19

Weather Patterns
and Severe
Storms*
Focus on Concepts
Each statement represents the primary learning objective for the
corresponding major heading within the chapter. After you complete
the chapter, you should be able to:

19.1 Discuss air masses, their classification, and associated

weather.
19.2 Compare and contrast typical weather associated with a
warm front and a cold front. Describe an occluded front
and a stationary front.
19.3 Summarize the weather associated with the passage of a
mature midlatitude cyclone. Describe how airflow aloft is
related to cyclones and anticyclones at the surface.
19.4 List the basic requirements for thunderstorm formation
and locate places on a map that exhibit frequent
thunderstorm activity. Describe the stages in the
development of a thunderstorm.
19.5 Summarize the atmospheric conditions and locations
that are favorable to the formation of tornadoes. Discuss
tornado destruction and tornado forecasting.
19.6 Identify areas of hurricane formation on a world map and
discuss the conditions that promote hurricane formation.
List the three broad categories of hurricane destruction.

*This chapter was revised with the assistance of Professor

Redina Herman, Western Illinois University.

A storm is classified as a thunderstorm only after thunder is heard.

Because thunder is produced by lightning, lightning must also occur.
(Photo by Saverio Maria Gallotti/Alamy)

577

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 Tornadoes and hurricanes rank among nature’s most destructive
forces. Each spring, newspapers report the death and destruction left in the wake of bands of
tornadoes. During late summer and fall, we hear occasional news reports about hurricanes. Storms
with names such as Katrina, Matthew, Sandy, and Ike make front-page headlines. Thunderstorms,
although less intense and far more common than tornadoes and hurricanes, are also part of our
discussion on severe weather in this chapter. Before looking at violent weather, however, we will
study the atmospheric phenomena that most often affect our day-to-day weather: air masses, fronts,
and traveling midlatitude cyclones. We will see the interplay of the elements of weather discussed in
Chapters 16, 17, and 18.

19.1 Air Masses

Discuss air masses, their classification, and associated weather.

For many people who live in the middle latitudes, which usually 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) or more across and
include much of the United States, summer heat waves perhaps several kilometers thick, that is characterized by
and winter cold spells are familiar experiences. In the first a similarity of temperature and moisture across a given
instance, several days of high temperatures and oppressive altitude. When this air moves out of its region of origin,
humidity may finally end when a series of thunderstorms it will carry these temperatures and moisture conditions
pass through the area, followed by a few days of relatively with it, eventually affecting a large portion of a continent
cool relief. By contrast, the clear skies that often accom- (Figure 19.1).
pany a span of frigid subzero days may be replaced by An excellent example of the influence of an air mass
thick gray clouds and a period of snow as temperatures rise is illustrated in Figure 19.2, which shows a cold, dry
to levels that seem mild compared to those that existed mass from northern Canada moving southward. With
just a day earlier. In both examples, what was experienced a beginning temperature of -46°C (-51°F), the air
was a period of generally constant weather conditions fol- mass warms to -33°C (-27°F) by the time it reaches
lowed by a relatively short period of change and then the Winnipeg. It continues to warm as it moves southward
reestablishment of a new set of weather conditions that through the Great Plains and into Mexico. Throughout
Figure 19.1 Lake- remained for perhaps several days before changing again. its southward journey, the air mass becomes warmer.
effect snow storm This But it also brings some of the coldest weather of the
satellite image shows a winter to the places in its path. Thus, the air mass is
cold, dry air mass moving What Is an Air Mass? modified, but it also modifies the weather in the areas
from its source region
The weather patterns just described result from move- over which it moves.
in Canada across Lake
Superior. It illustrates the ments of large bodies of air, called air masses. An The horizontal uniformity of an air mass is not
process that leads to lake- air mass, as the term implies, is an immense body of air, perfect, of course. Because air masses extend over
effect snow storms. (NASA) large areas, small differences occur in temperature
and humidity from place to place. Still, the differ-
mass ences observed within an air mass are small compared
air to the rapid changes experienced across air-mass
, dry boundaries.
C old Since it may take several days for an air mass to
move across an area and be modified, the region under
Lake Su its influence will likely experience fairly constant
pe weather, a situation called air-mass weather. Certainly
ri
or there are some day-to-day variations, but the weather
will be relatively consistent until an air-mass boundary
comes through and a different air mass influences the
area. The air-mass concept is an important one because
it is closely related to the study of atmospheric distur-
bances. Most disturbances in the middle latitudes origi-
nate along the boundary zones that separate different
air masses.

578

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 579

cA
Continental arctic
Very cold, very dry

Cold, dry
air mass mP
Maritime polar mP
–46°C (–51°F) Cool, humid cP Maritime polar
Continental polar Cool, humid
Cold, dry

–33°C (–27°F) Winnipeg

mT mT
–29°C (–20°F) Sioux Falls Maritime tropical
Warm, humid Maritime tropical
–23°C (–9°F) Omaha Warm, humid
–18°C (0°F) Wichita A. Winter pattern
–15°C (5°F) Oklahoma City
–9°C (16°F) Dallas
–4°C (25°F) Houston
cP
Continental polar mP
10°C (50°F) Tampico Cool, dry Maritime polar
mP Cool, humid
Maritime polar
Cool, humid

Figure 19.2 An invasion of frigid air As this very cold air mass
moved southward from Canada, it brought some of the coldest weather
of the winter to the areas in its path. As it advanced into the United
States, the air mass slowly got warmer. Thus, the air mass was gradually
modified at the same time that it modified the weather in the areas over mT
which it moved. (From Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, 9th edition, by Maritime tropical mT
Warm, humid Maritime tropical
Tom L. McKnight and Darrell Hess, ©2008. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by Warm, humid
cT
permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.) Continental tropical
Hot, dry

Source Regions B. Summer pattern

When a portion of the lower atmosphere moves slowly Figure 19.3 Air-mass source regions for North America Source
regions are largely confined to subtropical and subpolar locations. The
or stagnates over a relatively uniform surface, the air
fact that the middle latitudes are where cold and warm air masses clash,
assumes the distinguishing features of that area, particu- often because the converging winds of a traveling cyclone draw them
larly with regard to temperature and moisture conditions. together, means that this zone lacks the conditions necessary to be a
The area where an air mass acquires its characteristic source region. The differences between polar and arctic are relatively
properties of temperature and moisture is called its source small and serve to indicate the degree of coldness of the respective air
region. The source regions that produce air masses masses. By comparing the A. winter and B. summer maps, it is clear
­influencing North America are shown in Figure 19.3. that the movement and temperature characteristics fluctuate.
Air masses are classified according to their source
region. Polar (P) air masses and arctic (A) air masses of the air mass. C­ ontinental air is likely to be dry, and
originate in high latitudes toward Earth’s poles, whereas ­maritime air is likely to be humid.
those that form in low latitudes are called tropical (T) The basic types of air masses according to this
air masses. The designation polar, arctic, or tropical scheme of classification are continental polar (cP),
gives an indication of the temperature characteristics of ­continental arctic (cA), continental tropical (cT), maritime
an air mass. Polar and arctic indicate cold, and tropical polar (mP), and maritime tropical (mT).
indicates warm.
In addition, air masses are classified according to the
nature of the surface in the source region. Continental Weather Associated with Air Masses
(c) air masses form over land, and maritime (m) air Continental polar and maritime tropical air masses
masses originate over water. The d ­ esignation continental ­influence the weather of North America most, ­especially
or maritime thus s­ uggests the moisture characteristics east of the Rocky Mountains. Continental polar air masses

