UNIT 1

1. Explain Robot and its one of the Application in detail with neat diagram.

A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional mechanical device that can perform various tasks
automatically or under human guidance.
It integrates mechanical structure, sensors, actuators, control systems, and computer intelligence to
perform functions like material handling, welding, assembling, or even medical operations.

General Characteristics of Robots

• Reprogrammable and flexible in operation
• Can perform repetitive, dangerous, or precise tasks
• Operates with the help of sensors (to sense environment) and actuators (to perform motion)
• Controlled by microcontrollers, PLCs, or computer systems

Application of Robot – Robotic Welding

One of the most widely used applications of robots is in industrial welding (especially automobile
manufacturing).
Working:
1. The robot arm holds a welding tool (arc welder, spot welder, or laser welder).
2. Pre-programmed instructions guide the robot to the correct weld points.
3. Sensors monitor position, pressure, and heat to ensure precision.
4. The welding is completed with high repeatability and minimal errors.
Advantages:
• High accuracy and consistency in welding
• Increased production rate
• Reduces risk to human workers from heat, sparks, and fumes
• Can work continuously without fatigue
2. With the help of neat diagram explain Linear Actuator and its types
Definition
A linear actuator is a device that converts energy (electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic) into linear motion
(straight-line displacement).
Unlike rotary actuators (which provide rotation), linear actuators provide push or pull type movement.

Working Principle
• Energy source (electric motor, fluid, or compressed air) drives a mechanism (like a screw, piston, or
cylinder).
• This mechanism converts input energy into a linear displacement of the actuator’s rod/shaft.
• Used in machines for lifting, clamping, pressing, and positioning tasks.

Types of Linear Actuators

1. Mechanical Linear Actuator
o Uses gears, cams, or screws to convert rotary motion into linear motion.
o Example: Lead screw mechanism in 3D printers.
2. Electrical Linear Actuator
o Uses an electric motor + lead screw/gear system to produce linear displacement.
o Compact, precise, and commonly used in automation and robotics.
3. Hydraulic Linear Actuator (Hydraulic Cylinder)
o Uses pressurized hydraulic fluid to move a piston inside a cylinder.
o Provides very high force and used in heavy machinery (e.g., excavators, presses).
4. Pneumatic Linear Actuator (Air Cylinder)
o Uses compressed air to move a piston inside a cylinder.
o Fast response, lighter force compared to hydraulics, commonly used in automation systems.
3. Explain Rotary Encoder and its types with neat diagrams.
A rotary encoder is an electro-mechanical sensor used to convert the angular position or motion of a
shaft into an electrical signal (digital or analog).
It is commonly used in robotics, CNC machines, motors, and automation systems for position, speed, and
direction measurement.

Working Principle
• A disk with evenly spaced slots/marks is mounted on a rotating shaft.
• As the shaft rotates, the disk interrupts a light beam (optical encoder) or changes magnetic/electrical
signals.
• The sensor converts these interruptions into electrical pulses.
• The pulses are counted to measure angle, speed, or direction of rotation.

Types of Rotary Encoders

1. Incremental Encoder
• Produces a continuous stream of pulses as the shaft rotates.
• The number of pulses indicates the amount of rotation.
• Direction of rotation is identified by using two output signals (A & B phase).
• Simple, low-cost, commonly used for speed feedback in motors.
2. Absolute Encoder
• Provides a unique digital code for each shaft position (instead of pulses).
• The disk has concentric tracks with binary patterns.
• Even if power is lost, the exact shaft position can be identified.
• Used in robotics, CNC machines, elevators, and servo motors where precise positioning is required.
4. List and explain any 7 Measurement Characteristics in detail.
1. Range
• The range is the minimum and maximum value of the measurand (quantity to be measured) that the
instrument can measure accurately.
• Example: A thermometer with range 0°C to 100°C.

2. Accuracy
• Accuracy is the closeness of a measured value to the true value.
• High accuracy means the error between actual and measured value is very small.

3. Precision
• Precision is the degree of repeatability of measurements when the same quantity is measured multiple
times under the same conditions.
• Example: A scale that consistently shows 50.1 kg for a 50 kg weight is precise, but may not be accurate.

4. Sensitivity
• Sensitivity is the ratio of change in output to the change in input.
• High sensitivity means even a small input change gives a noticeable output change.
• Example: A thermometer showing 0.1°C change for a small temperature rise.

5. Resolution
• Resolution is the smallest change in input that the instrument can detect.
• Example: A digital voltmeter with resolution of 0.01 V cannot detect smaller changes.

