might have, could have, or may have are used to indicate that something
was possible in the past, but we are not sure.

 Examples:
o "They might have forgotten the appointment."
(It’s possible they forgot.)
o "She could have seen the message."
(It was possible for her to see the message.)
o "I may have left my keys at home."
(It’s possible I left them at home.)

6. Expressing Unfulfilled Past Action (Could Have, Might Have, Should Have)

We can use could have, might have, and should have to express actions that were possible
in the past but didn’t happen.

 Examples:
o "I could have gone to the concert, but I didn’t."
(I had the opportunity to go, but I didn’t.)
o "They might have finished the report by now."
(They had the possibility to finish it, but they didn’t.)
o "You should have called me."
(It was expected that you call me, but you didn’t.)

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 3. Chart: Perfect Modals with Examples

Modal Meaning/Use Example

Verb
Must have Strong deduction (certain past action) "She must have missed the train."
Might have Possibility (uncertain, less strong than "He might have taken the wrong
must) bus."

Could have Possibility or unfulfilled past action "I could have gone to the beach, but I
stayed home."

May have Possibility (similar to might have) "She may have forgotten to call me."
Should Regret, criticism, expectation not met "You should have gone to bed
have earlier."

Ought to Obligation, expectation (similar to "He ought to have apologized."

have should have)

Would Hypothetical situation in the past "I would have helped if I had
have (contrary to fact) known."

4. Context-Based Scenarios for Using Perfect Modals

Scenario 1: Speculating About the Past

 Context: You see a friend’s empty desk, and you wonder if they have left work
already.
 Example Using Perfect Modal:
"They must have left already."
(You're making a strong deduction about their departure.)

Scenario 2: Expressing Regret

 Context: You didn’t study enough for your exam, and you realize you should have
prepared better.
 Example Using Perfect Modal:
"I should have studied more for the exam."
(You’re expressing regret about not studying more.)

Scenario 3: Criticizing a Past Action

 Context: Someone didn’t inform you about an important event in time.

 Example Using Perfect Modal:
"You should have told me earlier."
(You’re criticizing them for not giving you enough notice.)

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Scenario 4: Possibility of Past Action

 Context: You forgot to set your alarm, and now you're late. You're wondering if the
alarm failed.
 Example Using Perfect Modal:
"I might have missed the alarm."
(You're suggesting a possible reason for being late.)

Scenario 5: Expressing Past Obligation

 Context: A colleague was expected to finish a report by the deadline but didn’t
complete it.
 Example Using Perfect Modal:
"He ought to have finished the report by now."
(It was his responsibility to finish the report, but he didn’t.)

5. Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Using the base form of the verb with perfect modals:
o Incorrect: "She must have forget the keys."
o Correct: "She must have forgotten the keys."
2. Confusing "could have" with "should have":
o "Could have" expresses a past possibility or unfulfilled action, while "should
have" expresses a past obligation or regret.
 Incorrect: "I should have gone to the concert, but I didn’t." (if you’re
talking about a missed opportunity)
 Correct: "I could have gone to the concert, but I didn’t."
3. Overusing "must have" for uncertain situations:
o Incorrect: "She must have gone home already."
o Correct: "She might have gone home already."
(If you’re not sure about something, "might have" or "may have" is more
appropriate.)

6. Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the perfect modal verb:

 He ________ (forget) to buy the tickets.

 I ________ (leave) my phone at home this morning.
 She ________ (not arrive) on time because of the traffic.
 We ________ (take) a taxi instead of the bus.

26
2. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:

 She must have seen the message, but she didn’t reply.
 You could have told me the truth earlier.
 They might have been waiting for you, but you were late.
 He should have finished the project by now.

3. Choose the correct answer:

 "You ________ (finish) the report by now, but you haven’t." a) must have finished
b) should have finished
c) could have finished
 "I ________ (go) to the park, but I was too tired." a) might have gone
b) should have gone
c) would have gone

Linking Verbs
1. What are Linking Verbs?

A linking verb is a verb that connects the subject of a sentence with a

subject complement (either an adjective or a noun). The subject
complement gives more information about the subject, such as its
identity, state, or condition.

Common Linking Verbs:

 Be (am, is, are, was, were, etc.)

 Seem
 Become
 Feel
 Look
 Sound
 Taste
 Appear
 Stay
 Grow
 Turn
 Get

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2. Structure of Sentences with Linking Verbs
 Basic Structure:
Subject + linking verb + subject complement (adjective or noun)
o Example 1: "She is happy."
(Linking verb "is" connects the subject "she" with the adjective "happy.")
o Example 2: "The cake looks delicious."
(Linking verb "looks" connects the subject "the cake" with the adjective
"delicious.")
o Example 3: "He is a doctor."
(Linking verb "is" connects the subject "he" with the noun "doctor.")

3. Types of Subject Complements

Subject complements can be two types: adjectives or nouns.

1. Adjective as Subject Complement

When an adjective follows a linking verb, it describes or qualifies the subject.

 Example:
"She is tired."
("Tired" describes the subject "she.")

2. Noun as Subject Complement

When a noun follows a linking verb, it renames or identifies the subject.

 Example:
"John is a teacher."
("Teacher" identifies the subject "John.")

4. Common Linking Verbs and Their Functions

Different linking verbs can be used depending on what kind of information you want to
express about the subject. Here’s a breakdown of the most common linking verbs and how
they function:

1. The Verb "Be"

The verb "be" is the most common linking verb and is used to express identity, state, or
condition.

 Examples:
o "She is tired."

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2. Verbs Related to Perception (Seem, Appear, Look, Sound, Feel, Taste)

These verbs link the subject to a description based on perception, appearance, or sensory
experience.

 Examples:
o "The cake looks delicious."
o "The music sounds beautiful."
o "The soup tastes salty."

3. Verbs Related to Change or Becoming (Become, Grow, Turn, Get, Stay)

These linking verbs describe a change in the state or condition of the subject.

 Examples:
o "She became a teacher."
o "He grew tired."
o "The leaves turned yellow."
o "The situation got worse."

4. Verbs of Remaining (Stay)

These verbs describe a subject that remains in a state or condition.

 Examples:
o "He stayed calm."
o "They remain silent."

5. Common Mistakes with Linking Verbs

1. Using an action verb when a linking verb is needed:
o Incorrect: "She feels the soup hot."
o Correct: "She feels hot." (Linking verb "feels" connects the subject "she" with
the adjective "hot.")
2. Confusing adjectives and nouns as subject complements:
o Incorrect: "He is tired teacher."
o Correct: "He is a tired teacher." (Here, "tired" is the adjective describing
"teacher.")
3. Omitting the subject complement:
o Incorrect: "She seems."
o Correct: "She seems happy." (A subject complement is necessary after the
linking verb.)

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6. Context-Based Scenarios
Scenario 1: Describing the Subject's Appearance or Condition

 Context: You meet someone who looks tired after a long day.
 Example Using Linking Verb:
"You look tired."

Scenario 2: Identifying the Subject's Profession

 Context: You’re introducing your friend to someone new.

 Example Using Linking Verb:
"She is a doctor."

Scenario 3: Describing Sensory Perception

 Context: You're talking about the taste of food at a restaurant.

 Example Using Linking Verb:
"This soup tastes delicious."

Scenario 4: Expressing Change or Development

 Context: You notice that someone has changed emotionally over time.
 Example Using Linking Verb:
"She has become more confident."

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 7. Chart: Common Linking Verbs with Examples

Linking Verb Use Example

Be (am, is, are, Identifying the subject or "He is a student." / "She is
expressing a state tired."
was, were)
Seem Expressing perception or "She seems happy."
appearance
Become Describing a change or "He became a teacher."
transformation
Look Describing appearance or "You look sad."
perception
Sound Describing sensory perception "The music sounds
(hearing) wonderful."

Feel Describing sensory perception "The fabric feels soft." / "He

(touch or emotion) feels tired."

Taste Describing sensory perception "The cake tastes sweet."

(taste)
Appear Describing perception or "She appears nervous."
appearance
Stay Describing the subject remaining "He stayed calm during the
in a state crisis."

Get Describing a change in state "The weather got colder."

Turn Describing a change in color or "The leaves turned yellow
condition in autumn."

Grow Describing a change or "She grew more confident

development over time."

8. Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks with the correct linking verb:

 The teacher _______ very helpful today.

 He _______ a doctor.
 The cake _______ delicious.
 The sky _______ dark at night.

2. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:

 She looks teacher.

31
  The soup tastes goodly.
 He stays worried about the test.

3. Choose the correct answer:

 "She _______ upset after the meeting."

 a) looks
b) is
c) grew
 "The children _______ excited about the field trip."
 a) are
b) became
c) stay

Would vs. used to

1. Definitions and Key Differences:

Would:

 "Would" is used to describe repeated actions or habits in the past, particularly

actions that happened often but don't necessarily imply they are over a long time. It
also cannot be used to describe states (feelings, conditions, or situations).
 Form:
o Subject + would + base verb.
o Example: "When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every summer."
 Key Point:
"Would" is used for repeated actions or habits, not for general past situations or
conditions.

Used to:

 "Used to" refers to something that happened regularly in the past but does not
happen anymore. It can also describe past states (e.g., emotional states, conditions,
or physical situations) that no longer exist.
 Form:
o Subject + used to + base verb.
o Example: "I used to live in New York, but I moved to Chicago last year."
 Key Point:
"Used to" is for both repeated actions and states in the past that have changed.

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2. Comparing "Would" vs. "Used to" in Context:

Table: Key Differences:

Aspect Would Used to

Action or State? Describes actions, not Can describe actions and
states. states.
Repetition/Duration Implies repeated actions Implies regular actions in the
in the past. past that no longer happen.
Present Connection No connection to Strong emphasis on change
present (just past over time (past to present).
actions).
Example (Action) "I would play soccer "I used to play soccer every
every weekend." weekend."
Example (State) Not used for states (e.g., "I used to be afraid of dogs,
feelings). but now I love them."

3. Detailed Examples and Role Play Contexts:

Context-Based Examples with Dialogue for Student Interaction

Scenario 1: Talking About Childhood Habits

Context: You’re talking to a friend about things you used to do as a child. You share your
memories and compare them with your friend’s childhood habits.

 Student A: "When I was a kid, I used to play outside with my friends every day after school."
 Student B: "Oh, that sounds fun! I would always play video games instead of going outside.
What games did you play?"

Scenario 2: Talking About Past Routines

Context: You're discussing your daily routine from a few years ago with a friend. You used to
do something regularly, but now your routine has changed.

 Student A: "I used to wake up at 6:00 a.m. every day to go jogging."

 Student B: "Wow! I would never wake up that early. What time do you wake up now?"

Role Play 2:Student A: Talk about something you used to do every day in the past.
Example: "I used to make breakfast for my family every morning."

33
Scenario 3: Talking About Things You Don’t Do Anymore

Context: You and your friend are discussing activities or habits you no longer do because of
changes in your life.

 Student A: "I used to go jogging every weekend, but now I don’t have time for it."
 Student B: "Oh, that’s too bad! I would go for walks every Saturday morning instead of
jogging."

Role Play 3:

 Student A: Tell your partner about something you used to do regularly but don’t do
anymore.
Example: "I used to eat a big breakfast every day, but now I only have coffee."
 Student B: Ask what changed for them.
Example: "Why did you stop eating a big breakfast?"

Scenario 3: Describing a Regular Routine in the Past

 Would:
"I would wake up at 6 a.m. every day when I worked at the hospital."
o Context: "Would" shows the regularity of your past actions, specifically a daily
routine.
 Used to:
"I used to wake up at 6 a.m. every day when I worked at the hospital."
o Context: "Used to" emphasizes that this is a habit or routine from the past that has
since stopped.

Scenario 4: Talking About Past Jobs or Careers

 Would:
"I would meet clients every day when I worked as a manager."
o Context: This implies that meeting clients was a regular action in the past, but it
doesn't highlight any change.
 Used to:
"I used to meet clients every day when I worked as a manager."
o Context: "Used to" emphasizes that this was part of a regular routine back then but
no longer happens.

Role-Play 4:

 Student A: Talk to your partner about your previous job using "used to" (e.g., "I used to
manage a store.").
 Student B: Ask what they would do during their day at work. (e.g., "Did you would have
meetings with your team regularly?")

34
4. Practice Exercises:

Exercise 1: Choose "Would" or "Used to"

Fill in the blanks with either "would" or "used to".

1. When I was younger, I __________ (go) to my grandmother’s house every weekend.

2. I __________ (feel) very nervous before public speaking, but now I’m confident.
3. We __________ (play) outside until dark when we were children.
4. She __________ (live) in London for five years before moving to Paris.
5. He __________ (have) a lot of pets, but now he just has one dog.

Exercise 2: Correct the Mistakes

Correct the errors in these sentences.

1. I used to going to the gym every morning.

2. When I was a teenager, I wouldn't stay up late on weekdays.
3. I would not like to go there, but now I enjoy it.
4. They used to talk a lot, but now they barely speak.

5. Answer Key:

Answer Key for Exercise 1:

1. used to (habit in the past)

2. used to (describes a past feeling/state that changed)
3. used to (habit in the past)
4. used to (states that no longer happen)
5. used to (habit in the past)

Answer Key for Exercise 2:

1. Corrected: I used to go to the gym every morning.

2. Corrected: When I was a teenager, I wouldn't stay up late on weekdays. (This sentence is
correct.)
3. Corrected: I would not like to go there, but now I enjoy it.
o Alternative: "I used to not like going there, but now I enjoy it."
4. Corrected: They used to talk a lot, but now they barely speak.

35
6. Role Play Scenarios to Practice in Pairs:

1. Past Childhood Memories:

o Student A: "What did you use to do for fun when you were a kid?"
o Student B: "I would play soccer with my friends every afternoon. What about you?"
2. Changes Over Time:
o Student A: "I used to hate coffee, but now I drink it every day."
o Student B: "Really? I would drink it all the time when I was younger, but now I prefer
tea."
3. Talking About a Previous Job:
o Student A: "In my last job, I used to have a lot of meetings."
o Student B: "That sounds busy! I would spend my afternoons working on projects
alone."

SUMMARY

Grammar explanation
When we talk about things in the past that are not true any more, we can do it in
different ways.

Used to + infinitive

-We can use used to to talk about past states that are not true any more.
We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
There didn't use to be a supermarket there. When did it open?
Did you use to have a garden?

-We can also use used to to talk about past habits (repeated past actions)
that don't happen any more.
I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.
She used to smoke but she gave up a few years ago.

-used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to + -ing, which
has a different meaning. The difference is covered here.

36
Would

-We can use would to talk about repeated past actions that don't happen any
more.
Every Saturday I would go on a long bike ride.
My dad would read me amazing stories every night at bedtime.

would for past habits is slightly more formal than used to. It is often used in
stories. We don't normally use the negative or question form of would for past
habits. Note that we can't usually use would to talk about past states.

Teaching Document: "Would Prefer" vs. "Would

Rather"

1. Definitions and Key Differences:

Would Prefer:

 "Would prefer" is a more formal way of expressing a preference. It is used when you are
talking about general preferences, future decisions, or polite suggestions.
 Form:
o Subject + would prefer + noun / verb (base form).
o Example: "I would prefer tea instead of coffee."
o Example: "I would prefer to go to the park tomorrow."

Would Rather:

 "Would rather" is used to express a direct preference for an immediate choice between two
options. It is less formal and is more commonly used in casual conversations.
 Form:
o Subject + would rather + verb (base form).
o Example: "I would rather have pizza for dinner than pasta."
o Example: "I would rather stay home tonight."

37
 3. Key Differences Between "Would Prefer" and "Would Rather":

Aspect Would Prefer Would Rather

Formality More formal, used in Less formal, more common in
polite or careful speech. casual conversations.
Use for Actions Can be followed by noun Followed directly by verb
or verb (to + base). (base form).
Use for General Used for general or future Used for more immediate or
Preferences preferences. specific choices.
Examples "I would prefer tea over "I would rather have tea than
coffee." coffee."

3. Context-Based Scenarios with Relatable Sentences:

Scenario 1: Deciding Between Two Foods (Casual Conversation)

Context: You’re at a restaurant with a friend, and you're both deciding between two dishes.

 Would prefer:
"I would prefer a salad instead of a sandwich."
o You express a polite preference for a salad, perhaps because you want something
healthier.
 Would rather:
"I would rather have pizza than pasta tonight."
o Here, you're immediately choosing pizza over pasta in a casual conversation.

Role-Play Example 1:

 Student A: "What would you like for dinner tonight? Pizza or pasta?"
 Student B: "I would prefer pizza."
 Student A: "I would rather have pasta, but I guess pizza sounds good."

Scenario 2: Making Weekend Plans (Informal Discussion)

Context: You and your friend are making plans for the weekend and deciding between going
out or staying in.

 Would prefer:
"I would prefer to stay at home this weekend because I’ve been so busy at work."
o You use "would prefer" to politely express a general preference for staying at home,
as you're tired from work.

38
  Would rather:
"I would rather go out and get some fresh air than stay inside all day."
o You make a more direct choice to go out because you feel like being active.

Role-Play Example 2:

 Student A: "Do you want to stay at home or go out this weekend?"

 Student B: "I would rather go out and do something fun."
 Student A: "Actually, I would prefer to stay home and relax. I'm exhausted."

Scenario 3: Expressing a Preference for a Future Decision (Polite Suggestion)

Context: You're making plans for an upcoming trip, and you're deciding between two
destinations.