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 580 Earth Science

What causes lake-effect

snow? During late autumn and
early winter, the temperature
contrast between the lakes and
0 300 600 miles adjacent land areas can be large.*
0 300 600 kilometers
The temperature contrast can
be especially great when a very
Thunder Bay
cold cP air mass pushes south-
e Superior
ward across a lake that is not yet
Lak frozen over. The satellite image
Marquette
in ­Figure 19.1 illustrates the pro-
La cess. Notice that as the cloud-free
ke

air moves across Lake Superior,

Lake Michigan

o
tari
Hu

O n Boston
La k
e clouds develop because the air
ron

Buffalo AVERAGE ANNUAL acquires large quantities of heat

SNOWFALL
rie cm in. and moisture from the relatively
k eE New York
40°
warm lake surface. By the time
La >330 >130
Chicago 250–329 100–129 the cP air reaches the opposite
Pittsburgh shore, the air mass is humid and
150–249 60–99
Washington D.C. 90–149 36–59 unstable, and heavy snow showers
60–89 24–35 are occurring.
ATLANTIC
<60 <24 Maritime tropical air masses
Charleston OCEAN
75° affecting North America most
often originate over the warm
SmartFigure 19.4
Snowfall map The snow originate in northern Canada, interior Alaska, and the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, or
belts of the Great Lakes Arctic—areas that are uniformly cold and dry in winter the adjacent Atlantic Ocean. As you might expect,
are easy to pick out on and cool and dry in summer. In winter, an invasion of con- these air masses are warm, moisture laden, and usually
this snowfall map. (Data
tinental polar air brings the clear skies and cold tempera- unstable. Maritime tropical air is the source of much, if
from NOAA) The photo was
taken following a 6-day
tures we associate with a cold wave as it moves southward not most, of the precipitation in the eastern two-thirds
from Canada into the United States. In summer, this air of the United States. In summer, when an mT air mass
lake-effect snowstorm
mass may bring a few days of cooling relief. invades the central and eastern United States, and
in November 1996 that
dropped 175 centimeters Although cP air masses are not, as a rule, associated occasionally southern Canada, it brings the high tem-
(nearly 69 inches) of snow with heavy precipitation, those that cross the Great Lakes peratures and oppressive humidity typically associated
on Chardon, Ohio, setting during late autumn and winter sometimes bring snow to with its source region.
a new state record. (Photo
the leeward shores. These localized storms often form Of the two remaining air masses, maritime polar and
by Tony Dejak/AP Images)
when the surface weather map indicates no apparent cause continental tropical, the latter has the least influence on
tutorial for a snowstorm. These are known as lake-effect snows, the weather of North America. Hot, dry continental trop-
https://goo.gl/BXIF6T and they make Buffalo and Rochester, New York, among ical air, originating in the Southwest and Mexico during
the snowiest cities in the United States (Figure 19.4). the summer, only occasionally affects the weather outside
its source region.
During the winter, maritime polar air masses com-
ing from the North Pacific often originate as continental
polar air masses in Siberia. The cold, dry cP air is trans-
cP
Cold, dry, formed into relatively mild, humid, unstable mP air dur-
stable ing its long journey across the North Pacific (­ Figure 19.5).
Modified As this mP air arrives at the western shore of North
cP America, it is often accompanied by low clouds and
Cool, less dry,
stable mP shower activity. When this air advances inland against
Cool, moist, the western mountains, orographic uplift produces heavy
unstable rain or snow on the windward slopes of the mountains.
Maritime polar air also originates in the North Atlantic,
Pacific Ocean
off the coast of eastern Canada, and occasionally influ-
ences the weather of the northeastern United States.
Figure 19.5 Air-mass modification During winter, maritime
polar (mP) air masses in the North Pacific usually begin as continental *Recall that land cools more rapidly and to lower temperatures than
polar (cP) air masses in Siberia. The cP air is modified to mP as it slowly water. See the discussion of land and water in the section “Why
crosses the ocean. ­Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature” in Chapter 16.

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 581

EYE ON EARTH 19.1

This satellite image from December 27, 2010, shows a strong winter storm off
the east coast of the United States.

QUESTION 1 Can you identify the very center of the storm?

QUESTION 2 What air mass is being drawn into the storm to produce the
dense clouds in the upper right?
QUESTION 3 What term is applied to a storm such as this?
QUESTION 4 Farther south, a cold air mass over the southeastern states is
cloud free. What is its likely classification? Explain how it is being modified
as it moves over the Atlantic.

NASA
Figure 19.6 Classic nor’easter The satellite image shows a
strong winter storm called a nor’easter along the coast of New
England on January 12, 2011. In winter, a nor’easter exhibits a weather
pattern in which strong northeast winds carry cold, humid mP air
from the North Atlantic into New England and the middle Atlantic
states. The ground-level view of the storm in Boston shows that the
combination of ample moisture and strong convergence can result in
heavy snow. (Satellite image by NASA; photo by Michael Dwyer/Alamy Images)

In winter, when New England is on the northern or

northwestern side of a passing low-pressure center, the
counterclockwise cyclonic winds draw in maritime polar
air. The result is a storm characterized by snow and cold
temperatures, known locally as a nor’easter (Figure 19.6).

Concept Checks 19.1

1. Define air mass. What is air-mass weather?
2. On what basis are air masses classified?
3. Compare the temperature and moisture
characteristics of the following air masses: cP, cA,
mP, mT, and cT.
4. Which air mass is associated with lake-effect
snow? What causes lake-effect snow?

19.2 Fronts
Compare and contrast typical weather associated with a warm front and a cold front. Describe an
occluded front and a stationary front.