6. Error
• Error is the difference between measured value and true value of the measurand.
• Types: Systematic error (due to calibration, environmental factors) and Random error (due to noise,
operator handling).

7. Response Time
• The time required by an instrument to respond to a sudden change in input and reach its final steady
output.
• Example: A digital thermometer takes 2–3 seconds to stabilize.
5. Draw and explain working of Hot wire Anemometer using two methods.
A Hot Wire Anemometer is an instrument used to measure the velocity of fluid (air/gas) and sometimes
flow direction.
It works on the principle that when a heated wire is placed in a fluid stream, the heat lost from the wire
depends on the velocity of the fluid.

Construction
• A very thin wire (usually platinum or tungsten) is heated electrically.
• This wire is placed in the path of the fluid stream.
• As fluid flows, it cools the wire → changing its resistance.
• This resistance change is measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Working Principle
• The cooling effect of flowing fluid is proportional to its velocity.
• By measuring heat loss (change in resistance of wire), the fluid velocity can be determined.

Methods of Operation
1. Constant Current Method
• A constant current is passed through the wire.
• As fluid flows, heat is carried away → wire temperature decreases.
• This decreases wire resistance, changing the voltage across bridge circuit.
• The galvanometer deflection (voltage change) is calibrated to indicate fluid velocity.

2. Constant Temperature Method

• Here, the wire resistance (temperature) is kept constant.
• As fluid flow cools the wire, an increase in current is automatically supplied to maintain the same
temperature.
• The current required to keep temperature constant is directly proportional to the fluid velocity.
• This method is more accurate and widely used.
6. Draw and explain working of Ultrasonic flow meter in detail.
An Ultrasonic Flow Meter is a device used to measure the velocity of liquid inside a pipe using
ultrasound waves.
From velocity, the flow rate (volume per unit time) can be calculated.

Working Principle
• Uses the time difference or frequency shift of ultrasonic waves as they pass through a moving fluid.
• Two common methods:
1. Doppler Effect Method
2. Transit Time Method

1. Doppler Flow Meter

• Based on Doppler Effect (change in frequency when waves are reflected by moving particles/bubbles
in fluid).
• A transmitter sends ultrasonic waves into the fluid.
• The waves reflect back from suspended particles or bubbles.
• The reflected signal has a frequency shift proportional to the fluid velocity.
• The receiver detects this shift and flow rate is calculated.

2. Transit Time Flow Meter

• Uses two transducers mounted at an angle on opposite sides of the pipe.
• One transducer transmits ultrasonic pulses with the flow (downstream), and the other transmits against
the flow (upstream).
• Since fluid is moving, the transit time (travel time) of waves differs in both directions.
• The difference in transit times is directly proportional to the fluid velocity.

Advantages
• No obstruction to flow (non-intrusive).
• Works for corrosive, slurry, and high-pressure fluids.
• High accuracy (especially transit time type).
• No moving parts → low maintenance.
7. Draw and explain working of strain gauge with neat diagrams.

A strain gauge is a sensor used to measure strain (deformation) in a material when subjected to a load. It
works on the principle that the resistance of a conductor changes when it is stretched or compressed.

Construction
• A fine wire or foil is arranged in a zig-zag pattern and mounted on a thin insulating base.
• The gauge is firmly bonded to the surface of the specimen (metal beam, shaft, etc.).
• As the specimen deforms, the strain is transferred to the gauge.

Working
1. Strain gauge is bonded to the specimen (metal beam).
2. When the specimen is loaded, it undergoes strain → strain gauge deforms.
3. Resistance of the gauge changes according to strain.
4. Wheatstone bridge converts this resistance change into a voltage signal.
5. Signal is calibrated to display the strain value.

Applications
• Stress/strain measurement in machine components.
• Structural health monitoring (bridges, aircraft wings).
• Load cells and torque transducers.
8. How would you use a strain gauge to measure the strain in a metal beam under load?
Strain Gauge Principle
• A strain gauge is a sensor whose electrical resistance changes when it is stretched (tension) or
compressed.
• The resistance change is proportional to the strain (ε) in the material.

Where,
• R = original resistance,
• ΔR = change in resistance,
• ε = strain.

Procedure (Using Strain Gauge on a Metal Beam)

1. Mounting the Strain Gauge
o A thin foil strain gauge is glued (bonded) firmly to the surface of the metal beam where strain
needs to be measured.
o When the beam is loaded, the strain in the beam surface is transferred to the gauge.
2. Electrical Connection
o The strain gauge is connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit to detect very small resistance
changes.
3. Loading the Beam
o When a load is applied, the beam bends.
o This causes the strain gauge to either stretch (tension) or compress (compression).
4. Change in Resistance
o Stretching increases resistance, compression decreases resistance.
o The Wheatstone bridge converts this resistance change into a measurable voltage signal.
5. Strain Calculation
o From the output voltage, the change in resistance is found.
o Using the Gauge Factor formula, the strain in the beam is calculated.
9. How would you use an optical pyrometer and a radiation pyrometer to measure high
temperatures in a furnace?