 Would prefer:
"I would prefer to visit Paris next summer instead of London."
o You’re stating a future preference in a polite way.
 Would rather:
"I would rather go to the beach than the mountains this vacation."
o You’re making a specific preference for this vacation.

Role-Play Example 3:

 Student A: "What would you prefer to do next year for the holidays, go to Paris or London?"
 Student B: "I would prefer Paris because I’ve never been there."
 Student A: "I would rather go to London since I love the museums there."

Scenario 4: Talking About Preferences in Daily Life (Casual Choice)

Context: You’re discussing what to do after school with a friend.

 Would prefer:
"I would prefer to study at the library instead of at home, it's quieter."
o You express a general preference for the library over your home.
 Would rather:
"I would rather go to the cinema than watch a movie at home."
o You directly choose to go to the cinema, as it feels more exciting than staying home.

Role-Play Example 4:

 Student A: "Would you rather go to the cinema or watch a movie at home?"

 Student B: "I would rather go to the cinema for a change."
 Student A: "I would prefer watching a movie at home, though. It's more comfortable."

39
Scenario 5: Expressing Preferences About Activities (Everyday Situations)

Context: You and your friend are deciding between two activities for a free afternoon.

 Would prefer:
"I would prefer to go shopping instead of going for a walk."
o You express a general preference for shopping over walking.
 Would rather:
"I would rather walk in the park than go to the mall."
o You make an immediate choice for walking over shopping.

Role-Play Example 5:

 Student A: "What do you want to do today? Go shopping or take a walk in the park?"
 Student B: "I would rather take a walk, it's a beautiful day."
 Student A: "I would prefer shopping, but I can walk if you want."

4. Summary of Key Points:

 "Would prefer" is used for more formal or polite expressions of preference, particularly in
situations where you might be talking about general or future preferences.
o Example: "I would prefer to go on vacation next month."
 "Would rather" is used for specific choices or actions, often in casual conversations.
o Example: "I would rather eat at a restaurant than cook tonight."

5. Practice Exercises:

Exercise 1: Choose "Would Prefer" or "Would Rather"

1. I __________ (would prefer / would rather) go to the beach than the mountains.
2. He __________ (would prefer / would rather) stay home tonight than go to the party.
3. We __________ (would prefer / would rather) take the train than fly to the city.
4. I __________ (would prefer / would rather) to meet at 5 p.m. instead of 6.
5. They __________ (would prefer / would rather) have dinner at home tonight.

Exercise 2: Complete the Sentences

Fill in the blanks with the correct choice: "would prefer" or "would rather."

1. I __________ go for a walk in the park than stay inside all day.
2. She __________ go to the movies than stay home.
3. We __________ visit the museum tomorrow.
4. They __________ go to a concert than watch TV at home.
5. I __________ stay at home this weekend, I’m tired.

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6. Answer Key:

Answer Key for Exercise 1:

1. would rather
2. would rather
3. would prefer
4. would prefer
5. would prefer

Answer Key for Exercise 2:

1. would rather
2. would rather
3. would prefer
4. would rather
5. would prefer

Teaching Document: Revision of Past Tenses:

Simple Past vs. Past Continuous

1. Definitions and Key Differences:

Simple Past:

 The Simple Past tense is used to talk about actions that happened and
finished in the past. These actions have no connection to the present.
 Form:
o Regular verbs: verb + -ed (e.g., "I walked to the store.")
o Irregular verbs: past form (e.g., "She went to the party.")
o Example: "I visited my grandmother last weekend."
 Usage:
o Actions completed in the past.
o A sequence of actions in the past.
o Habits in the past.
o Specific moments or timeframes in the past.

41
Past Continuous:

 The Past Continuous tense is used to talk about actions that were in
progress at a specific time in the past. It describes actions that were
happening at a particular moment or for a longer period of time in the
past.
 Form:
o Subject + was/were + verb + -ing (e.g., "I was walking to the
store.")
o Example: "I was watching a movie at 7 p.m. last night."
 Usage:
o Actions in progress at a specific time in the past.
o Interrupted actions in the past.
o Background actions in the past.

2. Key Differences Between Simple Past and Past Continuous:

Aspect Simple Past Past Continuous
Time of Completed actions in the Ongoing actions in the past at a
Action past. specific time.
Structure Subject + verb (past Subject + was/were + verb + -ing.
form).
Usage - Actions finished. - Actions happening at a specific
moment in the past.
- A sequence of actions. - Actions that were interrupted.
Example "She visited her friend "She was visiting her friend when I
yesterday." called her."

3. Context-Based Scenarios with Relatable Sentences:

Scenario 1: Talking About a Finished Action (Simple Past)

Context: You are talking about an event that happened and was completed in the past.

 Simple Past:
"I visited my aunt last weekend."
o You are describing an event that is finished and occurred in the past.
 Past Continuous:
"I was visiting my aunt when the phone rang."
o The action of visiting was happening in the past, and it was interrupted by the phone
ringing.

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Role-Play Example 1:

 Student A: "What did you do last weekend?"

 Student B: "I visited my aunt. It was a great time."
 Student A: "What were you doing when I called you yesterday?"
 Student B: "I was visiting my aunt when you called."

Scenario 2: Describing a Sequence of Past Actions (Simple Past)

Context: You are telling a story about something that happened in the past, mentioning several
events in order.

 Simple Past:
"I woke up, ate breakfast, and then went to work."
o A series of completed actions.
 Past Continuous:
"I was waking up when the alarm rang."
o You were in the process of waking up when the alarm interrupted you.

Role-Play Example 2:

 Student A: "What did you do this morning?"

 Student B: "I woke up, ate breakfast, and then went to work."
 Student A: "What were you doing when I called you?"
 Student B: "I was waking up when you called me."

Scenario 3: Talking About Background Actions (Past Continuous)

Context: You are describing what was happening in the background when something else
occurred.

 Simple Past:
"I was studying when my friend arrived."
o The friend’s arrival happened while you were already studying.
 Past Continuous:
"I was studying all afternoon."
o You were studying for a longer period of time, not just for a specific moment.

Role-Play Example 3:

 Student A: "What were you doing when I knocked on your door?"

 Student B: "I was studying for my test."
 Student A: "When did you study for your test?"
 Student B: "I studied all afternoon."

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Scenario 4: Interrupting Action (Past Continuous)

Context: Describing an action that was happening when something else interrupted it.

 Simple Past:
"I was cooking dinner when the lights went out."
o Cooking was happening when the lights interrupted the process.
 Past Continuous:
"I was reading a book when my phone rang."
o Reading was in progress, and the phone rang while reading.

Role-Play Example 4:

 Student A: "What were you doing when the power went out?"
 Student B: "I was cooking dinner."
 Student A: "Oh no! What did you do?"
 Student B: "I finished cooking in the dark."

Scenario 5: Talking About Past Habits (Simple Past)

Context: Describing something that used to happen regularly in the past but doesn’t anymore.

 Simple Past:
"When I was a child, I played outside every day."
o A habit that occurred regularly in the past.
 Past Continuous:
"Every day, I was playing outside when my mother called me for dinner."
o Playing outside was happening every day during that time.

Role-Play Example 5:

 Student A: "What did you do when you were young?"

 Student B: "I played outside every day after school."
 Student A: "What were you doing when your mom called you?"
 Student B: "I was playing outside when she called me for dinner."

4. Summary of Key Points:

 Simple Past is used for:

o Actions completed in the past.
o A sequence of events or actions that happened in the past.
o Habits or regular actions in the past.
 Past Continuous is used for:
o Ongoing actions in the past (action in progress).
o Interruptions to actions.
o Background actions happening when another action took place.

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5. Practice Exercises:

Exercise 1: Choose Simple Past or Past Continuous

Fill in the blanks with the correct tense (Simple Past or Past Continuous):

1. I __________ (eat) dinner when my friend __________ (arrive).

2. We __________ (watch) a movie when the power __________ (go) out.
3. She __________ (study) when the phone __________ (ring).
4. He __________ (play) football yesterday afternoon.
5. They __________ (work) on the project all day.

Exercise 2: Correct the Mistakes

Find and correct the mistakes in these sentences:

1. I was worked on my project when you called me.

2. He was play soccer when it started raining.
3. We were watched TV at 8 p.m. last night.
4. She studied when I was visiting her.
5. They was cooking dinner when I arrived.

6. Answer Key:

Answer Key for Exercise 1:

1. I was eating dinner when my friend arrived.

2. We were watching a movie when the power went out.
3. She was studying when the phone rang.
4. He played football yesterday afternoon.
5. They were working on the project all day.

Answer Key for Exercise 2:

1. I was working on my project when you called me.

2. He was playing soccer when it started raining.
3. We were watching TV at 8 p.m. last night.
4. She was studying when I was visiting her.
5. They were cooking dinner when I arrived.

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 Teaching Document: Simple Past vs. Past Perfect

1. Definitions and Key Differences:

Simple Past:

 The Simple Past tense describes actions that happened and finished in the past. The
event has no connection to the present.
 Form:
o Regular verbs: verb + -ed (e.g., "I played football.")
o Irregular verbs: past form (e.g., "She went to the store.")
o Example: "I watched a movie yesterday."
 Usage:
o Actions completed at a specific time in the past.
o A sequence of events that happened one after the other.
o Actions in the past with a clear timeframe.

Past Perfect:

 The Past Perfect tense is used to describe an action that was completed
before another action in the past. It emphasizes that something
happened earlier in relation to another past event.
 Form:
o Subject + had + past participle (e.g., "She had finished her homework before
she went out.")
o Example: "I had eaten before I left for work."
 Usage:
o Actions completed before another past action.
o Cause and effect in the past.
o Reported speech in the pas

Key Differences Between Simple Past and Past Perfect:

Aspect Simple Past Past Perfect
Time of Completed actions in the past, no Completed action before
Action relation to another action. another action in the past.
Structure Subject + verb (past form). Subject + had + past
participle.
Usage - A sequence of actions in the - An action completed before
past. another past action.
- A specific past action. - Expressing cause and effect
in the past.
Example "I finished my homework last "I had finished my homework
night." before I went to bed."
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3. Context-Based Scenarios with Relatable Sentences:

Scenario 1: Sequence of Actions (Simple Past)

Context: You are telling a story about your day, describing events that happened one after
another.

 Simple Past:
"I woke up, ate breakfast, and went to work."
o These are actions that happened one after the other, in the order they occurred.
 Past Perfect:
"I had finished breakfast before I left the house."
o This emphasizes that the breakfast was completed before leaving.

Role-Play Example 1:

 Student A: "What did you do this morning?"

 Student B: "I woke up, ate breakfast, and went to work."
 Student A: "When did you eat breakfast?"
 Student B: "I had finished breakfast before I left for work."

Scenario 2: Expressing an Action Completed Before Another Action (Past

Perfect)

Context: You are talking about two actions that happened in the past, but one action occurred
before the other.

 Simple Past:
"I saw the movie yesterday."
o A specific action completed in the past.
 Past Perfect:
"I had seen the movie before you called me."
o The movie-watching happened before the phone call.

Role-Play Example 2:

 Student A: "Did you watch the movie last night?"

 Student B: "Yes, I saw it."
 Student A: "When did you watch it?"
 Student B: "I had seen it before you called me."

Scenario 3: Talking About Past Experiences (Simple Past)

47
Context: You are discussing an experience you had in the past without reference to another
action.

 Simple Past:
"I visited Paris last year."
o A completed event with no specific connection to another action.
 Past Perfect:
"I had visited Paris before I moved to London."
o The visit to Paris happened before the move to London.

Role-Play Example 3:

 Student A: "Have you ever been to Paris?"

 Student B: "Yes, I visited Paris last year."
 Student A: "When did you visit Paris?"
 Student B: "I had visited Paris before I moved to London."

Scenario 4: Talking About Causes and Effects (Past Perfect)

Context: You explain the cause of a past situation, using the past perfect to show that
something happened earlier.

 Simple Past:
"I did my homework."
o A past action without a specific connection to another event.
 Past Perfect:
"I had done my homework before I went out."
o The homework was completed before going out, showing the cause (homework
done) and the effect (going out).

Role-Play Example 4:

 Student A: "Why are you not tired?"

 Student B: "I had rested earlier, so now I feel great."
 Student A: "That's good! I feel exhausted because I did not rest."

Scenario 5: Describing a Past Condition (Past Perfect)

Context: Describing a situation where something was true before another action in the past.

 Simple Past:
"I forgot my keys at home."
o A simple action without a focus on its effect.
 Past Perfect:
"I had forgotten my keys at home when I got to work."
o The keys were forgotten before the arrival at work.

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Role-Play Example 5:

 Student A: "What happened when you arrived at work?"

 Student B: "I forgot my keys at home."
 Student A: "Oh no! When did you realize?"
 Student B: "I had forgotten them when I reached work."

4. Summary of Key Points:

 Simple Past is used for:

o Actions completed at a specific time in the past.
o A sequence of actions that happened one after another.
o Describing habits or events in the past.
 Past Perfect is used for:
o Describing an action that was completed before another past event.
o Showing cause and effect in the past.
o Talking about actions that happened earlier than other actions in the past.

5. Practice Exercises:

Exercise 1: Choose Simple Past or Past Perfect

Fill in the blanks with the correct tense (Simple Past or Past Perfect):

1. By the time I arrived, she __________ (leave).

2. I __________ (eat) breakfast when you called me.
3. They __________ (already arrive) when the event started.
4. He __________ (finish) his work before I came home.
5. She __________ (visit) London before moving to Paris.

Exercise 2: Correct the Mistakes

Find and correct the mistakes in these sentences:

1. I had seen the movie last weekend.

2. They left before I had arrived.
3. She had already finish her homework when I called.
4. We had met each other in the past.
5. I had ate lunch when you arrived.

6. Answer Key:

Answer Key for Exercise 1:

49
 1. had left
2. was eating
3. had already arrived
4. had finished
5. had visited

Answer Key for Exercise 2:

1. I saw the movie last weekend.

2. They left before I arrived.
3. She had already finished her homework when I called.
4. We met each other in the past.
5. I had eaten lunch when you arrived.

Teaching Document: Perfect Modal Verbs (Deduction)

1. Definitions and Key Concepts:

Perfect Modal Verbs:

 Perfect modal verbs combine a modal verb (can, could, must, might, may, should, etc.) with
the present perfect form of the main verb (have + past participle). These structures are used
to make deductions, assumptions, or conclusions about past actions or events.

Modal Verbs of Deduction:

 Must have
 Might/Might have
 Could/Could have
 Can't/Couldn't have
 Should have

1.1. Deduction and Assumptions:

Perfect modal verbs help express a deduction or assumption about something that happened
in the past. This type of deduction is about something that seems true based on the available
evidence.

Structure:

50
  Must have + past participle: Strong deduction, something that almost
certainly happened.
o "He must have gone home already."
 Might have + past participle: Less certain, possibility.
o "She might have missed the bus."
 Could have + past participle: Similar to might have, but it also implies
something could have happened but didn’t.
o "I could have left my keys at home."
 Can't have + past participle: Strong deduction, implies something that
definitely did not happen.
o "She can't have forgotten my birthday!"
 Should have + past participle: Expressing regret or giving advice about a
past action.
o "I should have studied more for the test."

1. Must Have

Meaning: Strong deduction, you are certain that something happened based on evidence or
reasoning.

 "He must have left already; his car is not in the driveway."
 "She must have forgotten to bring the documents; she always remembers."
 "They must have arrived early; all the good seats are taken."
 "You must have misunderstood the instructions. That's not what we were supposed to
do."
 "It must have been very expensive to buy that new phone."

2. Might Have

Meaning: Less certain, but there is a possibility something happened.

 "I might have taken the wrong route; this doesn’t look familiar."
 "He might have gone home early since it’s getting late."
 "She might have been in a hurry, that's why she didn't answer the phone."
 "They might have missed the train if they didn’t hurry."
 "The mail might have arrived already, but I haven’t checked yet."

3. Could Have

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Meaning: Similar to might have, but it also implies that something was possible but didn't
happen, or you are uncertain about something in the past.

 "I could have gone to the concert, but I didn’t feel like it."
 "She could have helped you, but she was busy with her own work."
 "We could have seen that movie, but we decided to stay home instead."
 "I could have asked for directions, but I thought I knew the way."
 "They could have finished the project on time if they had worked harder."

4. Can’t Have

Meaning: Strong deduction, you’re sure something did not happen based on evidence or
reasoning.

 "She can’t have lost her keys; I just saw her put them on the table."
 "He can’t have finished the book so quickly; he just started reading it this morning."
 "They can’t have gone on vacation; they mentioned they were staying home this
weekend."
 "I can’t have misheard you; I was paying attention to every word."
 "It can’t have been an accident; everything looks too organized."

5. Should Have

Meaning: Expressing regret, or saying what someone should have done in the past
(sometimes also used for advice).

 "I should have studied harder for the exam. I didn't do well."
 "You should have told me you were running late; I was worried."
 "He should have left earlier to avoid traffic."
 "We should have taken an umbrella; it started raining on the way home."
 "I should have listened to your advice. Now I see that you were right."

2. Key Differences Between Perfect Modal Verbs:

Modal Meaning Example
Verb
Must Strong deduction, something "He must have missed the
have definitely happened based on train."
evidence.
Might Less certain, possibility. "She might have forgotten
have to call."