One prominent feature of middle-latitude weather is is usually warmer and contains more moisture than the
how suddenly and dramatically it can change. Most of other. However, fronts can form between any two con-
these sudden changes are associated with the passage trasting air masses. When the vast sizes of air masses are
of weather fronts. Fronts are boundary surfaces that considered, the zones (fronts) that separate them are rela-
separate air masses of different densities—one of which tively narrow and are shown as lines on weather maps.

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 582 Earth Science

Generally, the air mass located on one side of a front and, frequently, precipitation. The sequence of clouds
moves faster than the air mass on the other side. Thus, shown in Figure 19.7 typically precedes a warm front.
one air mass actively advances into the region occupied The first sign of the approach of a warm front is the
by another and collides with it. During World War I, Nor- appearance of cirrus clouds overhead. These high clouds
wegian meteorologists visualized these zones of air-mass form 1000 kilometers (600 miles) or more ahead of
interactions as analogous to battle lines and tagged them the surface front, where the overrunning warm air has
“fronts,” as in battlefronts. It is along these zones of “con- ascended high up the wedge of cold air.
flict” that storms develop and produce much of the pre- As the front nears, cirrus clouds grade into cirrostra-
cipitation and severe weather in the belt of the westerlies. tus, which blend into denser sheets of altostratus. About
As one air mass moves into a region occupied by 300 kilometers (180 miles) ahead of the front, thicker
another, minimal mixing occurs along the frontal surface. stratus and nimbostratus clouds appear, and rain or snow
Instead, the air masses retain their identity as one is dis- begins. Because of their slow rate of advance and very low
placed upward over the other. No matter which air mass slope, warm fronts usually produce light to moderate pre-
is advancing, it is always the warmer, less-dense air that is cipitation over a large area for an extended period. This pre-
forced aloft, whereas the cooler, denser air acts as a wedge cipitation is often in the form of snow in the winter. During
on which lifting occurs. The process of warm air gliding late fall and early spring, the precipitation often changes
up and over a cold air mass is termed overrunning. from snow to sleet to freezing rain and finally to rain as
the warm front approaches. Warm fronts are occasionally
associated with thunderstorms in the spring and fall. This
Warm Fronts occurs when the overrunning air is unstable and the tem-
When the surface position of a front moves so that warm air peratures on opposite sides of the front contrast sharply. At
occupies territory formerly covered by cooler air, it is called the other extreme, a warm front associated with a dry air
a warm front (Figure 19.7). On a weather map, the surface mass could pass without creating clouds or precipitation.
position of a warm front is shown by a red line with red A gradual increase in temperature occurs with the
semicircles protruding into the cooler air. The direction the passage of a warm front. The increase is most noticeable
symbols are pointing is the direction the front is moving. when there is a large temperature difference between the
East of the Rockies, warm tropical air often enters adjacent air masses. The moisture content and stability of
the United States from the Gulf of Mexico and overruns the encroaching warm air mass largely determine when
receding cool air. As the cool air retreats, friction with clear skies will return. During summer, cumulus, and
the ground slows the advance of the surface position of occasionally cumulonimbus, clouds may be embedded in
the front more so than its position aloft. Stated another the warm unstable air mass that follows the front. Pre-
SmartFigure 19.7 way, less dense, warm air has a hard time displacing cipitation from these clouds can be heavy but is usually
Warm front This diagram denser, cold air. For this reason, the boundary separating scattered and of short duration.
shows the idealized clouds these air masses acquires a very gradual slope. The aver-
and weather associated age slope of a warm front is about 1:200, which means
with a warm front. During
that if you are 200 kilometers (120 miles) ahead of the Cold Fronts
most of the year, warm
fronts produce light to surface location of a warm front, you will find the frontal When dense cold air is actively advancing into a region
moderate precipitation surface at a height of 1 kilometer (0.6 mile). occupied by warmer air, the boundary is called a cold
over a wide area. As warm air ascends the retreating wedge of cold front (Figure 19.8). As with warm fronts, friction tends to
air, it expands and cools adiabatically to produce clouds slow the surface position of a cold front more so than its
Animation
https://goo.gl/r6qTf0 position aloft. However, because of the relative positions
Cirrus of the adjacent air masses, the cold front steepens as
Cirrostratus
Altostratus (Cs)
(Ci) it moves. On average, cold fronts are about twice as
Nimbostratus (As) steep as warm fronts, having a slope of perhaps 1:100.
(Ns) In a­ ddition, cold fronts advance at speeds around
35 to ­50 kilometers (20 to 35 miles) per hour compared
to 25 to 35 kilometers (15 to 20 miles) per hour for warm
fronts. These two differences—rate of movement and
steepness of slope—largely account for the more violent
Warm nature of cold-front weather compared to the weather
stable generally accompanying a warm front (Figure 19.9).
air As a cold front approaches, commonly from the
Warm
front Cool air west or northwest, towering clouds can often be seen
Moderate precipitation in the distance. Near the front, a dark band of ominous
clouds foretells the coming weather. The forceful lifting
Kansas City, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Columbus, Pittsburgh, of air along a cold front is often so rapid that the latent
KS MO IN OH PA
heat released when water vapor condenses appreciably

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 583

of the front. The some-

times violent weather and
sharp temperature contrast
Cumulonimbus Cirrostratus Cirrus
(Ci)
along the cold front are
Wind (Cb) (Cs)
symbolized on a weather
map by a blue line with
blue triangle-shaped points
that extend into the warmer
air mass (see Figure 19.8).
The weather behind a
cold front is dominated by
Heavy a subsiding and relatively
precipitation
cold air mass. Thus, ­clearing
Warm air
Cold air
usually begins soon after
the front passes. Although
the compression of air due
Kansas City, St. Louis, Indianapolis, to subsidence causes some
KS Cold front MO IN adiabatic heating, the effect
on surface temperatures is
SmartFigure 19.8 Cold front Fast- Tutorial
moving cold front and cumulonimbus minor. In winter, the long, cloudless nights that often fol-
https://goo.gl/ieWWUS
clouds. Thunderstorms may occur if the low the passage of a cold front allow for abundant radiation
warm air is unstable. cooling that reduces surface temperatures. When a cold
front moves over a relatively warm area, surface heating can
produce shallow convection. This, in turn, may g­ enerate
low cumulus or stratocumulus clouds behind the front.
increases the air’s buoyancy. The heavy downpours and
vigorous wind gusts associated with mature cumulo-
nimbus clouds frequently result. A cold front produces Stationary Fronts and Occluded Fronts
roughly the same amount of lifting as a warm front but Occasionally, the flow on both sides of a front is neither
over a shorter distance. As a result, the intensity of pre- toward the cold air mass nor toward the warm air mass
cipitation is greater, but the duration is shorter. In addi- but almost parallel to the line of the front. Thus, the sur-
tion, a marked temperature drop and a wind shift from face position of the front does not move. This condition is
the south to west or northwest accompany the passage called a stationary front. On a weather map, stationary