Measuring High Temperatures in a Furnace

High temperatures (above 1000 °C) cannot be measured accurately using contact thermometers. Hence,
non-contact pyrometers (Optical and Radiation) are used.

1. Optical Pyrometer
Principle
• Works on the principle of comparison of brightness.
• The brightness of a hot object is compared with the brightness of a calibrated filament lamp inside the
pyrometer.
Working
1. The operator looks through the eyepiece of the pyrometer towards the furnace.
2. Inside the pyrometer, there is a filament lamp.
3. Current through the lamp is adjusted until the filament’s brightness matches that of the furnace
background.
4. When both appear to “disappear” (same brightness), the current value is noted.
5. This current corresponds to a calibrated temperature.

2. Radiation Pyrometer
Principle
• Based on Stefan–Boltzmann law:
The thermal radiation emitted by a hot body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature (T⁴).
Working
1. Furnace radiation is focused onto a thermocouple / thermopile detector using a lens or mirror.
2. The detector converts this radiation into an electrical signal (voltage/current).
3. The output is fed to a meter calibrated in terms of temperature.
4. The indicated value gives the furnace temperature directly.
10.How would you use an electromagnetic flow sensor to measure flow rate in a pipe carrying
conductive liquid?

Electromagnetic Flow Sensor

Principle
• Based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:
Whenever a conductor moves through a magnetic field, an emf (voltage) is induced across it.
• In this case, the conductive liquid acts as the conductor.
• The induced voltage is proportional to the velocity of the liquid.

where
• E = induced voltage
• B = magnetic flux density
• L = distance between electrodes (pipe diameter)
• v = velocity of liquid
Since flow rate Q=v⋅ A (A = pipe cross-sectional area), the flow rate can be calculated.

Construction
• Non-conductive pipe section (to prevent short circuiting).
• Magnetic field source (electromagnet or permanent magnet) placed across the pipe.
• Electrodes mounted at right angles to magnetic field, in contact with liquid.
• Signal conditioning circuit to amplify and process the voltage signal.

Working
1. The conductive liquid flows through the insulated pipe.
2. Magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the flow direction.
3. As liquid (conductor) moves, an emf is induced perpendicular to both flow and
magnetic field.
4. Electrodes pick up this induced voltage.
5. The signal is sent to an amplifier & calibrated to display flow rate.
11.With the help of neat diagram explain any Biosensor.
• A biosensor is an analytical device that combines a biological element such as an enzyme, antibody, or
nucleic acid with a transducer to detect a specific analyte and convert it into an electrical signal. It mainly
consists of four parts: the bio-recognition element, which specifically reacts with the analyte; the transducer,
which converts the biological response into a measurable electrical signal; the signal processing unit, which
amplifies and conditions the signal; and the display unit, which shows the final result.

• The working principle of a biosensor is based on the fact that when the analyte interacts with the biological
element, it produces a physical or chemical change such as heat, pH, current, or light. The transducer
converts this change into an electrical signal, which is then amplified and processed before being displayed
as the analyte concentration.

• A common example is the glucose biosensor (glucometer), which is widely used by diabetic patients. In this
device, the enzyme glucose oxidase reacts with glucose in blood to produce gluconic acid and hydrogen
peroxide. The transducer (electrochemical electrode) detects the hydrogen peroxide and converts it into an
electrical signal. This signal is processed and displayed as the blood glucose level on the screen.

• Biosensors have wide applications in medical diagnostics (blood glucose monitoring, pregnancy tests), food
industry (detection of pathogens), and environmental monitoring (pollutants and toxins).
 UNIT 2
1. Write any 7 rules of Block Diagram Reduction Principles with neat diagrams.
2. With the help of neat block diagram, explain Automatic Dishwashing Machine.
An automatic dishwashing machine is a mechatronic system that cleans dishes by combining mechanical
action, water spray, detergent, heat, and sensors under the control of a microcontroller or PLC.