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Could Similar to might have, but suggests "I could have helped you,
have something possible but not done. but I was busy."
Can't Strong deduction, definitely not "He can't have taken the
have possible. book, it was on the shelf."
Should Regret, or what someone ought to "I should have told you
have have done in the past. about the meeting."

3. Context-Based Scenarios with Relatable Sentences:

Scenario 1: Strong Deduction (Must Have)

Context: You are talking about a situation where you are sure something happened based on
the available evidence.

 Example:
"She must have already left. Her car isn’t in the parking lot, and the lights are off."
o You are certain she has left based on the evidence (empty parking lot, lights off).

Role-Play Example 1:

 Student A: "I can’t find Sarah."

 Student B: "She must have gone home already. I saw her leave earlier."

Scenario 2: Possibility (Might Have)

Context: You are talking about something that is possible but not certain, based on a situation
or evidence.

 Example:
"She might have gotten lost on the way here, that's why she's late."
o There is a possibility that she got lost, but you're not sure.

Role-Play Example 2:

 Student A: "Why is John late?"

 Student B: "He might have missed the bus."

53
Scenario 3: Something That Could Have Happened (Could Have)

Context: You are talking about something that could have happened, but it didn't. It’s about
a past possibility that didn’t come true.

 Example:
"I could have gone to the concert, but I didn't feel like it."
o You are expressing something you had the opportunity to do, but chose not to.

Role-Play Example 3:

 Student A: "Why didn’t you go to the party?"

 Student B: "I could have gone, but I had too much work to do."

Scenario 4: Strong Deduction (Can't Have)

Context: You are talking about something that is impossible based on the evidence.

 Example:
"She can’t have finished the report already, it was due tomorrow."
o You are certain she didn’t finish because the report was due later.

Role-Play Example 4:

 Student A: "I don't see my book anywhere."

 Student B: "It can’t have disappeared, I saw it on the table earlier."

Scenario 5: Regret (Should Have)

Context: You are expressing regret or giving advice about something that should have been
done differently in the past.

 Example:
"I should have studied more for the exam. I didn’t do well."
o You are expressing regret about not studying more.

Role-Play Example 5:

 Student A: "I didn’t get the job."

 Student B: "Oh, I’m sorry to hear that. Maybe you should have prepared more for the
interview."

54
4. Summary of Key Points:

 Must have: Strong deduction; you're sure something happened in the past.
 Might have: Possible but uncertain.
 Could have: Something that was possible but didn’t happen.
 Can't have: Strong deduction; you're sure something didn’t happen.
 Should have: Expressing regret or what should have been done in the past.

5. Practice Exercises:

Exercise 1: Fill in the Gaps

Fill in the blanks with the correct perfect modal verb (must have, might have, could have,
can’t have, should have):

1. He __________ (leave) by now, I can’t find him anywhere.

2. She __________ (forget) to call me back, I’ve been waiting for her.
3. I __________ (take) the wrong bus, I’m sure it was the 8:30 bus.
4. I __________ (study) more for the test. I didn’t do well.
5. They __________ (be) on vacation, they haven’t been answering their phones.

Exercise 2: Correct the Mistakes

Find and correct the mistakes in these sentences:

1. He might have came to the party, but I’m not sure.

2. She must have forgot to send the email.
3. I couldn’t have go to the meeting. It was too far.
4. You should have leave earlier to catch the train.
5. They must have eaten all the cookies by now!

6. Answer Key:

Answer Key for Exercise 1:

1. must have left

2. might have forgotten
3. could have taken
4. should have studied
5. must be

55
Answer Key for Exercise 2:

1. He might have come to the party, but I’m not sure.

2. She must have forgotten to send the email.
3. I could have gone to the meeting. It was too far.
4. You should have left earlier to catch the train.
5. They must have eaten all the cookies by now!

Teaching Document: Relative Clauses

1. What Are Relative Clauses?

A relative clause is a part of a sentence that gives more information about a noun (person,
place, thing, or idea). It is a dependent clause that is used to describe or identify a noun more
clearly.

 Relative clauses usually begin with relative pronouns like:

o who (for people)
o which (for things or animals)
o that (for people, things, or animals)
o whose (to show possession)
o whom (formal, for people)

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2. Relative Pronouns

Here’s a chart showing how different relative pronouns are used in sentences:

Relative Use Example

Pronoun
who Refers to people "The teacher who helps me is very
kind."
which Refers to things or "The book which I read last night
animals was amazing."
that Refers to people, things, "The movie that we watched was
or animals interesting."
whose Shows possession "The man whose car broke down is
my neighbor."
whom Refers to people "The woman whom I met at the
(formal) conference is a lawyer."

3. How to Use Relative Clauses in Sentences

Example Sentences Using Relative Clauses:

1. Who: Used to refer to people.

o "The man who lives next door is very friendly."
o "I met a girl who speaks four languages."
2. Which: Used to refer to things or animals.
o "The car which is parked outside is mine."
o "The dog which I adopted is very playful."
3. That: Used for people, things, or animals (can replace who or which).
o "The book that you gave me was really good."
o "The movie that we watched was very exciting."
4. Whose: Shows possession.
o "The teacher whose phone is ringing will leave the room."
o "I know the artist whose paintings are in the gallery."
5. Whom: Used for people (more formal).
o "The man whom I spoke to was very helpful."
o "The student whom I helped passed the test."

57
4. Practice Sentences

Here are some practice sentences where you can use relative clauses to describe nouns:

 "The woman __________ works in the bakery is very nice."

o Answer: "The woman who works in the bakery is very nice."
 "The book __________ I’m reading is very interesting."
o Answer: "The book which I’m reading is very interesting."
 "The friend __________ car broke down is my best friend."
o Answer: "The friend whose car broke down is my best friend."

5. Context-Based Role Play Situations

Now, let’s practice relative clauses in different situations! You’ll use the relative clauses
we’ve learned to complete the dialogues.

Situation 1: Talking About a New Friend

Context: You meet a new friend and want to describe them using relative clauses.

 Student A: "Tell me about your new friend!"

 Student B: "She’s the girl who lives in the apartment next door."
 Student A: "What does she do?"
 Student B: "She works at a café which is very popular in our neighborhood."

Situation 2: Describing a New Movie

Context: You just watched a movie and want to tell someone about it.

 Student A: "Did you see that new movie?"

 Student B: "Yes, I did! It’s a movie that is based on a true story."
 Student A: "What’s it about?"
 Student B: "It’s about a man who travels around the world to find a lost treasure."

Situation 3: Talking About a Famous Artist

Context: You’re at an art gallery and want to describe an artist.

 Student A: "I love this painting! Who’s the artist?"

 Student B: "The artist whose work is displayed here is very famous."
 Student A: "What kind of art does she do?"
 Student B: "She paints portraits of people who have interesting life stories."

58
Situation 4: Talking About Your Favorite Book

Context: You want to recommend your favorite book to a friend.

 Student A: "What book are you reading?"

 Student B: "I’m reading a book which I bought last week. It’s about adventure."
 Student A: "Who’s the author?"
 Student B: "It’s by an author who writes mystery novels."

Situation 5: Describing a Tourist Attraction

Context: You’re talking to a tourist about a famous place in your city.

 Student A: "What’s the best place to visit here?"

 Student B: "You should go to the museum which is located near the river."
 Student A: "What’s special about it?"
 Student B: "It has a collection of paintings that are over 100 years old."

6. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the Blanks with Relative Pronouns (who, which, that, whose)

1. The man __________ works at the library is my uncle.

2. The cat __________ lives next door is very friendly.
3. I visited the city __________ I was born.
4. The woman __________ car is parked outside is my neighbor.
5. The book __________ I borrowed from you is great.

Exercise 2: Match the Sentence with the Correct Relative Clause

Match the sentence with the correct relative clause:

1. "I know a woman ____"

2. "The place ____ is amazing."
3. "This is the car ____"
4. "I have a friend ____"
5. "The artist ____ is famous."

59
a) who is a famous photographer.
b) which we visited last summer.
c) that I want to buy.
d) who works at the bakery.
e) whose paintings are in the gallery.

Exercise 3: Create Your Own Sentences

Use the following prompts to create your own sentences with relative clauses:

1. A person you know well.

2. A place you visited recently.
3. A famous movie or book.
4. An item you use every day.
5. Someone in your family.

7. Answer Key

Answer Key for Exercise 1:

1. who
2. that
3. where
4. whose
5. which

Answer Key for Exercise 2:

1. d) who works at the bakery.

2. b) which we visited last summer.
3. c) that I want to buy.
4. a) who is a famous photographer.
5. e) whose paintings are in the gallery.

Answer Key for Exercise 3: (Sample Answers)

1. "The friend who lives next door is very kind."

2. "The park where we had a picnic last weekend is beautiful."
3. "The book which I read last month was very exciting."
4. "The phone which I use every day is very old."
5. "My brother whose shoes are always messy is coming over today."

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 Teaching Document: Second Conditional vs.
Third Conditional

2. Second Conditional

Meaning:

The second conditional refers to unreal or hypothetical situations in the present or future.
We use it to talk about situations that are unlikely or impossible but still possible in theory.

 Structure:
If + past simple, would + base verb
 Example:
"If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world."

Usage:

 The second conditional expresses a situation that is unlikely or imaginary in the present or
future.
 It describes an unreal condition and its hypothetical result.

Examples:

 "If I had more time, I would go to the gym."

 "If we lived in the city, we would go to the theater more often."
 "If I were you, I would talk to my boss about the issue."
 "If I knew her address, I would send her an invitation."

3. Third Conditional

Meaning:

The third conditional refers to past situations that didn’t happen. It is used to talk about
things that could have happened but didn’t, showing regret or imagining a different
outcome.

 Structure:
If + past perfect, would have + past participle
 Example:
"If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam."

Usage:

 The third conditional imagines a different past and the result of an unreal situation.

61
  It expresses regret, hypothetical past outcomes, or things that didn’t happen.

Examples:

 "If I had known about the meeting, I would have attended."

 "If they had left earlier, they would have caught the train."
 "If I had seen the movie, I would have understood the joke."
 "If she hadn't been late, she would have finished her work on time."

4. Key Differences Between the Second and Third Conditionals

Conditional Use Structure Example
Second Imagining unlikely or If + past simple, "If I won the
Conditional hypothetical situations would + base lottery, I would
in the present or future verb buy a house."
Third Imagining a different If + past perfect, "If I had studied
Conditional past or expressing would have + harder, I would
regret about past past participle have passed the
situations exam."

5. Context-Based Role Play Situations

Situation 1: Regret About Past Decisions

Context: You’re talking to a friend about a decision you made in the past and wish you had
done things differently.

 Student A: "I can’t believe I missed the concert!"

 Student B: "If you had bought your tickets earlier, you would have been able to go."
 Student A: "I know, I should have! If I had known how amazing it would be, I would have
made sure to get tickets."

Situation 2: Imagining a Different Future

Context: You’re imagining what you would do if you had more time or resources.

 Student A: "If I had more free time, I’d probably go to the gym every day."
 Student B: "Yeah, me too! If I had more time, I would definitely start taking yoga classes."
 Student A: "That sounds great! If I had a personal trainer, I would work out even harder."

Situation 3: Talking About Past Mistakes

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Context: You’re talking to a friend about a mistake you made in the past and what you could
have done differently.

 Student A: "I shouldn’t have quit my job without a backup plan."

 Student B: "If you had stayed in your job, you would have had more security."
 Student A: "You're right. If I had been more careful, I wouldn’t have ended up in this
situation."

Situation 4: Talking About Past Achievements

Context: You’re talking about something that you did in the past that you’re proud of.

 Student A: "I’m so proud of myself for finishing the marathon!"

 Student B: "Wow, that’s amazing! If I had trained more, I would have tried to do the
marathon too."
 Student A: "It was tough, but if I hadn’t pushed myself, I wouldn’t have made it."

Situation 5: Discussing a Missed Opportunity

Context: You’re talking to a friend about an opportunity that you missed and what you could
have done to take advantage of it.

 Student A: "I can’t believe I missed that job interview!"

 Student B: "If you had prepared better, you would have had a better chance."
 Student A: "Yeah, if I had known how important the interview was, I would have been more
prepared."

6. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Complete the Second Conditional Sentences

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in parentheses.

1. If I __________ (have) a million dollars, I __________ (travel) the world.

2. If we __________ (live) in a bigger house, we __________ (invite) more friends over.
3. If I __________ (be) you, I __________ (talk) to my parents about it.
4. If they __________ (work) harder, they __________ (pass) the exam.
5. If she __________ (know) how to drive, she __________ (buy) a car.

Exercise 2: Complete the Third Conditional Sentences

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in parentheses.

1. If I __________ (study) more, I __________ (get) better grades.

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 2. If they __________ (leave) earlier, they __________ (catch) the bus.
3. If I __________ (be) at the party, I __________ (have) a great time.
4. If you __________ (ask) me for help, I __________ (assist) you.
5. If he __________ (not miss) the flight, he __________ (arrive) on time.

7. Answer Key

Answer Key for Exercise 1 (Second Conditional):

1. had, would travel

2. lived, would invite
3. were, would talk
4. worked, would pass
5. knew, would buy

Answer Key for Exercise 2 (Third Conditional):

1. had studied, would have gotten

2. had left, would have caught
3. had been, would have had
4. had asked, would have assisted
5. hadn’t missed, would have arrived

Teaching Document: Wish Clauses

1. What Are Wish Clauses?

Wish clauses are used to express:

 Desire or longing for something that is not true or has not happened.
 Regret about past events or situations.
 Hypothetical situations that are unlikely or impossible.

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2. Types of Wish Clauses

There are three main types of wish clauses, depending on the time frame and the situation.

1. Wish + Simple Past (Present Unreal Situation)

We use this structure to express a desire or regret about the present or future, for situations
that are unreal or unlikely.

 Structure:
Wish + subject + past simple verb
 Example:
"I wish I had more time to travel."
o In this example, the speaker is expressing a desire to have more time, but it is not
true right now.
o It implies that I don’t have enough time.

Examples:

 "I wish I were at the beach right now." (I am not at the beach.)
 "He wishes he could play the guitar." (He can’t play the guitar.)
 "She wishes she had a bigger house." (Her house is not big enough.)
 "They wish it weren’t raining today." (It is raining.)

2. Wish + Past Perfect (Past Unreal Situation)

We use this structure to express regret about past situations or to imagine what could have
happened if something had been different in the past.

 Structure:
Wish + subject + past perfect verb
 Example:
"I wish I had studied harder for the exam."
o This expresses regret about not studying enough in the past.

Examples:

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  "I wish I hadn’t eaten so much last night." (I ate too much and feel bad about it now.)
 "He wishes he had taken the job offer." (He didn’t take the offer and regrets it.)
 "They wish they had gone to the concert." (They missed the concert and now regret it.)
 "She wishes she hadn’t spent all her money." (She spent her money and regrets it now.)

3. Wish + Would (Present or Future Unreal Situation)

We use wish + would to express a desire for a change in the present or future. This
structure is often used when we want something to be different, but it is unlikely to happen.

 Structure:
Wish + subject + would + base verb
 Example:
"I wish it would stop raining."
o The speaker wants the rain to stop, but it is unlikely or not happening right now.

Examples:

 "I wish she would call me." (She is not calling, and I want her to.)
 "They wish the meeting would start on time." (The meeting is not starting on time.)
 "We wish it would be sunny tomorrow." (We hope for sunny weather, but we don’t know if
it will happen.)
 "He wishes they would be more responsible." (He wants them to be responsible, but they
aren’t.)

3. Key Differences Between Wish Clauses

Type of Wish Use Structure Example
Wish + Expressing present unreal Wish + past "I wish I were
Simple Past situations or desires about the simple taller."
present or future.
Wish + Past Expressing regret about past Wish + past "I wish I had
Perfect situations or imagining a different perfect studied harder."
past outcome.
Wish + Expressing a desire or frustration Wish + would "I wish he would
Would about present or future situations + base verb listen to me."
that are unlikely to change.

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4. Context-Based Role Play Situations

Situation 1: Desiring a Different Present

Context: You and a friend are discussing things you wish were different in your life right
now.

 Student A: "I wish I were on vacation right now."

 Student B: "Me too! I wish I could travel more often."
 Student A: "If I had more free time, I would go to the beach every weekend."

Situation 2: Regret About the Past

Context: You are talking to a friend about something you regret doing in the past.

 Student A: "I wish I had studied more for the exam. I didn’t do well."
 Student B: "I know, me too. I wish I hadn’t gone to the party the night before."
 Student A: "If only I hadn't spent so much time watching TV!"

Situation 3: Hypothetical Future Changes

Context: You are discussing something you hope will change in the future, but you are
uncertain about it happening.

 Student A: "I wish the company would give me a promotion soon."

 Student B: "I wish they would improve the office environment. It’s so boring here."
 Student A: "If I had more skills, I would apply for a better position."

Situation 4: Imagining a Different Life

Context: You are imagining how your life could be different if you had made other decisions.

 Student A: "I wish I had followed my passion for music when I was younger."
 Student B: "Yeah, me too. I wish I hadn't stopped playing the guitar."
 Student A: "If I had started a band, who knows where I would be now?"

5. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Complete the Sentences Using the Correct Form of the Verb

1. I wish I __________ (have) more time to read books.

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 2. She wishes she __________ (not be) so busy this week.
3. He wishes he __________ (speak) French fluently.
4. I wish I __________ (know) about the meeting yesterday.
5. They wish they __________ (not leave) so early last night.