Figure 19.9
Hailstones litter the
ground Cumulonimbus
clouds along a cold
front produced hail
and heavy rain in
central Mississippi in
March 2013. (Photo by
T. Coraghessan Boyle/
Rogelio V. Solis/AP Images)

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 584 Earth Science

Figure 19.10 Stages fronts are shown with blue triangles pointing toward
in the formation of an the warmer air and red semicircles pointing toward the
occluded front cooler air. At times, some overrunning occurs along a
stationary front, causing gentle to moderate precipitation.
Flooding can occur along the cold side of a stationary
Warm front if the front remains in place for a long time.
Cold air air Cool air The fourth type of front is an occluded front, an
active cold front that overtakes a warm front, as shown
in Figure 19.10. As the advancing cold air wedges the
Cold front Warm front warm air upward, a new front emerges between the
In this example, the air behind the cold front is colder and advancing cold air and the cool air. The weather of an
denser than the air ahead of the warm front. occluded front is generally complex. Most precipitation
is associated with the warm air being forced aloft. When
conditions are suitable, however, the newly formed front
is capable of initiating precipitation of its own. Occluded
fronts may result in heavy rain in the warmer months
or a blizzard in the winter. On a weather map, occluded
Warm air fronts are shown with purple triangles and semicircles
Cold air Cool air both pointing in the direction of the front’s advance.
Heavy
rain A word of caution is in order concerning the
weather associated with various fronts. Although the
Occluded front preceding discussion will help you recognize the
weather patterns associated with fronts, remember that
The surface cold front moves faster than the surface warm front
and overtakes it to form an occluded front. these descriptions are generalizations. The weather gen-
erated along any individual front may or may not con-
form fully to this idealized picture. Fronts, like all other
Warm air aspects of nature, do not lend themselves to classifica-
tion as easily as we would like.

Light rain Concept Checks 19.2

Cold air Cool air
1. Compare the weather of a typical warm front with
that of a typical cold front.
Occluded front 2. Why is cold-front weather usually more severe than
warm-front weather?
The denser cold air lifts the warm air and advances into and
displaces the cool air. 3. Describe a stationary front and an occluded front.

19.3 Midlatitude Cyclones

Summarize the weather associated with the passage of a mature midlatitude cyclone. Describe
how airflow aloft is related to cyclones and anticyclones at the surface.

So far, we have examined the basic elements of weather Midlatitude cyclones are large centers of low pres-
as well as the dynamics of atmospheric motions. We sure that generally travel from west to east. Lasting from
are now ready to apply our knowledge of these diverse a few days to more than a week, these weather systems
phenomena to an understanding of day-to-day weather have a counterclockwise circulation, with an airflow
patterns in the middle latitudes. For our purposes, inward toward their centers. Most midlatitude cyclones
middle latitudes refers to the region between southern also have a cold front extending from the central area of
Florida and Alaska. The primary weather producers here low pressure and, frequently, a warm front as well. Con-
are midlatitude, or middle-latitude, cyclones. On vergence and forceful lifting initiate cloud development
weather maps they are shown by an L, meaning low- and often cause abundant precipitation in the vicinity of
pressure system. Figure 19.11 shows two views of a large the low-pressure center.
idealized midlatitude cyclone with probable air masses, As early as the 1800s, it was known that midlatitude
fronts, and surface wind patterns. cyclones were the bearers of precipitation and severe

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 585

Idealized Weather of a
Midlatitude Cyclone
mP The midlatitude cyclone model
provides a useful tool for exam-
cP L Cool air
ining the weather patterns of the
mP middle latitudes. Figure 19.12
A B illustrates the distribution of
Cold dry air
clouds and thus the regions of
possible precipitation associated
with a mature system. Compare
Warm
sector this drawing to the satellite
image shown in Figure 19.13.
It is easy to see why we often
refer to the cloud pattern of a
midlatitude cyclone as having a
mT “comma” shape.
mT Guided by the westerlies
Key
Warm aloft, cyclones generally move
moist air Warm front
Cold front eastward across the United
A. Map view
Stationary front States, so we can expect the
Occluded front first signs of their arrival in
the west. However, often in
the region of the Mississippi
River valley, cyclones begin a
more northeasterly path and
occasionally move directly
northward. A midlatitude
cyclone typically requires
Warm front

Cold Warm Cool 2 to 4 days to move completely

air mass sector air
across a region. During that
nt

mass
fro

A brief period, abrupt changes

ld

B
Co

in atmospheric conditions may

be experienced. This is par-
B. Three-dimentional view from points A to B
ticularly true in the winter and
SmartFigure 19.11 Idealized Tutorial spring, when the largest temperature contrasts occur
structure of a large, mature https://goo.gl/Qs5VVo
across the middle latitudes.
midlatitude cyclone A. This map view
shows fronts, air masses, and surface Using Figure 19.12 as a guide, we will now consider
winds. B. The three-dimensional view is these weather producers and what we should expect from
a cross section through warm and cold them as they move over an area. To facilitate our discus-
fronts along a line from point A to point B. sion, Figure 19.12 includes two profiles along lines A–E
and F–G:

weather. But it was not until the early part of the 1900s • Imagine the change in weather as you move along pro-
that a model was developed to explain how cyclones file A–E. At point A, the sighting of high cirrus clouds
form. A group of Norwegian scientists formulated and would be the first sign of the approaching cyclone.
published this model, created primarily from near-­surface These high clouds can precede the surface front by
observations, in 1918. 1000 kilometers (600 miles) or more, and they gener-
Years later, as data from the middle and upper tro- ally are accompanied by falling pressure. As the warm
posphere and from satellite images became available, front advances, a lowering and thickening of the cloud
modifications were necessary. However, this model is deck is noticed.
still a useful working tool for interpreting the weather. If • Usually within 12 to 24 hours after the first sight-
you keep this model in mind when you observe changes ing of cirrus clouds, light precipitation begins
in the weather, the changes will no longer come as a sur- (point B). As the front nears, the rate of precipita-
prise. You should begin to see some order in what once tion increases, a rise in temperature is noticed, and
appeared to be disorder, and you might even occasionally winds begin to change from east or southeast to
“predict” the impending weather. south or southwest.