Key Components / Elements

1. Sensors
o Detect water level, temperature, door position, and turbidity (cleanliness of water).
o Examples: Float switch, temperature sensor, turbidity sensor.
2. Controller (Microcontroller / PLC)
o Receives signals from sensors.
o Executes the washing program (wash, rinse, dry cycles).
o Sends commands to actuators.
3. Actuators
o Pumps → spray water with detergent.
o Heater → heats water for better cleaning.
o Motors → rotate spray arms.
o Valves → control water inlet and drainage.
4. Mechanical / Electrical Components
o Spray arms, racks, heater coil, detergent dispenser, drainage system.
5. User Interface / Display
o Buttons and indicators to select mode (quick wash, heavy wash, dry).
o Digital display for cycle progress.

Working (Step-by-Step)
1. User Input → Wash cycle is selected.
2. Controller Activates → Opens inlet valve, fills water
(checked by water level sensor).
3. Heating → Heater raises water temperature.
4. Washing → Pump sprays hot water + detergent via
rotating spray arms.
5. Rinsing → Dirty water drained; fresh water sprayed
again.
6. Drying → Heater or hot air fan dries dishes.
7. Cycle End → Controller stops actuators, display shows completion.
3. Draw block diagram of Antilock Brake System and explain it in details.

An Antilock Braking System (ABS) is an advanced braking system in automobiles that prevents the
wheels from locking during sudden braking.
This improves vehicle stability, steering control, and safety by maintaining traction between tires and
road.

Key Elements of ABS

1. Wheel Speed Sensors
o Measure the rotational speed of each wheel.
o Send real-time data to the ECU.
2. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
o The brain of the ABS.
o Continuously compares wheel speeds.
o Detects if any wheel is about to lock (sudden drop in speed).
o Sends corrective signals to the hydraulic modulator.
3. Hydraulic Modulator (Actuator Unit)
o Controls the brake fluid pressure applied to each wheel.
o Operates solenoid valves to increase, hold, or decrease pressure.
4. Brake Pedal / Master Cylinder
o Initiates braking force when pressed by driver.
5. Vehicle Wheels
o Final output → controlled braking without skidding.

Working of ABS
1. Driver presses brake pedal → master cylinder sends hydraulic pressure to brakes.
2. Wheel speed sensors monitor wheel rotation.
3. If ECU detects wheel lock tendency (sharp speed drop), it signals hydraulic modulator.
4. Modulator rapidly releases and reapplies brake pressure (pulsating effect).
5. This prevents locking, maintains traction, and allows steering control.
4. Identify key elements of Mechatronics systems and explain it with the help of neat block
diagram.
Definition
Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field that integrates mechanical, electrical, electronics, control, and
computer engineering to design and operate advanced products and systems.

Key Elements
1. Sensors
o Detect physical parameters (temperature, position, pressure, speed, etc.) from the environment.
o Convert them into electrical signals for processing.
o Examples: Strain gauge, proximity sensor, thermocouple.
2. Actuators
o Devices that convert electrical signals into physical action (motion, force, displacement).
o Examples: DC motor, stepper motor, hydraulic cylinder, pneumatic cylinder.
3. Controllers
o Brains of the system that process sensor signals and generate control commands.
o Can be microcontrollers, PLCs, or computers.
4. Mechanical / Electrical Components
o Provide the structural framework and transmission of motion or power.
o Examples: Gears, linkages, bearings, frames.
5. Signal Conditioning / Interfacing
o Circuits that process raw sensor signals (amplifiers, filters, A/D or D/A converters) before
sending them to the controller.
6. Display / User Interface
o Provides feedback to the user in the form of digital displays, LEDs, LCDs, or graphical screens.

5. Draw and Explain CNC machine.

A CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine is an automated machine tool that uses pre-
programmed computer codes (G-codes and M-codes) to control the motion of cutting tools and
workpieces with high accuracy and repeatability.

Main Parts of CNC Machine

1. Input Device
o Feeds the program into the CNC system.
o Examples: USB, CAD/CAM system, or computer network.
2. CNC Controller (MCU – Machine Control Unit)
o The brain of CNC machine.
o Reads and interprets program instructions.
o Sends commands to servo motors/actuators.
3. Drive System
o Consists of servo motors, stepper motors, and ball screws.
o Executes the movements of the tool or workpiece.
4. Machine Tool
o The actual machining unit (lathe, milling machine, drilling machine, etc.).
o Performs operations like cutting, drilling, milling, turning.
5. Feedback System
 o Sensors and encoders provide real-time position/speed feedback.
o Ensures accurate closed-loop control.
6. Display/Monitor Unit
o Shows machining process, coordinates, toolpath, and error messages.

Working
1. The part program (CNC code) is fed to the controller.
2. Controller interprets the instructions and generates motion commands.
3. Servo/stepper motors drive the tool and workpiece accordingly.
4. Feedback system continuously monitors tool position for accuracy.
5. Machining is performed automatically with high precision.