Exercise 2: Correct the Mistakes

1. I wish I would have bought that new phone last week.

2. They wish they were gone to the party.
3. He wishes he had a better job now.
4. If only I would studied more for the test.
5. She wishes she had went to the concert last night.

Exercise 3: Create Your Own Sentences Using Wish Clauses

1. Wish + Simple Past (Present Unreal Situation):

o "I wish __________."
2. Wish + Past Perfect (Past Unreal Situation):
o "I wish __________."
3. Wish + Would (Present or Future Unreal Situation):
o "I wish __________."

6. Answer Key

Answer Key for Exercise 1:

1. had
2. weren’t
3. spoke
4. had known
5. hadn’t left

Answer Key for Exercise 2 (Correct the Mistakes):

1. I wish I had bought that new phone last week.

2. They wish they had gone to the party.
3. He wishes he had a better job now.
4. If only I had studied more for the test.
5. She wishes she had gone to the concert last night.

Answer Key for Exercise 3:

(Sample answers)

1. I wish I had more time to travel.

2. I wish I had studied harder in high school.
3. I wish she would stop complaining about her work.

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7. Conclusion

 Wish clauses are a powerful way to express desires, regrets, and hypothetical situations.
 By practicing the three different types of wish clauses (wish + simple past, wish + past
perfect, and wish + would), students can express their feelings and thoughts about present
and past situations, as well as hypothetical future scenarios.
 Encourage students to practice these structures in everyday conversations, imagining
different situations, and using role plays to feel more confident in using wish clauses.

Conjunctions to replace "if"

1. Unless

Definition: "Unless" means "if not." It expresses a condition where something will only
happen if the opposite of the condition is true.

 Example: "I won’t go to the beach unless the weather is good."

 With "if": "I won’t go to the beach if the weather is bad."
 Example: "You can’t leave unless you finish your homework."
 With "if": "You can’t leave if you don’t finish your homework."

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2. Provided (that)

Definition: "Provided that" means "if" something happens or is true, often used in formal
contexts.

 Example: "You can borrow my car provided that you return it on time."
 With "if": "You can borrow my car if you return it on time."
 Example: "I’ll help you provided that you do your part."
 With "if": "I’ll help you if you do your part."

3. As long as

Definition: "As long as" means "if" a certain condition is true or fulfilled.

 Example: "You can stay as long as you keep quiet."

 With "if": "You can stay if you keep quiet."
 Example: "I’ll support you as long as you work hard."
 With "if": "I’ll support you if you work hard."

4. In case

Definition: "In case" means "if something happens," usually referring to preparing for a
possible situation.

 Example: "Take a jacket in case it gets cold."

 With "if": "Take a jacket if it gets cold."
 Example: "I’ll bring an umbrella in case it rains."
 With "if": "I’ll bring an umbrella if it rains."

5. Even if

Definition: "Even if" means "no matter if," used to show that the condition will not change
the result.

 Example: "I will go to the party even if it rains."

 With "if": "I will go to the party if it rains."
 Example: "She will keep working even if she’s tired."
 With "if": "She will keep working if she’s tired."

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 6. Whether or not

Definition: "Whether or not" means "if" something happens or not, used when the result does
not change based on the condition.

 Example: "I’ll attend the event whether or not it rains."

 With "if": "I’ll attend the event if it rains."
 Example: "He will go to the meeting whether or not he feels well."
 With "if": "He will go to the meeting if he feels well."

7. As though

Definition: "As though" is used to talk about something unreal or hypothetical, similar to "if"
in some situations.

 Example: "He acts as though he is the boss."

 With "if": "He acts if he is the boss."
 Example: "She looks as though she hasn’t slept."
 With "if": "She looks if she hasn’t slept."

Summary Chart
Conjunction Meaning Example without "if" Example with "if"
Unless If not "I won’t go unless you "I won’t go if you don’t
come with me." come with me."
Provided (that) If something "You can go provided "You can go if you finish
is true that you finish your your work."
work."
As long as If a condition "I’ll help you as long as "I’ll help you if you
is met you follow the rules." follow the rules."
In case If something "Take a map in case "Take a map if you get
happens you get lost." lost."
Even if No matter if "I’ll go even if I’m "I’ll go if I’m tired."
tired."
Whether or not If it happens "I’ll finish this project "I’ll finish this project if I
or not whether or not I get get help."
help."
As though If something "She talks as though "She talks if she’s an
were true she’s an expert." expert."

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 THE PASSIVE VOICE
Present Simple
Active: Many students read the book.

Passive: The book is read by many students.

Structure: Subject + am/is/are + past participle

Present Continuous
Active: They are cleaning the house.

Passive: The house is being cleaned.

Structure: Subject + am/is/are + being + past participle

Present Perfect
Active: She has written the report.

Passive: The report has been written.

Structure: Subject + has/have + been + past participle

Past Simple
Active: Sarah baked the cake.

Passive: The cake was baked by Sarah.

Structure: Subject + was/were + past participle

Past Continuous
Active: They were painting the room.

Passive: The room was being painted.

Structure: Subject + was/were + being + past participle

Past Perfect
Active: He had completed the homework before class.

Passive: The homework had been completed before class.

Structure: Subject + had + been + past participle

Future Simple
Active: They will finish the project by tomorrow.

Passive: The project will be finished by tomorrow.

Structure: Subject + will + be + past participle

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Future Continuous
Active: They will be doing the work at this time next week.

Passive: The work will be being done at this time next week.

Structure: Subject + will + be + being + past participle (rarely used)

Future Perfect
Active: They will have completed the task by then.

Passive: The task will have been completed by then.

Structure: Subject + will + have + been + past participle

Modal Verbs
Active: They must follow the rules.

Passive: The rules must be followed.

Structure: Subject + modal verb + be + past participle

Context-Based Passive Voice Dialogues for Students

1. Present Simple (Routine / General Facts)

Context: At a Library

Role-play: Two students are discussing the library services.

Student 1: "How are books returned here?"

Student 2: "Books are returned at the front desk."
Student 1: "When is the library open?"
Student 2: "The library is open from 9 AM to 6 PM every day."

2. Present Continuous (Ongoing Actions)

Context: At a Restaurant

Role-play: A customer and waiter talk about the preparations happening in the restaurant.

Customer: "What’s going on in the kitchen?"

Waiter: "The food is being prepared right now. The chef is cooking the special dish for
tonight."
Customer: "Is the dessert ready?"
Waiter: "Yes, the dessert is being served to the customers now."

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3. Present Perfect (Completed Actions with Present Relevance)

Context: At a School

Role-play: A student and teacher discuss assignments and progress.

Student: "Has the homework been graded yet?"

Teacher: "Yes, the homework has been graded. Your grades have been updated on the
portal."
Student: "When will we get the results for the test?"
Teacher: "The results have been posted already. You can check them now."

4. Past Simple (Completed Actions in the Past)

Context: At a Doctor's Office

Role-play: A patient talks to the receptionist about their previous visit.

Patient: "Was the medicine prescribed to me last week?"

Receptionist: "Yes, the medicine was prescribed during your last visit."
Patient: "Was my test result received?"
Receptionist: "Yes, your test result was received yesterday."

5. Past Continuous (Ongoing Action in the Past)

Context: At a Construction Site

Role-play: Two workers discuss a project that was happening when one of them arrived.

Worker 1: "What were they doing when you arrived?"

Worker 2: "The walls were being painted when I arrived."
Worker 1: "Was the roof already finished?"
Worker 2: "No, the roof was still being built at that time."

6. Past Perfect (Action Completed Before Another Action in the Past)

Context: At a Coffee Shop

Role-play: Two friends discuss what had already happened before they met.

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Friend 1: "Did you drink your coffee before you met me?"
Friend 2: "Yes, the coffee had been served before you arrived."
Friend 1: "Did they close the shop early yesterday?"
Friend 2: "Yes, the shop had been closed by 6 PM."

7. Future Simple (Planned or Expected Actions)

Context: At an Office

Role-play: Two coworkers talk about upcoming meetings and events.

Coworker 1: "When will the report be shared?"

Coworker 2: "The report will be sent to you tomorrow."
Coworker 1: "When will the conference call start?"
Coworker 2: "The call will be held at 10 AM."

8. Future Continuous (Ongoing Actions in the Future)

Context: At a School Event

Role-play: Two teachers discuss a school event happening next week.

Teacher 1: "What time will the event be held?"

Teacher 2: "The event will be held at 5 PM next Wednesday."
Teacher 1: "Who will be taking care of the decorations?"
Teacher 2: "The decorations will be being arranged by the students during the afternoon."

9. Modal Verbs (Possibility, Necessity, and Advice)

Context: At a Hospital

Role-play: A nurse and a patient talk about their treatment options.

Nurse: "When will the test results be available?"

Patient: "I’m not sure. When can they be given to me?"
Nurse: "The results can be given tomorrow, but it depends on the doctor."
Patient: "What should I do if the pain doesn’t stop?"
Nurse: "The medication should be taken as prescribed."

10. Additional Practice: Mixed Tenses

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Context: At a Hotel (Variety of Tenses)

Role-play: A guest talks to the hotel staff about services and their stay.

Guest: "When was my room cleaned?"

Receptionist: "Your room was cleaned this morning."
Guest: "What time will the breakfast be served?"
Receptionist: "Breakfast will be served from 7 AM to 9 AM tomorrow."
Guest: "Has the room service been ordered yet?"
Receptionist: "Yes, your room service has been ordered and should arrive soon."

Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Convert Active to Passive

Convert the following active sentences into passive voice.

1. The teacher explains the grammar lesson.

2. They are fixing the car at the moment.
3. The chef prepared the dinner last night.
4. They have already cleaned the house.
5. The company will announce the results tomorrow.

Exercise 2: Complete the Passive Sentences

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in passive voice.

1. The windows __________ (clean) every week.

2. The book __________ (read) by many students last year.
3. The meeting __________ (postpone) until next week.
4. The homework __________ (submit) by the students on time.
5. The movie __________ (release) in cinemas next month.

Exercise 3: Choose the Correct Passive Form

Choose the correct passive voice form to complete the sentences.

1. The letter __________ (was/were) sent yesterday.

2. A new mall __________ (is/are) being built near my house.
3. The food __________ (is/are) served at 12 PM every day.
4. The project __________ (will/would) be completed by the end of next month.
5. The book __________ (has/have) been read by many people.

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Exercise 4: Rewrite the Sentences

Rewrite the following sentences from active voice to passive voice. Be sure to pay attention
to the verb tense.

1. The workers are building a new hospital.

2. The manager has approved the report.
3. People speak English all over the world.
4. They will celebrate the holiday next week.
5. The children were playing the game when I arrived.

Exercise 5: Role Play

In pairs, use the passive voice to create dialogues based on these scenarios. Practice switching
between the active and passive voices.

1. Scenario 1: You and your friend are talking about a new movie you saw. Use the passive
voice to talk about when it was released and who directed it.
2. Scenario 2: A student and a teacher are discussing a project. The student wants to know if
the project has been graded and when it will be returned.
3. Scenario 3: Two workers are talking about the construction of a new office building. One asks
about the progress and when the building will be finished.

Answer Key

Exercise 1: Convert Active to Passive

1. The grammar lesson is explained by the teacher.

2. The car is being fixed at the moment.
3. The dinner was prepared by the chef last night.
4. The house has already been cleaned.
5. The results will be announced tomorrow.

Exercise 2: Complete the Passive Sentences

1. The windows are cleaned every week.

2. The book was read by many students last year.
3. The meeting has been postponed until next week.
4. The homework was submitted by the students on time.
5. The movie will be released in cinemas next month.

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Exercise 3: Choose the Correct Passive Form

1. The letter was sent yesterday.

2. A new mall is being built near my house.
3. The food is served at 12 PM every day.
4. The project will be completed by the end of next month.
5. The book has been read by many people.

Exercise 4: Rewrite the Sentences

1. A new hospital is being built by the workers.

2. The report has been approved by the manager.
3. English is spoken all over the world.
4. The holiday will be celebrated next week.
5. The game was being played by the children when I arrived.

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 Gerunds and Infinitives
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Gerunds and Infinitives

2. When to Use Gerunds
3. When to Use Infinitives
4. Common Verbs Followed by Gerunds and Infinitives
5. Role-Playing Activities
6. Practice Exercises
7. Answer Key
8. Conclusion

1. Introduction to Gerunds and Infinitives

In English, gerunds and infinitives are two forms of verbs that are used in different ways,
and knowing when to use each one is essential for expressing yourself clearly. While both
forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they are not always synonymous and follow
specific rules.

What is a Gerund?

A gerund is the -ing form of a verb. It functions as a noun in a sentence, representing actions,
activities, or concepts.

 Example: Reading is a good habit.

 Example: He loves traveling around the world.
 Example: Swimming is my favorite exercise.
 Example: Cooking requires patience.

What is an Infinitive?

An infinitive is the base form of a verb, preceded by "to". Infinitives can function as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs in a sentence.

 Example: I want to eat pizza tonight.

 Example: She plans to study abroad next year.
 Example: They have decided to move to a new city.

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2. When to Use Gerunds

Gerunds are typically used in the following situations:

a) After Prepositions

Gerunds are used after prepositions to describe an action or activity.

 Examples:
o She is interested in learning new languages.
o They apologized for being late.
o I’m tired of waiting for the bus.
o He’s good at drawing pictures.
o We are looking forward to meeting you tomorrow.

b) After Certain Verbs

Some verbs are always followed by gerunds. These verbs describe actions, feelings, and
preferences.

 Examples:
o Enjoy → I enjoy playing the piano.
o Avoid → He avoids driving in the rain.
o Suggest → I suggest going for a walk.
o Mind → Would you mind helping me with the project?
o Finish → They finished watching the movie.
o Consider → She’s considering changing her job.
o Risk → He risked losing his job by speaking out.

c) As the Subject of a Sentence

When you want to refer to an activity or action in general, you use a gerund as the subject.

 Examples:
o Reading improves your vocabulary.
o Swimming is great exercise.
o Traveling opens your mind to new experiences.
o Learning languages can be difficult but rewarding.

d) After Possessive Pronouns or Nouns

Gerunds are used after possessive pronouns or nouns when referring to something that
belongs to someone.

 Examples:
o I appreciate her helping me.
o His working late every night is impressive.
o My learning to cook took time.
o We are proud of their winning the competition.

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3. When to Use Infinitives

Infinitives are used in the following situations:

a) After Certain Verbs

Some verbs are followed by an infinitive. These verbs often relate to desires, plans, or
decisions.

 Examples:
o Want → I want to visit Paris.
o Hope → We hope to meet you soon.
o Need → She needs to finish her homework.
o Decide → They decided to go on vacation.
o Promise → He promised to help us move.
o Plan → We plan to renovate the house.
o Learn → She learned to play the guitar.

b) To Express Purpose

Infinitives are often used to show the purpose of an action (why something is done).

 Examples:
o I went to the store to buy some groceries.
o She called to ask for help.
o He studied hard to pass the exam.
o We woke up early to watch the sunrise.

c) After Adjectives

Certain adjectives are followed by infinitives. These adjectives often express feelings,
opinions, or states of being.

 Examples:
o Happy → I’m happy to help you with that.
o Ready → She’s ready to go now.
o Eager → They are eager to start the project.
o Surprised → I was surprised to hear the news.
o Afraid → He is afraid to fly.

d) After Nouns

Infinitives can also follow certain nouns. This is common when the noun refers to an
opportunity or a reason for something.

 Examples:
o I have the opportunity to travel abroad next summer.
o She gave me the chance to speak at the conference.
o He had the desire to help others.
o The teacher provided us with the tools to succeed.

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4. Common Verbs Followed by Gerunds and Infinitives

Verbs Followed by Gerunds:

 Enjoy
 Mind
 Avoid
 Suggest
 Recommend
 Consider
 Keep (on)
 Stop (for action)

Examples:

 I enjoy reading in the evening.

 She avoids eating too much sugar.
 They suggested going to the museum.
 He keeps on talking without stopping.
 I consider studying abroad next year.

Verbs Followed by Infinitives:

 Want
 Hope
 Need
 Decide
 Plan
 Promise
 Agree
 Offer

Examples:

 I want to go to the beach.

 She hopes to visit her grandparents soon.
 He needs to clean his room.
 We decided to go for a hike this weekend.
 They agreed to help us move.

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Verbs that can be followed by either Gerunds or Infinitives (with different
meanings):

 Stop
o Gerund: He stopped smoking last year. (He quit smoking.)
o Infinitive: He stopped to smoke outside. (He paused what he was doing to have a
cigarette.)
 Try
o Gerund: I tried reading the book. (I experimented with reading the book.)
o Infinitive: I tried to read the book, but it was too difficult. (I attempted to read the
book.)

5. Role-Playing Activities

Here are some role-play scenarios that encourage students to practice using gerunds and
infinitives in real-life situations.

Role Play 1: At a Café

 Context: Two friends are talking about their plans for the weekend.
 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: “What do you want to do this weekend?”

Friend 2: “I think I’ll try going hiking. I’ve never done it before.”
Friend 1: “That sounds great! I was planning to visit my family.”
Friend 2: “I hope you’ll enjoy it. I might also try eating at that new restaurant.”

Role Play 2: Talking About Hobbies

 Context: Two people talk about their hobbies.