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 586 Earth Science

Ci summer. The passage of the cold front is easily

As Warm air
Cs detected by a wind shift: The southwest winds
Ns Ns are replaced by winds from the west to northwest
and by a pronounced drop in temperature. Also,
the rising pressure hints at the subsiding cool, dry
G Cold air F air behind the front.
• Once the front passes, skies clear as cooler air
invades the region (point E). Often a day or two
of almost cloudless deep blue skies occurs, unless
another cyclone is edging into the region.
A very different set of weather conditions pre-
vails in the regions north of the storm’s center along
F profile F–G of Figure 19.12. Temperatures progress
mP from cool at F to cold at G. The first hints of the
G approaching low-pressure center are decreasing air
L pressure and increasingly overcast conditions that
bring varying amounts of precipitation. This section
cP B A of the cyclone most often generates snow during
the winter months and heavy rain during warmer
C months.
D Once the formation of an occluded front
E begins, the character of the storm changes. Because
occluded fronts tend to move more slowly than other
mT fronts, the entire wishbone-shaped frontal structure
of the storm rotates counterclockwise. As a result,
the occluded front appears to “bend over backward.”
This effect adds to the misery of the region influ-
enced by the occluded front because it lingers over
Cb Ci
the area longer than the other fronts.
Cs
As
Ns
Cu Figure 19.13 Satellite view of a mature midlatitude
cyclone This storm swept across the central United States
Cold air Warm air Cool air and produced strong wind gusts (up to 125 kilometers
[78 miles] per hour), rain, hail, and snow. It also spawned
E D C B A
61 tornadoes on October 26, 2010. This cyclone set a
record for the lowest pressure not associated with a
SmartFigure 19.12 hurricane ever recorded over land in the continental
Cloud patterns typically United States: 28.21 inches of mercury. It is easy to see
associated with a mature • With the passage of the warm front, the area is under
why we often refer to the cloud pattern of a cyclone as
midlatitude cyclone The the influence of a maritime tropical air mass (point
having a “comma” shape. (NASA)
middle section is a map C). Generally, the region affected
view. Note the cross- by this sector of the cyclone experi-
sectional lines (F–G, A–E). ences warm to hot temperatures,
Above the map is a vertical southwesterly winds, fairly high
cross section along line
humidity, and skies that may be clear
F–G. Below the map is
a section along A–E. For or contain cumulus clouds.
Comma
cloud abbreviations, refer • The relatively warm, humid weather head
to Figures 19.7 and 19.8. of the warm sector passes quickly
Tutorial and is replaced by gusty winds and
https://goo.gl/D7ItJG precipitation generated along the
cold front. The approach of a rap-
idly advancing cold front is marked Comma
by a wall of dark clouds (point D). tail
Severe weather accompanied by
heavy precipitation, hail, and an
occasional tornado is a definite pos-
sibility, especially during spring and

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 587

The Role of Airflow Aloft Zone of convergence

When the earliest studies of midlatitude cyclones were s tream
Jet
made, little was known about the nature of the airflow
in the middle and upper troposphere. Since then, a
L
(trough)
close relationship has been established between surface
disturbances and the flow aloft. Airflow aloft plays an
J et
s tr
ea
m
H
(ridge)
important role in maintaining cyclonic and anticy-
clonic circulation. In fact, more often than not, Zone of divergence
these rotating surface wind systems are actually
Flow aloft Sinking Rising
generated by upper-level flow.
air air
Recall that airflow around a surface cyclone
(low-pressure system) is inward, a fact that leads to mass
convergence, or coming together (Figure 19.14). The result- Cyclonic
flow
ing accumulation of air must be accompanied by a cor-
responding increase in surface pressure. Consequently, we
might expect a low-pressure system to “fill” rapidly and Anticyclonic
flow
be eliminated. However, this does not occur. On the
contrary, cyclones often exist for a week or longer.
For this to happen, surface convergence must be
offset by a mass outflow at some level aloft (see
Figure 19.14 Flow aloft
­Figure 19.14). As long as divergence (spreading out) influences surface winds
aloft is equal to or greater than surface inflow, the low pres- and pressure Idealized
sure and its accompanying convergence can be sustained. Concept Checks 19.3
depiction showing the
Because cyclones are bearers of stormy weather, 1. Briefly describe the weather associated with the support that divergence
they have received far more attention than anticyclones. passage of a mature midlatitude cyclone when the and convergence aloft
Anticyclones on a weather map represent the air masses center of low pressure is about 200 to 300 kilometers provide to cyclonic and
(125 to 200 miles) north of your location. anticyclonic circulation at
that were discussed earlier. For example, the surface high-
the surface. Divergence
pressure system shown in Figure 19.14 is likely a conti- 2. If the midlatitude cyclone described in Question 1 aloft initiates upward
nental polar air mass. Because a close relationship exists took 3 days to pass your location, on which day air movement, reduced
between surface highs and lows, it is difficult to separate would temperatures likely be warmest? On which surface pressure, and
any discussion of these two types of pressure systems. The day would they likely be coldest? cyclonic flow. On the other
surface air that feeds a cyclone, for example, generally 3. What winter weather might be expected with the hand, convergence along
originates as air flowing out of an anticyclone. Conse- the jet stream results in
passage of a mature midlatitude cyclone when
general subsidence of
quently, cyclones and anticyclones typically are found adja- the center of low pressure is located about 100 to
the air column, increased
cent to each other. Like a cyclone, an anticyclone depends 200 kilometers (60 to 125 miles) south of your
surface pressure, and
on the flow far above to maintain its circulation. Diver- location? anticyclonic surface winds.
gence at the surface is balanced by convergence aloft and 4. Briefly explain how flow aloft aids the formation of
general subsidence of the air column (see Figure 19.14). cyclones at the surface.

EYE ON EARTH 19.2

This image of a line of clouds was taken by astronauts aboard the
International Space Station. The dashed line on the image shows the
approximate surface position of the front responsible for the cloud
development. Assume that this front is located over the central United
States as you answer the following questions.

QUESTION 1 What is the cloud type of the tallest clouds in the image?
QUESTION 2 Are these clouds more typical of a cold front or a warm
front?
QUESTION 3 Is the front most likely moving toward the southeast or N
toward the northwest?
NASA
QUESTION 4 Is the air mass located to the southeast of the front more
likely continental polar (cP) or maritime tropical (mT)?

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 588 Earth Science

19.4 Thunderstorms
List the basic requirements for thunderstorm formation and locate places on a map that exhibit
frequent thunderstorm activity. Describe the stages in the development of a thunderstorm.

Thunderstorms are the first of three severe weather confusing. To many people, the term implies only an
types we will examine in this chapter. Sections on torna- intense storm, such as a tornado or a hurricane. When a
does and hurricanes follow. All these phenomena can be hurricane unleashes its fury on India or Bangladesh, for
related to low-pressure systems (cyclones). example, it is usually reported in the media as a cyclone
Severe weather is more fascinating than everyday (the term denoting a hurricane in that part of the world).
weather phenomena. The lightning display and booming Similarly, tornadoes are referred to as cyclones in
thunder generated by a severe thunderstorm can be a spec- some places. This custom is particularly common in por-
tacular event that elicits both awe and fear (see the chapter- tions of the Great Plains of the United States. Recall that
opening photo). Of course, hurricanes and tornadoes also in The Wizard of Oz, Dorothy’s house was carried from
attract a great deal of much-deserved attention. A single tor- her Kansas farm to the land of Oz by a cyclone. Indeed,
nado outbreak or hurricane can cause many deaths as well the nickname for the athletic teams at Iowa State Univer-
as billions of dollars in property damage. In a typical year, sity is the Cyclones (Figure 19.15). Although hurricanes
the United States experiences thousands of violent thunder- and tornadoes are, in fact, cyclones, the vast majority
storms, hundreds of tornadoes, and a few hurricanes. of cyclones are not hurricanes or tornadoes. The term
cyclone simply refers to the circulation around any low-
Figure 19.15 The term pressure center, no matter how large or intense it is.
cyclone Sometimes the What’s in a Name? Tornadoes and hurricanes are both smaller and more
use of the term cyclone Up to now we have examined midlatitude cyclones, violent than midlatitude cyclones. Midlatitude cyclones
can be confusing. (Satellite which play an important role in causing day-to-day can have a diameter of 1600 kilometers (1000 miles) or
image courtesy of NASA; logo
weather changes. Yet the use of the term cyclone is often more. By contrast, hurricanes average only 600 kilome-
courtesy of Iowa State University)
ters (375 miles) across, and tornadoes, with a typical
diameter of just 0.25 kilometer (0.16 mile), are much too
small to show up on a weather map.
The thunderstorm, a much more familiar weather
event, hardly needs to be distinguished from tornadoes,
hurricanes, and midlatitude cyclones. Unlike the flow of
air about these latter storms, the circulation associated
with thunderstorms is characterized by strong up-and-
down movements. Winds in the vicinity of a thunder-
storm do not follow the inward spiral of a cyclone, but
they are typically variable and gusty.
Thunderstorms can form “on their own,” away from
cyclonic storms, and they can also form in conjunction
with cyclones. For instance, thunderstorms are frequently
spawned along the cold front of a midlatitude cyclone,
In parts of the Great Plains, where on rare occasions a tornado may descend from the
cyclone is a synonym for thunderstorm’s cumulonimbus tower. Hurricanes also
tornado. The nickname for generate widespread thunderstorm activity. Thus, thun-
the athletic teams at Iowa derstorms are related in some manner to all three types
State University is the
of cyclones mentioned here.
Cyclones.*

Thunderstorm Occurrence
Almost everyone has observed various small-scale phe-
nomena that result from the vertical movements of
In southern Asia and Australia, the term cyclone is applied
to storms that are called hurricanes in the United States.
relatively warm, unstable air. Perhaps you have seen a
This image shows Cyclone Yasi, which struck eastern dust devil over an open field on a hot day, whirling its
Australia in February 2011. dusty load to great heights. Or maybe you have noticed
a bird glide effortlessly skyward on an invisible thermal
* Iowa State University is the only Division I school to use cyclones as its
team name. The pictured logo was created to better communicate the of hot air. These examples illustrate the dynamic ther-
school's image by combining the mascot, a cardinal bird named Cy, and mal instability that occurs during the development of a
the Cyclone team name. thunderstorm.

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 589

A thunderstorm is a storm that generates lightning experiences about 100,000 thunderstorms and millions
and thunder. Thunderstorms frequently produce gusty of lightning strikes. A glance at Figure 19.16B shows that
winds, heavy rain, and hail. A thunderstorm may be thunderstorms are most frequent in Florida and the east-
produced by a single cumulonimbus cloud and influence ern Gulf coast region, where such activity is recorded
only a small area, or it may be associated with clusters of between 70 and 100 days each year. The region on the
cumulonimbus clouds covering a large area. eastern side of the Rockies in Colorado and New Mexico
Thunderstorms form when warm, humid air rises in is next, with thunderstorms occurring on 60 to 70 days
an unstable environment. Various mechanisms can trigger each year. Most of the rest of the nation experiences
the upward air movement needed to create thunderstorm- thunderstorms on 30 to 50 days annually. The western
producing cumulonimbus clouds. One mechanism, the margin of the United States has little thunderstorm activ-
unequal heating of Earth’s surface, significantly contrib- ity because air from the adjacent Pacific Ocean tends
utes to the formation of ordinary thunderstorms, which to be cool and stable. Thunderstorms are also relatively
are also called air-mass thunderstorms. These storms are uncommon in the northern tier of states and in Canada,
associated with the scattered puffy cumulonimbus clouds because warm, moist, unstable mT air seldom penetrates
that commonly form within maritime tropical air masses these areas.
and produce scattered thunderstorms on summer days.
Such storms are usually short-lived and seldom produce
strong winds or hail. Stages of Thunderstorm Development
Another type of thunderstorm not only benefits from All thunderstorms require warm, moist air, which, when
uneven surface heating but is associated with the lifting lifted, releases sufficient latent heat to provide the buoy-
of warm air, as occurs along a front or a mountain slope. ancy necessary to maintain its upward flight. This insta-
Moreover, diverging winds aloft frequently contribute to bility and associated buoyancy are triggered by a number
the formation of these storms because they tend to draw of different processes, yet most thunderstorms have a
air from lower levels upward beneath them. Some of similar life history.
the thunderstorms of this type may produce high winds, Because instability and buoyancy are enhanced by
damaging hail, flash floods, and tornadoes. Such storms high surface temperatures, thunderstorms are most com-
are described as severe. mon in the afternoon and early evening (Figure 19.17A).
At any given time, an estimated 2000 thunderstorms However, surface heating alone is not sufficient for the
are in progress on Earth. As we would expect, the great- growth of towering cumulonimbus clouds. A solitary cell
est number occur in the tropics, where warmth, plenti- of rising hot air produced by surface heating could, at
ful moisture, and instability are always present. About best, produce a small cumulus cloud, which would evapo-
45,000 thunderstorms take place each day, and more rate within 10 to 15 minutes.
than 16 million occur annually around the world. The The development of 12,000-meter (40,000-foot) (or,
lightning from these storms strikes Earth 100 times on rare occasions, 18,000-meter [60,000-foot]) cumu-
each second (Figure 19.16A). Annually, the United States lonimbus towers requires a continual supply of moist

10
20 30
30
20
30
10 20 40 40 30 20
40
5 20
50
30 40
60 50
50 40

70
5 50
10 10 50
20
3040 40 70 60
50 60 80
70
100
Lightning flashes (per km2 per year) 40
A. B. Days per year with 30 80
0.1 0.4 1.4 5 20 70 thunderstorms