 Roles: Person 1 and Person 2.

Person 1: “What do you enjoy doing in your free time?”

Person 2: “I love reading books. It’s my favorite hobby.”
Person 1: “Do you like watching movies too?”
Person 2: “Yes, I also enjoy watching movies, but I prefer reading.”

Role Play 3: At Work

 Context: Two colleagues are discussing their tasks for the day.
 Roles: Colleague 1 and Colleague 2.

Colleague 1: “I need to finish this report before 3 PM.”

Colleague 2: “Why don’t you try breaking it into smaller sections?”
Colleague 1: “That’s a good idea! I’ll also suggest asking for help if I’m running out of
time.”

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6. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb (gerund or
infinitive).

1. I love __________ (swim) in the ocean.

2. She wants __________ (learn) to play the piano.
3. We decided __________ (go) on vacation next month.
4. He enjoys __________ (read) books in his free time.
5. They promised __________ (finish) the project by Friday.

Exercise 2: Identify the error in the sentence and correct it.

1. I enjoy to read books in my free time.

2. She wants going to the party tonight.
3. He decided to start to exercise regularly.
4. We suggested to visit the museum tomorrow.
5. I am thinking of to go shopping later.

7. Answer Key
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks

1. swimming
2. learn
3. go
4. reading
5. finish

Exercise 2: Correct the Errors

1. I enjoy reading books in my free time.

2. She wants to go to the party tonight.
3. He decided to start exercising regularly.
4. We suggested visiting the museum tomorrow.
5. I am thinking of going shopping later.

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Intensifiers: Very, Much, Pretty, Quite, So
& Such
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Intensifiers
2. Using Very, Much, Pretty, and Quite
3. Using So & Such
4. Role-Playing Activities
5. Practice Exercises
6. Answer Key
7. Conclusion

1. Introduction to Intensifiers

Intensifiers are words used to increase or emphasize the meaning of an adjective or adverb.
They help to show the degree or extent of something. In this document, we will focus on
several common intensifiers: very, much, pretty, quite, so, and such.

What is an Intensifier?

An intensifier is a word that modifies or intensifies another word (usually an adjective or

adverb) to express a stronger feeling or degree.

 Example 1: He is very tall. (The word very increases the meaning of tall.)
 Example 2: She sings so beautifully. (The word so emphasizes how beautifully she sings.)

2. Using Very, Much, Pretty, and Quite

These are the most common intensifiers and they are used to add emphasis or strength to
adjectives and adverbs.

a) Very

Very is used to emphasize the intensity of an adjective or adverb.

 Examples:
o She is very smart. (The word very shows that she is extremely smart.)
o The movie was very interesting. (The movie was extremely interesting.)
o He runs very fast. (He runs at a high speed.)

Note: We can also use very with comparatives (e.g., much better, far more interesting).

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  Examples:
o This book is very much better than the one we read last week.
o The weather is very cold today.

b) Much

Much is mainly used with uncountable nouns or adverbs. It emphasizes large amounts or
degree.

 Examples:
o I don’t have much time today. (There is a small amount of time.)
o He didn’t eat much for breakfast. (He ate a small amount.)
o She talks much more than I do. (She talks to a greater degree.)

Note: We also use much to emphasize negatives or comparatives.

 Examples:
o I don’t care much about the movie.
o This task isn’t much harder than the last one.

c) Pretty

Pretty is an informal intensifier that emphasizes a moderate degree. It is often used with
adjectives and adverbs to express something above average but not extreme.

 Examples:
o This test is pretty easy. (The test is easy, but not extremely easy.)
o He is pretty tall. (He is somewhat tall, but not exceptionally tall.)
o The dress looks pretty good on you. (It looks quite good, but not perfect.)

Note: "Pretty" is commonly used in informal speech.

d) Quite

Quite is used to express a moderate degree or extent. It can be stronger than "pretty" but not
as strong as "very."

 Examples:
o The movie was quite good. (The movie was good, but not excellent.)
o I’m quite tired today. (I’m somewhat tired, but not extremely so.)
o She is quite talented at playing the piano. (She has considerable talent.)

Note: Quite is often used in a positive sense but can also be used in negative contexts.

3. Using So & Such

The intensifiers so and such are used to emphasize the degree or extent of something. They
are usually followed by adjectives, adverbs, or noun phrases.

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a) So

So is often used to emphasize adjectives or adverbs and indicates a high degree of

something. It is commonly used with adjectives and adverbs.

 Examples:
o She is so kind. (She is extremely kind.)
o He runs so fast. (He runs at an extremely high speed.)
o This movie is so interesting. (The movie is extremely interesting.)
o It’s so hot outside! (The temperature is very high.)

Note: "So" can also be used in negative statements (with the word not).

 Example:
o The cake is not so delicious as the last one.

b) Such

Such is used to emphasize a noun or a noun phrase. It is used when you want to emphasize
the type or quality of something.

 Examples:
o He is such a good singer. (He is an extremely good singer.)
o They had such a fun time at the party. (They had an extremely enjoyable time.)
o That was such a beautiful movie. (The movie was extremely beautiful.)
o She has such a nice smile. (Her smile is really nice.)

Note: Such is often used with a/an + adjective + noun.

 Examples:
o He made such a delicious cake.
o They are such talented musicians.

4. Role-Playing Activities

Here are role-play scenarios for students to practice using intensifiers in real-life situations.
These scenarios encourage students to use very, much, pretty, quite, so, and such in a
conversational context.

Role Play 1: Discussing a Movie

 Context: Two friends talk about a movie they just watched.

 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: “What did you think of the movie?”

Friend 2: “I thought it was so good! The plot was amazing, and the acting was such a high
level.”

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Friend 1: “Yeah, it was pretty exciting. But I felt it was quite long, don’t you think?”
Friend 2: “It was very long, but it was worth it.”

Role Play 2: Talking About the Weather

 Context: Two people are talking about the weather during the day.
 Roles: Person 1 and Person 2.

Person 1: “It’s so hot today! I’m sweating.”

Person 2: “Yeah, it’s pretty warm, but I think it’s quite comfortable if you stay in the
shade.”
Person 1: “I don’t think I can stay outside for too long. I’m just so tired of this heat!”

Role Play 3: Giving Feedback on a Presentation

 Context: A colleague gives feedback to another colleague about a presentation.

 Roles: Colleague 1 and Colleague 2.

Colleague 1: “How did I do in the presentation?”

Colleague 2: “You did so well! The slides were such a great visual aid.”
Colleague 1: “Thanks! Was the content clear enough?”
Colleague 2: “Yes, it was very clear. But I think you could add a bit more information in the
introduction.”

5. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct intensifier (very, much, pretty,
quite, so, such).

1. She is __________ excited about her birthday party.

2. The cake tastes __________ good that I can’t stop eating it.
3. He is __________ talented that he won the award.
4. The movie was __________ boring that I fell asleep.
5. It was __________ a great day at the beach!
6. I don’t like this book __________ much.
7. He works __________ hard to achieve his goals.

Exercise 2: Choose the correct intensifier (so, such, very, pretty, quite) for
each sentence.

1. This test is __________ difficult! I don’t think I can finish it.

2. It was __________ a beautiful day that we stayed outside all afternoon.
3. The restaurant is __________ expensive, I can’t afford to go there.
4. She’s __________ a good friend; she always helps me out when I need it.
5. They’re __________ good at cooking, I think they could be chefs.

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Exercise 3: Correct the mistake in the sentence.

1. She is very a nice person.

2. I don’t like it pretty much.
3. This is much a good idea!
4. He’s so much tall than me.
5. We had so fun at the concert.

6. Answer Key

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks

1. very
2. so
3. such
4. so
5. such
6. much
7. very

Exercise 2: Choose the correct intensifier

1. so
2. such
3. so
4. such
5. so

Exercise 3: Correct the mistakes

1. She is such a nice person.

2. I don’t like it much.
3. This is such a good idea!
4. He’s so tall than me.
5. We had such fun at the concert.

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 Expressing Regrets: Wish & If Only
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Expressing Regrets

2. Using "Wish" and "If Only"
3. Structure and Tense Usage
4. Context-Based Role-Play Activities
5. Practice Exercises
6. Answer Key
7. Conclusion

2. Using "Wish" and "If Only"

Both "wish" and "if only" are used to express regret or to talk about hypothetical situations.
The structure of these expressions depends on whether we are talking about the present, the
past, or future possibilities.

a) Present Regrets

We use "wish" and "if only" to express regrets about the present (things that are not as we
want them to be now).

 Structure: wish + subject + past simple verb

 Examples:
o I wish I knew the answer to this question. (I don't know the answer now, but I wish I
did.)
o If only I had more free time. (I don’t have enough free time at the moment.)

b) Past Regrets

To express regret about something that happened in the past, we use "wish" and "if only"
with the past perfect tense.

 Structure: wish + subject + had + past participle

 Examples:
o I wish I had studied harder for the exam. (I didn’t study enough in the past,
and I regret it now.)
o If only we had arrived earlier. (We arrived late, and now we regret it.)

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c) Future Regrets

When talking about future regrets (about something we could have done
differently), we use "wish" and "if only" with the would + base verb
structure.

 Structure: wish + subject + would + verb

 Examples:
o I wish you would stop being so rude. (I hope you stop being rude in the
future.)
o If only they would listen to my advice. (I hope they will listen to my advice in
the future.)

3. Structure and Tense Usage

Here’s a quick summary of how wish and if only are used with different tenses:

Time Structure Example

Present Regret wish + past simple I wish I knew her better.
Past Regret wish + had + past participle I wish I had seen that movie.
Future Regret wish + would + base verb I wish you would help me more.

Note: Both "wish" and "if only" have the same structure and meaning when
used in the same context. The difference is that "if only" is more emotional or
stronger in expressing regret.

 Example:
o I wish I had gone to the party.
o If only I had gone to the party.

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4. Context-Based Role-Play Activities
Here are some role-play scenarios that encourage students to practice
expressing regrets using wish and if only in everyday contexts.

Role Play 1: Talking About a Missed Opportunity

 Context: Two friends are discussing a missed opportunity to attend a concert.

 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: “I can't believe we missed the concert last night. It was so amazing.”
Friend 2: “I wish we had gone. It would have been so much fun.”
Friend 1: “Yeah, if only we hadn’t been so busy with work.”
Friend 2: “I know! I wish we had planned it better.”

Role Play 2: Regretting a Decision

 Context: Two coworkers are discussing a decision they made that turned out poorly.
 Roles: Coworker 1 and Coworker 2.

Coworker 1: “I can’t believe I accepted that project last week. It’s so difficult!”
Coworker 2: “I know. I wish you had told me before you agreed to it.”
Coworker 1: “Yeah, if only I had thought more about it. Now it’s too late.”
Coworker 2: “Well, you can still ask for help. I wish I could help more.”

Role Play 3: Talking About a Missed Exam

 Context: A student is talking to their teacher after missing an important exam.

 Roles: Student and Teacher.

Student: “I wish I had studied more for the exam.”

Teacher: “If only you had started earlier. You were well prepared, but you
needed more practice.”
Student: “I know! If only I hadn’t procrastinated so much.”
Teacher: “Well, don’t worry. You’ll do better next time.”

5. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct form of "wish" or "if only."

1. I __________ (study) harder for the test.

2. If only they __________ (arrive) on time!
3. I __________ (be) at the party last night.
4. He __________ (not make) that mistake.
5. I __________ (not leave) my phone at home.

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Exercise 2: Choose the correct form of the verb.
1. I wish I __________ (know) the answer to this question.
a) knew
b) know
c) had known
2. If only you __________ (come) to the meeting yesterday.
a) came
b) had come
c) come
3. I wish you __________ (be) more careful next time.
a) were
b) are
c) had been
4. If only I __________ (have) more time for my hobbies.
a) had
b) have
c) would have
5. I wish she __________ (tell) me about the change in plans.
a) tells
b) had told
c) told

Exercise 3: Rewrite the sentences to express regret.

1. I didn’t study for the test.

2. I didn’t attend the party last night.
3. We didn’t leave early for the airport.
4. I didn’t buy the concert tickets.
5. He didn’t help me with my project.

6. Answer Key
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
1. wish I had studied
2. If only they had arrived
3. I wish I had been
4. He wishes he had not made
5. I wish I had not left
Exercise 2: Choose the correct form
1. a) knew
2. b) had come
3. a) were
4. a) had
5. b) had told
Exercise 3: Rewrite the sentences
1. I wish I had studied for the test.
2. If only I had attended the party last night.
3. If only we had left early for the airport.
4. I wish I had bought the concert tickets.
5. He wishes he had helped me with my project.

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 Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession

2. Common Conjunctions of Concession
3. Structure and Usage
4. Context-Based Role-Play Activities
5. Practice Exercises
6. Answer Key
7. Conclusion

1. Introduction to Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession

Example of Concession:

 Although it was raining, we went for a walk.

Here, the rain is an obstacle (the concession), but the walk still happened.

2. Common Conjunctions of Concession

Here are the most common subordinating conjunctions of concession used in English:

a) Although

 Usage: Introduces a contrast, showing that something happens despite the condition in the
subordinate clause.
 Examples:
o Although it was late, they continued the meeting.
o Although he was tired, he stayed up to finish his work.
o She went for a run although the weather was cold.
o Although I don't like coffee, I'll drink it if I have to.
o Although she failed the test, she didn’t give up.

b) Though

 Usage: Similar to "although," but often used in informal speech and can also be used at the
end of the sentence.
 Examples:
o He was upset, though he didn’t show it.
o I loved the movie, though the ending was disappointing.
o Though it’s not my favorite, I will go to the concert with you.
o She had little time, though she managed to finish the task.
o Though it was difficult, she managed to pass the exam.

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c) Even though

 Usage: A stronger version of "although" or "though," emphasizing the contrast more.

 Examples:
o Even though he was sick, he went to work.
o Even though I was nervous, I gave the presentation confidently.
o Even though they are very young, they can play chess really well.
o Even though she doesn't like seafood, she ate the sushi.
o Even though it was raining, they played the match.

d) While

 Usage: Often used to express contrast, particularly when two actions are happening at the
same time or in opposite situations.
 Examples:
o While I enjoy playing sports, my brother prefers watching them.
o While I understand your opinion, I still don’t agree.
o While I worked hard, my colleague didn’t do much.
o While I was studying for the test, my friend went to the movies.
o While she is an excellent cook, she prefers to eat out.

e) Whereas

 Usage: Used to contrast two facts or situations, often with a focus on differences.
 Examples:
o I enjoy hiking, whereas my sister prefers shopping.
o He loves classical music, whereas his wife prefers jazz.
o Whereas I study at home, my brother goes to the library.
o His ideas are innovative, whereas hers are more traditional.
o He likes reading books, whereas his friends prefer watching movies.

f) In spite of / Despite

 Usage: Both these phrases introduce a contrast and show that something happens despite a
situation or condition. They often appear at the beginning of the sentence.
 Examples:
o In spite of his hard work, he didn’t pass the exam.
o In spite of the snow, the flight took off on time.
o She stayed positive in spite of the difficulties she faced.
o Despite the bad weather, they decided to go hiking.
o Despite the traffic, we arrived on time for the meeting.

3. Structure and Usage

The structure of subordinating conjunctions of concession involves a main clause and a

subordinate clause. The subordinate clause presents an idea that contrasts with the main
clause, but the idea in the main clause still holds true.

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Structure 1: Subordinate Clause First

When the subordinate clause begins the sentence, a comma is usually placed after it.

 Example: Although it was late, they continued working.

Structure 2: Main Clause First

When the main clause comes first, there is no comma.

 Example: They continued working although it was late.

4. Context-Based Role-Play Activities

Role Play 1: Discussing a Missed Opportunity

 Context: Two friends are talking about missing an event despite their efforts to attend.
 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "I can't believe we missed the concert!"

Friend 2: "I know, even though we left early, we still didn’t make it in time."
Friend 1: "It was a disappointment, though we tried our best."
Friend 2: "Yeah, in spite of our efforts, we were too late."

Role Play 2: Talking About a Late Arrival

 Context: Two colleagues discuss arriving late for a meeting.

 Roles: Colleague 1 and Colleague 2.

Colleague 1: "I’m so sorry I’m late."

Colleague 2: "It’s okay, though I was worried you wouldn’t show up."
Colleague 1: "I know, in spite of leaving early, traffic was terrible."
Colleague 2: "It’s alright, although we had to wait, we can still finish the discussion."

Role Play 3: Discussing a Busy Day

 Context: Two friends are discussing how busy their day was, yet they still managed to do
everything.
 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "I had so many things to do today."

Friend 2: "I know, even though you were busy, you managed to get everything done."
Friend 1: "Yes, but though I had a lot of work, I made time to relax."
Friend 2: "That’s great! In spite of all the tasks, you still found balance."

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5. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the appropriate subordinating conjunction.

1. __________ she tried hard, she couldn’t finish the task.

2. __________ they were exhausted, they kept working.
3. I will go to the party __________ I don’t feel like it.
4. __________ we were ready, we still had to wait for the bus.
5. __________ the snowstorm, the roads were clear enough for driving.

Exercise 2: Combine the sentences using a subordinating conjunction of

concession (although, though, even though, whereas, while, in spite of).

1. She worked hard. She still didn’t complete the project.

2. He is very kind. He can be strict sometimes.
3. I have little time. I will help you.
4. I had a headache. I went to the gym.
5. They tried to negotiate. They didn’t get a good deal.