Figure 19.16 Occurrence of lightning and thunderstorms A. Data from space-based optical sensors show the worldwide
distribution of lightning, with color variations indicating the average annual number of lightning flashes per square kilometer.
The map includes data obtained from April 1995 to March 2000 from NASA’s Optical Transient Detector and from December
1997 to November 2000 from NASA’s Lightning Imaging Sensor. Both of these satellite-based sensors use high-speed cameras
capable of detecting brief lightning flashes even under daytime conditions. (NASA) B. Average number of days each year with
thunderstorms. The humid subtropical climate that dominates the southeastern United States receives much of its precipitation
in the form of thunderstorms. Most of the Southeast averages 50 or more days each year with thunderstorms. (Environmental Data
Service, NOAA)

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 590 Earth Science

12 40

Altitude in thousands of feet

30

Altitude in kilometers
8

0°C 32°F 0°C 32°F 0°C 32°F 20

4
10
Gust

ft
ra
nd front
Dow Heavy rain Light rain
A. 0 0

During the cumulus stage, The mature stage is marked When updrafts disappear,
strong updrafts provide by heavy preciptation. precipitation becomes light
moisture that condenses and Updrafts exist side by side and then stops. Without a
builds the cloud. with downdrafts and continue supply of moisture from
to enlarge the cloud. updrafts, the cloud evapo-
rates.
SmartFigure 19.18 Development of an ordinary thunderstorm Once Tutorial
a cloud passes beyond the freezing level, the Bergeron process begins https://goo.gl/nrOfL2
producing precipitation. Eventually, the accumulation of precipitation in the
cloud is too great for the updraft to support. The falling precipitation causes
drag on the air and initiates a downdraft. Once downdrafts dominate, rainfall
diminishes, and the cloud starts to dissipate.

B.
Figure 19.17 Cumulus
development A. Buoyant air (Figure 19.17B). Each new surge of warm air rises activity. The life span of a typical cumulonimbus cell within
thermals often produce higher than the last, adding to the height of the cloud a thunderstorm complex is only about an hour, but as the
fair-weather cumulus (Figure 19.18). These updrafts occasionally reach speeds storm moves, fresh supplies of warm, water-laden air gener-
clouds that soon evaporate greater than 100 kilometers (60 miles) per hour, based ate new cells to replace those that are dissipating.
into the surrounding air, on the size of hailstones they are capable of carrying
making it more humid. upward. Usually within an hour, the amount and size Concept Checks 19.4
As this process of
of precipitation that has accumulated is too much for
cumulus development and 1. Briefly compare and contrast midlatitude cyclones,
evaporation continues, the the updrafts to support, and consequently downdrafts
hurricanes, and tornadoes. How are thunderstorms
air eventually becomes develop in one part of the cloud, releasing heavy precipi-
related to each?
sufficiently humid so that tation. This is the most active stage of the thunderstorm.
newly forming clouds Gusty winds, lightning, heavy precipitation, and some- 2. What are the basic requirements for the formation
do not evaporate but times hail are experienced. of a thunderstorm?
continue to grow. B. This Eventually the warm, moist air supplied by updrafts 3. Where are thunderstorms most common on Earth?
developing cumulonimbus In the United States?
ceases as downdrafts dominate throughout the cloud. The
cloud became a towering
August thunderstorm over cooling effect of falling precipitation, coupled with the 4. Summarize the stages in the development of a
central Illinois. (Photos by influx of colder air aloft, marks the end of the thunderstorm thunderstorm.
E. J. Tarbuck)

19.5 Tornadoes
Summarize the atmospheric conditions and locations that are favorable to the formation of
tornadoes. Discuss tornado destruction and tornado forecasting.

Tornadoes form from the strongest thunderstorms. These Tornadoes, sometimes called twisters or cyclones,
events are of short duration but rank high among nature’s are violent windstorms that take the form of a rotating
most destructive forces (Figure 19.19). Their sporadic column of air, or vortex. Pressures within some tornadoes
occurrence and violent winds cause many deaths each have been estimated to be as much as 10 percent lower
year. The nearly total destruction in some stricken areas than pressures immediately outside the tornado. Drawn
has led many to liken their passage to bombing raids dur- by the much lower pressure in the center of the vortex,
ing war (Figure 19.20). air near the ground rushes into the tornado from all

M19_TARB3536_15_SE_C19.indd 590 6/1/17 7:49 PM

 SmartFigure 19.20 Tornado destruction at Moore, Oklahoma Video
On May 20, 2013, central Oklahoma was devastated by an EF-5 https://goo.gl/xTPT5X
tornado, the most severe category. It took 24 lives, injured 377, and
caused damages in excess of $2 billion. At least 13,000 structures were
destroyed or damaged. The tornado was on the ground for 39 minutes,
and its path extended for 27 kilometers (17 miles). At its peak, the
tornado was 2.1 kilometers (1.3 miles) wide and had winds of 340
kilometers (210 miles) per hour. (Photo by Jewel Samad/Getty Images)

to tornado formation in severe thunderstorms is the devel-

Figure 19.19 Condensation and debris make opment of a mesocyclone. A mesocyclone is a vertical
tornadoes visible A tornado is a violently rotating column of
­cylinder of rotating air, typically about 3 to 10 kilometers
air in contact with the ground. The air column is visible when
it contains condensation or when it contains dust and debris. (2 to 6 miles) across, that develops in the updraft of a
Often the appearance is a result of both. When the column of severe thunderstorm. The formation of this large vortex
air is aloft and does not produce rotation at the ground, the often precedes tornado formation by 30 minutes or so.
visible portion is properly called a funnel cloud. (Photo by Jason
Persoff Stormdoctor/Cultura RM Exclusive/Getty Images)

Suction
vortex
directions. As the air streams inward, it spirals upward
around the core until it eventually merges with the air- Suction
vortex
flow of the parent thunderstorm deep in the cumulonim-
bus tower. Because of the tremendous pressure gradient Suction
vortex
associated with a strong tornado, maximum winds can
sometimes approach 480 kilometers (300 miles) per hour. Tornado
A tornado may consist of a single vortex, but within center
many stronger tornadoes are smaller whirls called suction r
o cente
vortices that rotate within the main vortex (Figure 19.21). f tornad
Path o
Suction vortices have diameters of only about 10 meters h
(33 feet) and rotate very rapidly. This structure accounts at
sw
for occasional observations of virtually total destruction ion
Suct
of one building while another one, just 10 meters (33 feet)
away, suffers little damage.
SmartFigure 19.21 Multiple-vortex Animation
tornado Some tornadoes have multiple suction https://goo.gl/x3QT9U
Tornado Development and Occurrence vortices. These small and very intense vortices
are roughly 10 meters (30 feet) across and move
Tornadoes can form in any situation that produces severe
in a counterclockwise path around the tornado
weather, including cold fronts, squall lines, and tropical center. Because of this multiple-vortex structure,
cyclones (hurricanes). Usually the most intense tornadoes one building might be heavily damaged and
are those that form in association with huge thunder- another one, just 10 meters away, might suffer
storms called supercells. An important precondition linked little damage.