Exercise 3: Choose the correct subordinating conjunction.

1. __________ he was nervous, he gave an excellent speech.

a) Although
b) In spite of
c) While
2. __________ the heavy rain, the match continued.
a) Even though
b) Whereas
c) Though
3. __________ it was late, they kept working.
a) In spite of
b) Though
c) While
4. I will help you, __________ I am busy.
a) In spite of
b) Although
c) Whereas
5. __________ I don't like pizza, I’ll eat it tonight.
a) Even though
b) While
c) Though

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6. Answer Key
Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks

1. Although
2. Even though
3. though
4. While
5. Despite

Exercise 2: Combine the sentences

1. Although she worked hard, she still didn’t complete the project.
2. He is very kind, whereas he can be strict sometimes.
3. Although I have little time, I will help you.
4. Even though I had a headache, I went to the gym.
5. They tried to negotiate, but they didn’t get a good deal.

Exercise 3: Choose the correct subordinating conjunction

1. a) Although
2. a) Even though
3. b) Though
4. b) Although
5. a) Even though

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 Noun Clauses with "That"
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Noun Clauses

2. What Are Noun Clauses with "That"?
3. Structure and Usage
4. Context-Based Role-Play Activities
5. Practice Exercises
6. Answer Key
7. Conclusion

1. Introduction to Noun Clauses

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence. It can serve as the
subject, object, or complement in a sentence, just like a noun. Noun clauses can be introduced
by various words, such as "that," "who," "whom," "what," "whether," and "how."

In this document, we will focus on noun clauses introduced by "that." These clauses are
commonly used in everyday speech and writing to provide more information or detail about a
statement, action, or idea.

Example of a Noun Clause with "That":

 I heard that she is moving to another city.

In this sentence, "that she is moving to another city" is the noun clause, and it acts as the
object of the verb "heard."

2. What Are Noun Clauses with "That"?

A noun clause with "that" begins with the word "that" and functions as a noun in the
sentence. It often explains or provides further details about something. The clause can be a
subject, object, or complement in the sentence.

Examples:

1. Subject of the Sentence:

o That he won the award surprised everyone.
o That you passed the exam makes me happy.
2. Object of the Sentence:
o She knows that he is lying.
o I don't believe that they will come to the party.
3. Complement of the Sentence:
o The problem is that we don’t have enough time.
o His concern is that the project may be delayed.

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Key Points:

 "That" is often used in noun clauses to connect the clause to the main sentence.
 Noun clauses with "that" are often used to report what someone has said, thought, or
believed.
 The clause usually does not require a comma unless it is an introductory clause.

3. Structure and Usage

The structure of a noun clause with "that" typically follows this pattern:

1. Subject + Verb + Noun Clause (with "that")

o Example: She believes that he will succeed.
2. Verb + Noun Clause (with "that")
o Example: I heard that they are coming to the event.
3. Noun Clause (with "that") as the Subject of the Sentence
o Example: That he didn’t come to the meeting was surprising.
4. Noun Clause (with "that") as the Object of the Sentence
o Example: We discussed that she might move abroad.

Examples of Usage in Different Contexts:

 Reporting Information:
o She told me that she was going to the store.
o I know that you have finished your project.
 Expressing Beliefs or Opinions:
o He thinks that everyone should help with the cleaning.
o We believe that the team can win the game.
 Explaining Reasons or Causes:
o The reason is that we need more time.
o I don’t understand that he didn’t answer the call.
 Expressing Doubt or Uncertainty:
o I wonder that he hasn’t replied yet.
o It’s hard to believe that they will finish the work on time.

4. Context-Based Role-Play Activities

Below are some role-play scenarios where students can practice using noun clauses with
"that" in daily life situations.

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Role Play 1: Sharing News

 Context: Two friends are talking about the latest news.

 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "Have you heard the news?"

Friend 2: "No, what happened?"
Friend 1: "I heard that they are opening a new restaurant in town!"
Friend 2: "That’s exciting! I didn’t know that they were planning to do that."
Friend 1: "I know! I think that it’s going to be really popular."

Role Play 2: Giving Advice

 Context: Two colleagues are talking about a project.

 Roles: Colleague 1 and Colleague 2.

Colleague 1: "I’m not sure if the project will be ready on time."

Colleague 2: "I think that you need to work with the team more closely."
Colleague 1: "Yes, I agree. I also believe that we should ask for an extension."
Colleague 2: "It might help. But we should also check if that is possible with the client."

Role Play 3: Discussing a Friend’s Situation

 Context: Two friends are talking about their other friend’s decision to move abroad.
 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "Did you hear about Anna?"

Friend 2: "No, what happened?"
Friend 1: "She’s moving to Paris! I heard that she got a job there."
Friend 2: "Wow, I didn’t know that she was planning to move. That’s a big decision!"
Friend 1: "Yeah, she says that it’s a great opportunity for her."

5. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with a noun clause using "that."

1. I didn’t know __________ she was coming to the party.

2. The teacher explained __________ we need to complete the assignment by Friday.
3. She told me __________ she would be traveling next week.
4. I’m not sure __________ they will accept our proposal.
5. He mentioned __________ he had already seen the movie.

Exercise 2: Combine the sentences using a noun clause with "that."

1. He was surprised. He didn’t know she was coming.
2. I’m worried. She might not finish the report on time.
3. She said she would come. She would arrive at 10:00 AM.
4. They’re excited. They will have a baby soon.
5. I’m not sure. They will agree with our plan.

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6. Answer Key

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks

1. that
2. that
3. that
4. whether
5. that

Exercise 2: Combine the sentences

1. He was surprised that he didn’t know she was coming.

2. I’m worried that she might not finish the report on time.
3. She said that she would come and arrive at 10:00 AM.
4. They’re excited that they will have a baby soon.
5. I’m not sure that they will agree with our plan.

Noun Clauses with "Question Words"

Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Noun Clauses

2. What Are Noun Clauses with "Question Words"?
3. Common Question Words Used in Noun Clauses
4. Structure and Usage
5. Context-Based Role-Play Activities
6. Practice Exercises
7. Answer Key
8. Conclusion

1. Introduction to Noun Clauses

A noun clause is a type of dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence. It can act
as the subject, object, or complement of a verb. Noun clauses can begin with various words
such as "that," "if," "whether," and question words like "who," "what," "where,"
"when," "why," and "how."

In this document, we will focus on noun clauses with question words. These noun clauses
are used to report or ask about specific information, and they are often indirect questions that
convey a statement rather than a direct question.

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Example of a Noun Clause with a Question Word:

 I don't know what he wants for his birthday.

Here, "what he wants for his birthday" is a noun clause acting as the object of "know."

2. What Are Noun Clauses with "Question Words"?

A noun clause with a question word begins with one of the question words (who, what,
where, when, why, how) and functions as a noun in the sentence. These clauses are used to
convey indirect questions, which provide specific information or details.

Examples:

1. "Who" - Used to ask about a person or people.

o I don't know who called me last night.
o She asked who is coming to the party.
2. "What" - Used to ask about something or an idea.
o Can you tell me what happened at the meeting?
o He didn’t explain what he meant by that.
3. "Where" - Used to ask about a place or location.
o I wonder where they are going on vacation.
o Do you know where she lives?
4. "When" - Used to ask about a time or date.
o I can't remember when the concert is.
o Please let me know when the meeting starts.
5. "Why" - Used to ask about a reason or cause.
o Can you explain why she was upset?
o I don’t understand why they left early.
6. "How" - Used to ask about a method, process, or manner.
o Do you know how to solve this problem?
o She asked how I managed to finish the task.
7. "Whether" - Used to express a choice or uncertainty between two alternatives.
o I wonder whether he will come to the event.
o They discussed whether to postpone the meeting.

3. Common Question Words Used in Noun Clauses

Who - Used for people or groups.

 Examples:
o I don’t know who is responsible for the mistake.
o She asked who would be attending the conference.

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What - Used for things, actions, or ideas.

 Examples:
o I’m not sure what time the event starts.
o Can you explain what happened during the meeting?

Where - Used for locations.

 Examples:
o They were asking where the restaurant is located.
o Can you tell me where she went?

When - Used for times, dates, or events.

 Examples:
o He didn't say when he would return.
o I’m not sure when the train departs.

Why - Used to ask for reasons or causes.

 Examples:
o Do you know why they canceled the trip?
o I don’t understand why she didn’t reply to my email.

How - Used to ask about processes or methods.

 Examples:
o I can’t figure out how to fix the computer.
o Can you explain how to use this new software?

Whether - Used to express choice or alternatives.

 Examples:
o I’m not sure whether I should go to the party or stay home.
o They are still deciding whether to approve the proposal.

4. Structure and Usage

The structure of a noun clause with a question word usually follows the pattern:

1. Main Clause + Noun Clause (with a Question Word)

o Example: I wonder what they are doing.
2. Main Clause + Noun Clause (with a Question Word) + (Optional: Rest of
Sentence)
o Example: I don’t know who will be in charge of the project.
3. Noun Clause (with Question Word) as the Subject of the Sentence
o Example: What she said was surprising.
4. Noun Clause (with Question Word) as the Object of the Sentence
o Example: I didn’t understand why she was upset.

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5. Context-Based Role-Play Activitie

Here are some role-play scenarios where students can practice using noun clauses with
question words in everyday situations.

Role Play 1: Asking About a Job

 Context: Two colleagues are discussing a new job opening at their company.
 Roles: Colleague 1 and Colleague 2.

Colleague 1: "Do you know who will be taking over the new project?"
Colleague 2: "I’m not sure, but I think it will be someone from the management team."
Colleague 1: "I wonder what the salary range for this position is."
Colleague 2: "I’m not sure, but I’m excited to find out."

Role Play 2: Discussing Plans for a Weekend

 Context: Two friends are planning their weekend.

 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "Do you know when the movie starts?"

Friend 2: "I think it starts at 7 PM, but I’m not sure."
Friend 1: "I wonder what time we should arrive to get good seats."
Friend 2: "Maybe we should arrive by 6:30 PM."

Role Play 3: Talking About a Family Event

 Context: Two siblings are discussing a family event.

 Roles: Sibling 1 and Sibling 2.

Sibling 1: "Do you know where the family gathering is taking place?"
Sibling 2: "Yes, it’s at Uncle John’s house."
Sibling 1: "I wonder how many people are going to be there."
Sibling 2: "I’m not sure, but I think a lot of cousins are coming."

6. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with a noun clause using a question word.

1. I’m curious ________ she will attend the meeting.

2. Can you tell me ________ you want for your birthday?
3. He didn’t explain ________ he was upset.
4. I want to know ________ the new movie is about.
5. Please let me know ________ the interview will take place.

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Exercise 2: Combine the sentences using a noun clause with a question word.

1. I don’t know the answer. Can you help me?

2. Do you know the reason? She left early.
3. I can’t remember the time. The meeting is scheduled.
4. I’m wondering about the place. We’re meeting later.
5. They’re discussing the possibility. We might go on vacation.

7. Answer Key

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks

1. whether
2. what
3. why
4. what
5. when

Exercise 2: Combine the sentences

1. I don’t know what the answer is. Can you help me?
2. Do you know why she left early?
3. I can’t remember when the meeting is scheduled.
4. I’m wondering where we’re meeting later.
5. They’re discussing whether we might go on vacation.

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 Causative Verbs
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Causative Verbs

2. What Are Causative Verbs?
3. Common Causative Verbs
4. Usage and Structure
5. Contextual Role-Play Activities
6. Practice Exercises
7. Answer Key

1. Introduction to Causative Verbs

Causative verbs allow the subject to express actions that they cause to happen or arrange for
someone else to do. In other words, the subject doesn’t perform the action themselves but
instead causes it to happen by making someone else perform it.

Causative verbs include have, get, make, let, and help. These verbs can refer to both actions
the subject arranges for others to do and situations where someone is made or allowed to do
something.

2. What Are Causative Verbs?

Causative verbs are used when the subject causes someone else to do something or when
something is done for the subject by someone else.

Examples of Causative Verbs:

1. Have: The subject arranges for someone to do something.

o Example: “I had my car washed.” (I arranged for someone else to wash my car.)
2. Get: The subject persuades or arranges for someone to do something.
o Example: “She got her brother to help her with the homework.” (She persuaded her
brother to help her.)
3. Make: The subject forces or strongly persuades someone to do something.
o Example: “The teacher made the students do extra exercises.” (The teacher forced
the students to do extra exercises.)
4. Let: The subject allows someone to do something.
o Example: “My parents let me go to the party.” (My parents allowed me to go.)
5. Help: The subject assists someone to do something.
o Example: “I helped her carry the boxes.” (I assisted her in carrying the boxes.)

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3. Common Causative Verbs

1. Have

The verb have is used to express that the subject arranges for something to be done by
someone else.

 Structure: Subject + have + object + base verb or past participle

o Example 1: “I had my shirt cleaned at the dry cleaner's.”
o Example 2: “She had her assistant write the report.”
o Example 3: “We had the plumber fix the pipes.”

2. Get

The verb get is used when the subject arranges or persuades someone to do something.

 Structure: Subject + get + object + to + base verb

o Example 1: “I got my friend to help me with the project.”
o Example 2: “She got her brother to fix the bike.”
o Example 3: “He got his boss to approve the proposal.”

3. Make

The verb make is used to indicate that someone is forced or strongly persuaded to do
something.

 Structure: Subject + make + object + base verb

o Example 1: “The teacher made the students complete the test.”
o Example 2: “His parents made him study every evening.”
o Example 3: “They made the children clean their rooms.”

4. Let

The verb let is used when someone allows someone else to do something.

 Structure: Subject + let + object + base verb

o Example 1: “I let my sister borrow my clothes.”
o Example 2: “She let him use her phone.”
o Example 3: “They let us leave the office early.”

5. Help

The verb help is used when someone assists someone else in doing something.

 Structure: Subject + help + object + base verb OR Subject + help + base verb
o Example 1: “I helped him carry the groceries.”
o Example 2: “She helped me finish the homework.”
o Example 3: “They helped us clean the house.”

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4. Usage and Structure

1. Using "Have"

 When to use it: You use have when you arrange for someone to do something for
you. The verb after have is usually in the base form or past participle.
o Examples:
 I had the hairdresser cut my hair. (I arranged for the hairdresser to cut my
hair.)
 She had the assistant send the invitations. (She arranged for the assistant to
send the invitations.)

2. Using "Get"

 When to use it: You use get when you persuade or arrange for someone to do
something.
o Examples:
 I got him to sign the document. (I persuaded him to sign it.)
 She got the children to finish their homework. (She arranged for the children
to finish their homework.)

3. Using "Make"

 When to use it: You use make when someone is forced or strongly persuaded to do
something.
o Examples:
 The boss made the employees work on the weekend. (The boss forced the
employees to work on the weekend.)
 They made their son do his chores. (They forced their son to do his chores.)

4. Using "Let"

 When to use it: You use let when you allow someone to do something.
o Examples:
 I let my friend borrow my book. (I allowed my friend to borrow it.)
 They let the children stay up late. (They allowed the children to stay up late.)

5. Using "Help"

 When to use it: You use help when someone assists someone else in doing
something.
o Examples:
 She helped me fix my bike. (She assisted me in fixing my bike.)
 I helped them carry the boxes. (I assisted them in carrying the boxes.)

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5. Contextual Role-Play Activities

Role Play 1: At the Car Repair Shop

 Context: A customer talks to the repair shop clerk about having their car repaired.
 Roles: Customer and Repair Shop Clerk.

Customer: "Can you fix my car? It’s having engine problems."

Clerk: "Sure, we can help. Do you want us to check the brakes too?"
Customer: "Yes, please have the brakes checked as well."
Clerk: "Great! We will let you know when it’s ready."

Role Play 2: Asking for Help with Homework

 Context: A student asks a classmate for help with homework.

 Roles: Student 1 and Student 2.

Student 1: "I’m stuck on this math problem. Can you help me solve it?"
Student 2: "Sure! I’ll help you understand it step by step."
Student 1: "Thanks! I also need you to check my answers for me."
Student 2: "Of course! Let’s go over them together."

Role Play 3: Asking for Permission

 Context: A teenager asks their parents for permission to go out.

 Roles: Teenager and Parent.

Teenager: "Can I go to the concert on Friday night?"

Parent: "Who will be there?"
Teenager: "My friends will be there, and they let me go last time."
Parent: "Okay, but I want you to come home by 11 PM."
Teenager: "Thank you! I’ll be home on time."

6. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct causative verb (have, get, make,
let, help).

1. I ______ my hair cut at the salon yesterday.

2. He ______ his brother to lend him money.
3. The teacher ______ the students do extra homework.
4. I ______ my sister borrow my dress for the party.
5. We ______ our friend move the furniture.

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Exercise 2: Rewrite the sentences using the causative verb.

1. I arranged for the mechanic to fix my car. → I ______ my car ______ by the mechanic.
2. She persuaded him to finish the report. → She ______ him ______ the report.
3. They forced the kids to clean their rooms. → They ______ the kids ______ their rooms.
4. I allowed him to use my phone. → I ______ him ______ my phone.
5. I helped my friend with the project. → I ______ my friend ______ the project.

7. Answer Key

Exercise 1:

1. had
2. got
3. made
4. let
5. helped

Exercise 2:

1. I had my car fixed by the mechanic.

2. She got him to finish the report.
3. They made the kids clean their rooms.
4. I let him use my phone.
5. I helped my friend with the project.

Short Forms of Noun Clauses (Without

"That")
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Short Forms of Noun Clauses

2. What Are Noun Clauses Without "That"?
3. Usage and Structure
4. Common Verbs and Expressions with Noun Clauses
5. Contextual Role-Play Activities
6. Practice Exercises
7. Answer Key

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1. Introduction to Short Forms of Noun Clauses

In English, noun clauses can sometimes be shortened by omitting the word "that". This
shortening typically occurs in informal speech or writing, especially in conversations or
quick, everyday exchanges. Short forms of noun clauses make sentences more natural and
fluid.

2. What Are Noun Clauses Without "That"?

A noun clause is a group of words that function as a noun within a sentence. It can act as a
subject, object, or complement. Normally, noun clauses begin with words like that, how,
why, what, where, and whether.

Example of a Noun Clause with "That":

 "I know that she is coming."

Shortened Version (Without "That"):

 "I know she is coming."

In informal English, the word "that" is often dropped in noun clauses when it functions as
the object or complement of a sentence. The meaning remains the same, and this makes the
sentence more concise.

3. Usage and Structure

Basic Structure of a Noun Clause (With "That"):

[Subject] + [Verb] + that + [Subject + Verb]

 Example: “I believe that she is honest.”

Shortened Structure (Without "That"):

[Subject] + [Verb] + [Subject + Verb]

 Example: “I believe she is honest.”

As you can see, "that" is omitted, but the sentence still conveys the same meaning.

Examples of Shortened Noun Clauses:

1. With "that": “She said that she was tired.”

o Shortened: “She said she was tired.”

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 2. With "that": “I thought that the movie was good.”
o Shortened: “I thought the movie was good.”
3. With "that": “I didn’t know that it was your birthday.”
o Shortened: “I didn’t know it was your birthday.”
4. With "that": “He told me that he would be late.”
o Shortened: “He told me he would be late.”
5. With "that": “We assumed that they were married.”
o Shortened: “We assumed they were married.”

4. Common Verbs and Expressions with Noun Clauses

Here are some common verbs and expressions that are frequently followed by noun clauses,
which can often be shortened by omitting "that":

1. Verbs of Thought and Belief:

 believe, think, assume, know, hope, wonder

Examples:

 “I think that she’s going to be late.” → “I think she’s going to be late.”

 “He believes that it’s true.” → “He believes it’s true.”

2. Verbs of Saying or Telling:

 say, tell, mention, ask, report

Examples:

 “She said that she would arrive at 8.” → “She said she would arrive at 8.”
 “I asked that they be on time.” → “I asked they be on time.”

3. Verbs of Perception:

 see, hear, feel, notice

Examples:

 “I heard that they moved to a new house.” → “I heard they moved to a new house.”
 “She noticed that he was upset.” → “She noticed he was upset.”

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5. Contextual Role-Play Activities

Role Play 1: Asking for Information

 Context: Two friends are talking about their plans.

 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "Do you know that the movie starts at 7 PM?"

Friend 2: "No, I didn’t. But I thought it started at 8."
Friend 1: "I’m sure it’s 7. They always change the time, though."
Friend 2: "Thanks for letting me know. I’ll leave earlier."

Role Play 2: Talking About a Meeting

 Context: A boss and an employee discuss a meeting.

 Roles: Boss and Employee.

Boss: "Did you hear that the meeting was postponed?"

Employee: "No, I didn’t. Why was it postponed?"
Boss: "I think they need more time to prepare the presentation."
Employee: "Okay, I’ll check the new time."

Role Play 3: Discussing a News Article

 Context: Two colleagues discuss an article they read.

 Roles: Colleague 1 and Colleague 2.

Colleague 1: "Did you read that they’re launching a new product?"

Colleague 2: "Yes, I read it. I think it’s going to be very successful."
Colleague 1: "I’m excited. I didn’t know that they were working on it for so long."
Colleague 2: "It’s been in development for over a year now!"

6. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Rewrite the sentences by omitting the word "that".

1. I believe that she will succeed in her career.

2. He told me that he was going to the store.
3. We know that the train arrives at 6:00 PM.
4. She said that she was feeling sick.
5. I didn’t know that you were coming to the party.

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Exercise 2: Complete the sentences with appropriate noun clauses. Then,
shorten them by omitting "that".

1. I thought ________.
2. She didn’t realize ________.
3. He said ________.
4. We assumed ________.
5. They asked ________.

Exercise 3: Fill in the blanks with "that" (if necessary) or omit it to form a
noun clause.

1. I didn’t know ________ she was coming to the meeting.

2. He said ________ he would meet us at 4.
3. She believes ________ everything will be okay.
4. We thought ________ he was joking.
5. They told me ________ the party was canceled.

7. Answer Key

Exercise 1:

1. I believe she will succeed in her career.

2. He told me he was going to the store.
3. We know the train arrives at 6:00 PM.
4. She said she was feeling sick.
5. I didn’t know you were coming to the party.

Exercise 2:

1. I thought she would be late. → I thought she would be late.

2. She didn’t realize he was upset. → She didn’t realize he was upset.
3. He said he was leaving soon. → He said he was leaving soon.
4. We assumed they were married. → We assumed they were married.
5. They asked if we needed help. → They asked if we needed help.

Exercise 3:

1. I didn’t know that she was coming to the meeting. → I didn’t know she was coming to the
meeting.
2. He said that he would meet us at 4. → He said he would meet us at 4.
3. She believes that everything will be okay. → She believes everything will be okay.
4. We thought that he was joking. → We thought he was joking.
5. They told me that the party was canceled. → They told me the party was canceled.

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 Noun Clauses with "If" and "Whether"
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Noun Clauses with "If" and "Whether"

2. What Are Noun Clauses with "If" and "Whether"?
3. Usage and Structure
4. Differences Between "If" and "Whether"
5. Common Verbs and Expressions with "If" and "Whether"
6. Contextual Role-Play Activities
7. Practice Exercises
8. Answer Key

1. Introduction to Noun Clauses with "If" and "Whether"

Noun clauses are clauses that function as nouns in a sentence. They can act as subjects,
objects, or complements. The words "if" and "whether" are often used to introduce noun
clauses, and they are used in similar contexts to talk about situations that involve choices,
conditions, or indirect questions.

In this lesson, we will focus on how to use "if" and "whether" to introduce noun clauses.

2. What Are Noun Clauses with "If" and "Whether"?

Definition of Noun Clauses:

A noun clause is a group of words that acts as a noun in a sentence. For example:

 "What she said" is a noun clause because it functions as a noun (subject or object) in a
sentence.

Noun Clauses with "If" and "Whether":

Both "if" and "whether" are used to introduce noun clauses that report situations or actions
where there is a possibility or uncertainty. These noun clauses can be used to express indirect
questions, choices, or conditions.

Examples:

 "If" clause: "I don’t know if he will come."

(Here, if introduces a noun clause that acts as the object of the verb "know.")
 "Whether" clause: "Can you tell me whether she is coming?"
(Here, whether introduces a noun clause acting as the object of the verb "tell.")

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3. Usage and Structure

Basic Structure of Noun Clauses with "If" and "Whether":

1. Noun Clause with "If": [Subject] + [Verb] + if + [Subject + Verb]

o Example: "I wonder if it will rain tomorrow."
2. Noun Clause with "Whether": [Subject] + [Verb] + whether + [Subject + Verb]
o Example: "She asked whether we needed help."

In both structures, "if" and "whether" introduce a noun clause, which acts as the object of
the verb. The word "whether" is generally used when there are two possible alternatives or
choices.

4. Differences Between "If" and "Whether"

1. "If":

 "If" is often used in situations where there is uncertainty or a conditional aspect. It is

commonly used in indirect questions and when there is no clear alternative presented.
 Examples:
o "I don’t know if she will come."
o "Do you know if the store is open?"

2. "Whether":

 "Whether" is used when there are two possible options or when you are certain that a
choice exists between alternatives. It is more formal than if and is preferred when
referring to clear options or alternatives.
 Examples:
o "I wonder whether he will accept the job offer or not."
o "Can you tell me whether she is coming or not?"

Key Differences:

 Use "whether" when you want to talk about choices or when the situation involves a clear
alternative (yes/no, or one thing or another).
 "If" is used in more general situations when there is uncertainty or a conditional situation.

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5. Common Verbs and Expressions with "If" and "Whether"

Here are some common verbs that are often followed by noun clauses with "if" and
"whether":

Verbs Often Followed by "If":

 ask, wonder, know, decide, check, see, believe

Examples:

 "I wonder if he will come to the party."

 "Do you know if she is working tomorrow?"

Verbs Often Followed by "Whether":

 ask, wonder, decide, consider, care, tell, question

Examples:

 "I wonder whether we should go to the beach or stay home."

 "She asked whether we wanted to join the meeting."

6. Contextual Role-Play Activities

Role Play 1: Discussing a Job Interview

 Context: Two colleagues are talking about an upcoming interview.

 Roles: Colleague 1 and Colleague 2.

Colleague 1: "Do you know if John has been selected for the interview?"
Colleague 2: "I’m not sure, but I wonder whether he will get the job."
Colleague 1: "I think he might. He has great experience."
Colleague 2: "Let’s wait and see."

Role Play 2: Making Dinner Plans

 Context: Two friends discuss dinner plans.

 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "Do you know if the restaurant is open today?"

Friend 2: "I’m not sure. I’ll check and let you know."
Friend 1: "Okay, let me know whether it’s open or not, and we can decide where to eat."
Friend 2: "Sounds good!"

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Role Play 3: Asking About a Meeting

 Context: A manager asks an assistant about a meeting.

 Roles: Manager and Assistant.

Manager: "Can you tell me whether the meeting is still on for 2 PM?"
Assistant: "I’m not sure, I’ll check with the team and get back to you."
Manager: "Okay, let me know if anything changes."
Assistant: "I’ll inform you right away."

7. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with "if" or "whether".

1. Can you tell me _______ she is coming to the event?

2. I’m not sure _______ I’ll be able to finish this report today.
3. He asked _______ we had received his email.
4. We don’t know _______ they will accept our proposal.
5. I wonder _______ we should take the bus or the train.

Exercise 2: Rewrite the following sentences, using a noun clause with "if" or
"whether".

1. Do you know if she is studying abroad? → Can you tell me ________?

2. I wonder if we should stay or go. → I wonder ________.
3. I don't know if they can make it to the meeting. → I’m not sure ________.
4. Do you know if the shop is open? → Can you tell me ________?
5. I wonder if he will accept the offer. → I wonder ________.

Exercise 3: Choose whether to use "if" or "whether" in the sentences below.

1. I don’t know _______ she has finished her homework yet.

2. We need to decide _______ we should leave now or later.
3. Can you ask _______ he is going to the concert tomorrow?
4. I’m wondering _______ we should take the train or the bus.
5. Do you know _______ she likes the gift?

8. Answer Key

Exercise 1:

1. whether
2. if
3. whether
4. if
5. whether

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Exercise 2:

1. Can you tell me if she is studying abroad?

2. I wonder whether we should stay or go.
3. I’m not sure if they can make it to the meeting.
4. Can you tell me if the shop is open?
5. I wonder if he will accept the offer.

Exercise 3:

1. if
2. whether
3. if
4. whether
5. if

Reported Speech
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Reported Speech

2. What Is Reported Speech?
3. Direct Speech vs. Reported Speech
4. Rules for Changing Direct Speech to Reported Speech
5. Common Reporting Verbs
6. Tenses in Reported Speech
7. Contextual Role-Play Activities
8. Practice Exercises
9. Answer Key

1. Introduction to Reported Speech

Reported speech (also called indirect speech) is used to report what someone has said
without quoting their exact words. Instead of directly quoting the speaker, we report what
they have said, often using a reporting verb like say, tell, ask, explain, etc.

For example, instead of quoting directly:

 Direct Speech: "I will go to the store," she said.

 Reported Speech: She said that she would go to the store.

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2. What Is Reported Speech?

Reported speech allows us to report the content of what someone has said or asked, but in a
more indirect way. Instead of using quotation marks and repeating the exact words of the
speaker, we use a reporting verb and often change the pronouns, tenses, and other aspects of
the sentence to match the context of the reporting.

Examples:

 Direct speech: John said, "I am going to the park."

 Reported speech: John said (that) he was going to the park.

Notice how the word "that" is often used in reported speech to introduce the reported
information, although it can be omitted in informal speech.

3. Direct Speech vs. Reported Speech

In direct speech, we repeat the exact words of the speaker. In reported speech, we restate
what the speaker has said, typically with some changes to the sentence.

Example 1: Direct Speech vs. Reported Speech

 Direct speech: "I like pizza," he said.

 Reported speech: He said (that) he liked pizza.

Key Differences:

 Quotation marks are used in direct speech.

 In reported speech, the tense is often changed, and pronouns are adjusted.

Example 2: Direct Speech vs. Reported Speech

 Direct speech: "We are going on vacation next week," they said.
 Reported speech: They said (that) they were going on vacation the following week.

In reported speech:

 "Next week" becomes "the following week".

 "We" changes to "they".

4. Rules for Changing Direct Speech to Reported Speech

When changing direct speech to reported speech, we need to make several changes to the
sentence. Here are some of the key rules:

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1. Change of Pronouns:

Pronouns in direct speech are changed to reflect the speaker's perspective.

 Direct speech: "I am going to the store," he said.

 Reported speech: He said (that) he was going to the store.

2. Change of Tenses:

In reported speech, the tense of the verb usually shifts one step back in time. This is known as
backshifting.

 Present simple → Past simple

 Present continuous → Past continuous
 Present perfect → Past perfect
 Will → Would

Examples:

 Direct speech: "I read the book," she said.

Reported speech: She said (that) she had read the book.
 Direct speech: "I am studying," he said.
Reported speech: He said (that) he was studying.

3. Time Expressions:

Time expressions often change when shifting from direct speech to reported speech.

 Today → That day

 Tomorrow → The next day / The following day
 Yesterday → The day before
 Now → Then

Examples:

 Direct speech: "I will call you tomorrow," he said.

Reported speech: He said (that) he would call me the next day.
 Direct speech: "I saw her yesterday," she said.
Reported speech: She said (that) she had seen her the day before.

5. Common Reporting Verbs

Here are some common reporting verbs used in reported speech, along with their examples:

 Say: "I am tired," he said.

o Reported: He said (that) he was tired.
 Tell: "I don’t like coffee," she told me.
o Reported: She told me (that) she didn’t like coffee.

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  Ask: "Do you want tea?" she asked.
o Reported: She asked if I wanted tea.
 Explain: "I didn’t see the movie," he explained.
o Reported: He explained (that) he hadn’t seen the movie.
 Admit: "I was wrong," he admitted.
o Reported: He admitted (that) he had been wrong.
 Suggest: "Let’s go for a walk," she suggested.
o Reported: She suggested (that) we go for a walk.

6. Tenses in Reported Speech

Here’s a table summarizing the typical changes in tense when converting direct speech to
reported speech:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Present Past Simple
Simple
Present Past Continuous
Continuous
Present Past Perfect
Perfect
Past Simple Past Perfect
Past Past Perfect Continuous
Continuous
"Will" / "Would"
"Shall"
"Can" / "Could" / "Might"
"May"
"Must" "Had to"

Examples:

 Direct speech: "I eat lunch at 1 PM," she said.

o Reported speech: She said (that) she ate lunch at 1 PM.
 Direct speech: "I have finished my homework," he said.
o Reported speech: He said (that) he had finished his homework.
 Direct speech: "I will come tomorrow," they said.
o Reported speech: They said (that) they would come the next day.

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7. Contextual Role-Play Activities

Role Play 1: Discussing Weekend Plans

 Context: Two friends are talking about their weekend plans.

 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "I’m going to visit my parents this weekend."

Friend 2: "Oh, that’s nice! What did you tell them?"
Friend 1: "I told them I would arrive on Saturday morning."

Role Play 2: Reporting a Meeting

 Context: A manager reports to a colleague about the meeting.

 Roles: Manager and Colleague.

Manager: "The team said that they would complete the project by Friday."
Colleague: "Did they mention anything else?"
Manager: "Yes, they also said that they needed more resources to finish on time."

Role Play 3: Sharing News

 Context: Two coworkers discuss a piece of news.

 Roles: Coworker 1 and Coworker 2.

Coworker 1: "John told me he got promoted to manager!"

Coworker 2: "Wow! That’s great. When did he tell you?"
Coworker 1: "He told me yesterday, during lunch."

8. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Change the following direct speech sentences into reported speech.

1. "I am going to the gym," she said.

2. "We will arrive at 5 PM," they told us.
3. "I have finished my work," he said.
4. "I love this movie," John said.
5. "Can you help me?" she asked.

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Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks with the correct reporting verb and change the
sentence to reported speech.

1. "I’m sorry for being late," he _______.

2. "Please help me with this task," she _______.
3. "I will not be able to attend the meeting," they _______.
4. "Let’s meet at 10 AM," he _______.
5. "I enjoyed the party," she _______.

Exercise 3: Identify the errors in the following reported speech sentences and
correct them.

1. He said that he will be back soon.

2. She told me that she has finished the report.
3. I asked her if she can come to the meeting tomorrow.
4. They said they was going to the concert.
5. John said that he didn’t liked the movie.

9. Answer Key

Exercise 1:

1. She said (that) she was going to the gym.

2. They told us (that) they would arrive at 5 PM.
3. He said (that) he had finished his work.
4. John said (that) he loved this movie.
5. She asked if I could help her.

Exercise 2:

1. apologized
o He apologized (that) he was late.
2. asked
o She asked (that) I help her with the task.
3. said
o They said (that) they would not be able to attend the meeting.
4. suggested
o He suggested (that) we meet at 10 AM.
5. said
o She said (that) she had enjoyed the party.

Exercise 3:

1. He said that he would be back soon.

2. She told me that she had finished the report.
3. I asked her whether she could come to the meeting tomorrow.
4. They said they were going to the concert.
5. John said that he didn’t like the movie.

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 Revision of Relative Clauses
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Relative Clauses

2. What Are Relative Clauses?
3. Types of Relative Clauses
4. Relative Pronouns (Who, Whom, Which, That, Whose)
5. Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses
6. Punctuation in Relative Clauses
7. Contextual Role-Play Activities
8. Practice Exercises
9. Answer Key

1. Introduction to Relative Clauses

A relative clause is a type of dependent clause that gives us more information about a noun
or pronoun in the main clause. It is connected to the main sentence with a relative pronoun
(e.g., who, whom, whose, which, that).

Relative clauses are essential for adding details or providing further clarification about people,
things, or ideas in a sentence.

For example:

 "The book that I read was interesting."

(The relative clause "that I read" gives more information about the noun book.)

2. What Are Relative Clauses?

A relative clause functions as an adjective in a sentence because it modifies a noun or

pronoun. It can give us extra information about the subject, object, or possessive forms.

Examples:

 "The woman who is sitting over there is my friend."

("Who is sitting over there" modifies the noun woman.)
 "This is the car that I bought last year."
("That I bought last year" modifies the noun car.)

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3. Types of Relative Clauses

There are two main types of relative clauses:

1. Defining Relative Clauses

2. Non-Defining Relative Clauses

1. Defining Relative Clauses

A defining relative clause gives essential information about the noun. It defines which
person, thing, or idea is being talked about. Without this information, the sentence would be
unclear.

 Example:
"The man who is wearing a blue hat is my brother."
(The defining clause tells us which man is being referred to.)
 Example:
"I saw the movie that you recommended."
(The defining clause tells us which movie you recommended.)

2. Non-Defining Relative Clauses

A non-defining relative clause adds extra information about the noun, but the sentence
would still make sense without it. Non-defining clauses are separated by commas.

 Example:
"My brother, who is a teacher, loves reading books."
(The clause "who is a teacher" adds information, but it’s not essential to understand
who my brother is.)
 Example:
"This book, which is very old, is worth a lot of money."
(The clause "which is very old" adds information about the book but does not define
it.)

4. Relative Pronouns (Who, Whom, Which, That, Whose)

Relative pronouns introduce the relative clauses and replace the noun they modify. Here's a
summary of the most common relative pronouns and their uses:

1. Who

Used for people (subjects or objects).

 Example: "The woman who lives next door is a doctor."

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2. Whom

Formal, used for people (as the object of the verb or preposition).

 Example: "The man whom I met yesterday is a teacher."

3. Which

Used for animals or things (subjects or objects).

 Example: "The car which is parked outside belongs to my father."

4. That

Can be used for people, animals, or things (subjects or objects). It is used in defining relative
clauses but is not used in non-defining clauses.

 Example: "The book that I borrowed is on the table."

5. Whose

Used to show possession.

 Example: "The girl whose bike was stolen is my friend."

5. Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Defining Relative Clauses

These clauses give essential information that is necessary to identify the noun. They are not
separated by commas.

 Example:
"I met a man who works in a bank."
(We need the clause "who works in a bank" to know which man is being referred to.)

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

These clauses provide additional information, but the sentence is still clear without them.
They are separated by commas.

 Example:
"My sister, who lives in New York, is coming to visit."
(We know who my sister is, and the clause "who lives in New York" just adds extra
information.)

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6. Punctuation in Relative Clauses

 Defining Relative Clauses: No commas are used because they are essential to the meaning of
the sentence.
 Non-Defining Relative Clauses: Commas are used before and after the clause because they
add extra information that isn’t necessary for identifying the noun.

Examples:

 Defining: "The book that I borrowed was interesting."

 Non-Defining: "My friend, who is a doctor, helped me with my problem."

7. Contextual Role-Play Activities

Role Play 1: Describing a Person

 Context: Two students are discussing a person they both know.

 Roles: Student 1 and Student 2.

Student 1: "Do you know the man who is standing over there?"
Student 2: "Yes, he is my uncle. He’s the one whose daughter is in my class."

Role Play 2: Talking About a Place

 Context: Two students are talking about a place they visited.

 Roles: Student 1 and Student 2.

Student 1: "I went to a café which has a beautiful garden."

Student 2: "That sounds nice. Was it the café that is next to the bookstore?"
Student 1: "Yes, it’s the same one."

Role Play 3: Talking About an Event

 Context: Two students are discussing an event.

 Roles: Student 1 and Student 2.

Student 1: "Did you hear about the concert that was held last night?"
Student 2: "Yes, I did! I saw a picture of the band, who were performing on stage."

8. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Complete the sentences with the correct relative pronoun.

1. The man _______ lives next door is very friendly.

2. The book _______ I borrowed was fascinating.

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 3. The woman _______ car was parked outside is my aunt.
4. The children _______ are playing in the park are my cousins.
5. I have a friend _______ sister is a famous singer.

Exercise 2: Rewrite the sentences using a relative clause.

1. The movie was amazing. I watched it last night.

2. The restaurant is very expensive. We had dinner there.
3. I met a musician. His music is very popular.
4. The teacher is very kind. She helped me with my homework.
5. I visited a museum. It was full of ancient artifacts.

Exercise 3: Identify whether the relative clause is defining or non-defining.

1. "The students who study hard will pass the exam."

2. "My father, who is a great cook, made dinner."
3. "The car that I drive is very old."
4. "The cake, which was delicious, was made by my friend."
5. "The man who spoke yesterday is the new manager."

9. Answer Key

Exercise 1:

1. who
2. that
3. whose
4. who
5. whose

Exercise 2:

1. The movie that I watched last night was amazing.

2. The restaurant where we had dinner is very expensive.
3. I met a musician whose music is very popular.
4. The teacher who helped me with my homework is very kind.
5. I visited a museum which was full of ancient artifacts.

Exercise 3:

1. Defining
2. Non-defining
3. Defining
4. Non-defining
5. Defining

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 Using "Which" to Modify the Whole
Sentence
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to "Which" to Modify the Whole Sentence

2. What Does "Which" Modify?
3. Position of "Which" in a Sentence
4. Examples of "Which" Modifying the Whole Sentence
5. Contextual Role-Play Activities
6. Practice Exercises
7. Answer Key

1. Introduction to "Which" to Modify the Whole Sentence

In English, "which" can be used not only to refer to a noun or a specific part of a sentence
but also to modify the whole sentence. When "which" modifies the entire sentence, it
typically introduces additional information, often explaining or clarifying the idea expressed
in the previous sentence.

In these cases, "which" acts as a sentence connector and is usually preceded by a comma.
This use of "which" is especially common in written English and formal contexts.

2. What Does "Which" Modify?

When "which" modifies the whole sentence, it refers back to the entire idea or event described
in the previous sentence, not just a single noun or subject. It adds an explanation,
consequence, or further detail.

Examples:

 Sentence 1: The weather was terrible. Sentence 2: Which made it impossible for us to
go outside.
(Here, "which" refers to the entire situation about the weather being terrible and
explains the result.)
 Sentence 1: He didn’t finish his homework. Sentence 2: Which upset his parents.
(In this case, "which" refers to the idea that he didn’t finish his homework and adds a
consequence.)

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3. Position of "Which" in a Sentence

When "which" modifies the entire sentence, it is usually placed at the beginning of the second
sentence, connected with a comma. It does not modify a single noun but instead refers to the
previous situation or idea.

Structure:

 First sentence + , which + [additional information or result].

Examples:

1. The team played very well in the match, which made the fans extremely happy.
2. The traffic was heavy this morning, which caused me to be late for work.
3. She forgot her umbrella, which was a big problem since it started raining.
4. He was late to the party, which upset his friends.

4. Examples of "Which" Modifying the Whole Sentence

Here are several examples to illustrate how "which" modifies the entire sentence:

Example 1:

 He failed the exam, which was a big disappointment for everyone.

o Explanation: The clause "which was a big disappointment for everyone" explains
the consequence or additional detail about the situation (failing the exam).

Example 2:

 The presentation went well, which pleased the clients.

o Explanation: The clause "which pleased the clients" provides the result of the
presentation going well.

Example 3:

 They decided to go on vacation, which made them very excited.

o Explanation: "Which made them very excited" refers to the entire decision of going
on vacation and gives an emotional reaction.

Example 4:

 I couldn’t find my keys, which was very frustrating.

o Explanation: The phrase "which was very frustrating" adds an explanation about the
emotional response to losing keys.

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Example 5:

 The restaurant was very crowded, which was surprising because it was a weekday.
o Explanation: "Which was surprising because it was a weekday" clarifies the reason
for the surprise.

5. Contextual Role-Play Activities

Role Play 1: Talking About an Event

 Context: Two friends talk about an event they attended.

 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "The concert was amazing last night."

Friend 2: "Yes, which made everyone so happy. I haven’t seen people cheer like that in a
long time!"

Role Play 2: Discussing a Problem

 Context: A colleague talks about a work-related issue.

 Roles: Colleague 1 and Colleague 2.

Colleague 1: "The project deadline was moved forward by a week."

Colleague 2: "Oh, which caused a lot of stress among the team. We’ll have to work overtime
now."

Role Play 3: Sharing an Experience

 Context: Two people discuss a travel experience.

 Roles: Traveler 1 and Traveler 2.

Traveler 1: "I missed my flight this morning."

Traveler 2: "Oh no, which made it impossible for you to get to the conference on time."

6. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Complete the sentences using "which" to modify the whole

sentence.

1. The movie was very exciting, ___________ made everyone stay until the end.
2. She was late to the meeting, ___________ caused a delay in the schedule.
3. The new policy was introduced last week, ___________ has been met with mixed reactions.
4. The weather was beautiful, ___________ encouraged people to spend the day outside.
5. He finished all his tasks early, ___________ impressed his manager.

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Exercise 2: Combine the sentences using "which" to modify the whole
sentence.

1. The party was amazing. It lasted until midnight.

2. The team won the championship. This made the fans very happy.
3. The teacher explained the lesson. This made it easier for the students to understand.
4. The restaurant was fully booked. This made it difficult to find a table.
5. She passed the exam. This surprised everyone.

Exercise 3: Choose the correct answer to complete the sentence.

1. The city is beautiful, ___________ makes it a popular tourist destination.

a) who
b) whose
c) which
d) that
2. The project was a success, ___________ pleased the clients.
a) who
b) whose
c) which
d) that
3. I found a new hobby, ___________ helped me relax.
a) who
b) whose
c) which
d) that
4. The book was very interesting, ___________ made me want to read more books by
the same author.
a) who
b) whose
c) which
d) that
5. She completed her work on time, ___________ made her boss very happy.
a) who
b) whose
c) which
d) that

7. Answer Key

Exercise 1:

1. which
2. which
3. which
4. which
5. which

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Exercise 2:

1. The party was amazing, which lasted until midnight.

2. The team won the championship, which made the fans very happy.
3. The teacher explained the lesson, which made it easier for the students to understand.
4. The restaurant was fully booked, which made it difficult to find a table.
5. She passed the exam, which surprised everyone.

Exercise 3:

1. c) which
2. c) which
3. c) which
4. c) which
5. c) which

Reporting Verbs
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Reporting Verbs

2. What Are Reporting Verbs?
3. Common Reporting Verbs and Their Uses
4. Formality and Context in Reporting Verbs
5. Changing Reporting Verbs According to Tense
6. Contextual Role-Play Activities
7. Practice Exercises
8. Answer Key

1. Introduction to Reporting Verbs

Reporting verbs are verbs used to report or convey someone else's words, thoughts, or ideas.
They help introduce or frame direct or indirect speech. Reporting verbs can show how
something was said, whether it was a statement, question, command, suggestion, or request.

For example:

 He said he would arrive late.

 She suggested going to the movies.
 The teacher explained the lesson clearly.

Reporting verbs give additional meaning to the speech, as they convey the tone or intention
behind the message.

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2. What Are Reporting Verbs?

Reporting verbs can be categorized into different groups based on their meaning and usage:

1. Neutral Reporting Verbs – These verbs simply introduce the speech or message.
o Example: say, tell, ask
2. Verbs Indicating Opinion – These verbs convey how the speaker feels about what is
being reported.
o Example: think, believe, assume
3. Verbs Indicating Communication Style – These verbs describe how the speaker
communicated the message (e.g., whether it was strong or weak).
o Example: shout, whisper, insist
4. Verbs Indicating a Request or Suggestion – These verbs convey that someone is
asking for something or suggesting an action.
o Example: suggest, recommend, ask

3. Common Reporting Verbs and Their Uses

1. Neutral Reporting Verbs

 Say / Tell
These are the most basic reporting verbs, used to report a statement or information.
o Example: He said that he was going to the party.
o Example: She told me she would be late.
 Ask
Used when someone is requesting information or making an inquiry.
o Example: She asked where the nearest bus stop was.

2. Verbs Indicating Opinion

 Think / Believe
Used to report what someone believes or thinks.
o Example: He thought the movie was fantastic.
o Example: I believe that we should start early.
 Assume
Used when someone assumes something without full evidence.
o Example: They assumed she was not interested in the meeting.

3. Verbs Indicating Communication Style

 Shout / Whisper
These verbs are used when the speaker's tone of voice is important.
o Example: He shouted that he had won the game.
o Example: She whispered that she had a secret.
 Insist
Used when someone emphasizes something strongly.
o Example: She insisted that she was right.

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4. Verbs Indicating a Request or Suggestion

 Suggest
Used to offer an idea or plan.
o Example: He suggested going to the beach for the weekend.
 Recommend
Used to advise or propose something.
o Example: I recommend trying the new restaurant downtown.
 Ask
As mentioned earlier, used when requesting something.
o Example: He asked if I could help him with the project.

4. Formality and Context in Reporting Verbs

Some reporting verbs are more formal than others, and they are used in specific contexts:

 Formal: Advise, Inquire, State, Declare

 Informal: Say, Ask, Tell, Suggest

Examples:

 Formal: The doctor advised me to rest for a week.

 Informal: She told me to relax for a while.

In formal writing or speech (e.g., academic or business contexts), it’s best to use more formal
reporting verbs like state, declare, or announce.

5. Changing Reporting Verbs According to Tense

When using reporting verbs, it’s important to pay attention to the tense of the original
sentence and the tense of the reporting verb. If you’re reporting something in the past, the
verb in reported speech typically changes to reflect this.

Examples:

 Present Tense:
He says he will join us later.
→ Reported Speech: He said he would join us later.
 Past Tense:
She said she was tired.
→ Reported Speech: She had said she was tired.
 Future Tense:
They will say the news tomorrow.
→ Reported Speech: They will have said the news by tomorrow.

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6. Contextual Role-Play Activities

Role Play 1: Asking for Permission

 Context: A student asks the teacher for permission to leave early.

 Roles: Student and Teacher.

Student: "Can I leave early today?"

Teacher: "You asked if you could leave early today."

Role Play 2: Giving Advice

 Context: A friend advises another friend on how to improve their study habits.
 Roles: Friend 1 and Friend 2.

Friend 1: "You should study every day for at least an hour."

Friend 2: "He suggested that I study every day for at least an hour."

Role Play 3: Reporting an Announcement

 Context: A manager announces the team’s new project.

 Roles: Manager and Employee.

Manager: "The new project will start next week."

Employee: "The manager announced that the new project would start next week."

7. Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Complete the sentences using a reporting verb.

1. He __________ he would go to the store later.

2. She __________ me not to worry about the exam.
3. They __________ that the meeting was postponed.
4. John __________ he didn't understand the instructions.
5. The teacher __________ that we should finish our homework before the weekend.

Exercise 2: Choose the correct reporting verb.

1. He __________ that the movie was amazing.

a) said
b) told
c) suggested
d) recommended
2. She __________ to leave early because of the rain.
a) asked
b) told

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 c) recommended
d) shouted
3. I __________ trying the new dessert at the restaurant.
a) believed
b) said
c) suggested
d) whispered
4. They __________ that they would be traveling next week.
a) asked
b) stated
c) shouted
d) recommended
5. The coach __________ that the players practice more.
a) asked
b) suggested
c) believed
d) shouted

Exercise 3: Convert the direct speech into reported speech.

1. "I will help you with the project," she said.

2. "Can you pass me the salt?" he asked.
3. "We have finished the assignment," they said.
4. "Please be quiet," the teacher told us.
5. "I think it's going to rain," she said.

8. Answer Key

Exercise 1:

1. said
2. told
3. stated
4. said
5. recommended

Exercise 2:

1. a) said
2. a) asked
3. c) suggested
4. b) stated
5. b) suggested

Exercise 3:

1. She said that she would help me with the project.

2. He asked if I could pass him the salt.

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3. They said that they had finished the assignment.
4. The teacher told us to be quiet.
5. She said that she thought it was going to rain.

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