591

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 592 Earth Science

We have learned that in order to create a thunder- The formation of a mesocyclone does not necessarily
storm, there must be moisture, instability, and a lifting mean that tornado formation will follow. Only about half
mechanism; but to get a storm that produces a strong of all mesocyclones produce tornadoes. Forecasters can-
tornado, there needs to be one additional condition— not determine in advance which mesocyclones will spawn
wind shear. Wind shear is a change in wind speed and/ tornadoes.
or direction with height. Mesocyclone formation depends
on the presence of wind shear. Moving upward from the
surface, winds change direction from southerly to west- Tornado Climatology
erly, and wind speed increases. The speed wind shear Recall that severe thunderstorms—and hence tornadoes—­
(that is, stronger winds aloft and weaker winds near the are most often spawned along the cold front of a midlati-
surface) produces a rolling motion about a horizontal tude cyclone or in association with supercell thunderstorms.
axis, as shown in Figure 19.22A. If conditions are right, Such severe storms are likeliest to form during the spring,
strong updrafts in the storm tilt the horizontally rotating when the air masses associated with midlatitude cyclones
air to a nearly vertical alignment (Figure 19.22B,C). This are most likely to have greatly contrasting conditions.
produces the initial rotation within the cloud interior. ­Continental polar air from Canada may still be very cold
At first, the mesocyclone is wider, shorter, and more and dry, whereas maritime tropical air from the Gulf of
slowly rotating than will be the case in later stages. Sub- Mexico is warm, humid, and unstable. The greater the
sequently, the mesocyclone is stretched vertically and ­contrast, the more intense the storm tends to be.
narrowed horizontally, causing wind speeds to accelerate These two contrasting air masses are most likely to
in an inward vortex (just as spinning ice skaters acceler- meet in the central United States because there is no sig-
ate by pulling in their arms). Next, the narrowing column nificant natural barrier separating the center of the coun-
of rotating air stretches downward until a portion of the try from the arctic or the Gulf of Mexico. Consequently,
cloud protrudes below the cloud base to produce a very this region generates more tornadoes than any other part
dark, slowly rotating wall cloud. Finally, a slender and of the country or, in fact, the world. Figure 19.23, which
rapidly spinning vortex emerges from the base of the wall depicts the average annual tornado incidence in the
cloud to form a funnel cloud. If the funnel cloud makes United States over a 27-year period, readily substantiates
contact with the surface, it is then classified as a tornado. this fact.

SmartFigure 19.22 Spinning Clouds overshoot

Mesocyclone formation along top of thunderstorm
Stronger winds
often precedes tornado horizontal
formation A. Winds are axis
stronger aloft than at the Anvil
surface (called speed A. Weaker winds
wind shear), producing
a rolling motion about Thunderstorm
a horizontal axis. B. forming
Strong thunderstorm
updrafts tilt the horizontally
rotating air to a nearly
vertical alignment. C. The
Mesocyclone
B. (3 to 10 km
mesocyclone, a vertical Updraft diameter)
cylinder of rotating air, is
established. D. If a tornado
develops, it will descend
from a slowly rotating wall
cloud in the lower portion
of the mesocyclone. (Photo
by Gene Rhoden/Weatherpix/
Getty Images)
Tornado
Tutorial
https://goo.gl/4O8MXL Air inflow

C.

D.

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 593

On average, about 1300 tornadoes are reported 160

annually in the United States. However, the actual num- 140
Tornadoes 0.5
ber that occur from one year to the next varies greatly.
120 1.0
During the 15-year period from 2001 through 2015, for 5.0
100 0.5
example, yearly totals ranged from a low of 938 in 2002
3.0
to a high of 1894 in 2011. Tornadoes occur during every 80
5.0 5.0
month of the year. April through June is the period of 60 Tornado 3.0 1.0
days 7.0
greatest tornado frequency in the United States, and 40 7.0
5.0
December and January are the months of lowest activity 20 1.0
(see Figure 19.23, graph insert). 0 7.0 1.0
The preceding paragraphs describe tornado cli- J F MA M J J A S ON D 0.5 5.0 3.0
7.0 3.0
matology. Recall from the discussion of weather and 9.0
climate in Chapter 16 that climate provides a statistical 0.5 5.0
3.0 5.0
perspective of atmospheric behavior; remember the well- 1.0 3.0
known saying: “Climate is what you expect, but weather 5.0
is what you get.” However, as the saying warns, weather 7.0
5.0
events do not always occur when statistical probabilities
­suggest. ­Figure 16.4 (page 496) provides an example from
­November 2013. Figure 19.23 Tornado occurrence The map shows average annual tornado incidence
per 26,000 square kilometers (10,000 square miles) for a 27-year period. The graph shows
the average number of tornadoes and tornado days each month in the United States for the
Tornado Destruction and Loss of Life same period.
The potential for tornado destruction depends largely
on the strength of the winds generated by the storm.
Because tornadoes generate the strongest winds in not completely) on the strength of the winds. A wide Figure 19.24 Tornado
nature, they have accomplished many seemingly impos- spectrum of tornado strengths, sizes, and lifetimes are winds: The strongest in
sible tasks, such as the ones shown in Figure 19.24. observed. The commonly used guide to tornado intensity nature A. The force of
Although it may seem impossible for winds to cause some is the Enhanced Fujita intensity scale, or EF-scale the wind during a tornado
of the extensive damage attributed to tornadoes, tests in for short (Table 19.1). Because tornado winds cannot near Wichita, Kansas, in
April 1991 was enough to
engineering facilities have repeatedly demonstrated that be measured directly, a rating on the EF-scale is deter-
drive this piece of metal
winds in excess of 320 kilometers (200 miles) per hour mined by assessing the worst damage produced by a into a utility pole. (Photo
are capable of incredible feats. storm. Although widely used, the EF-scale is not perfect. by John Sokich/NOAA) B.
Most tornado losses are associated with the rare Unlike the original Fujita scale, the EF-scale takes into The remains of a truck
storms that strike urban areas or devastate entire consideration the structural integrity of buildings, but it wrapped around a tree in
small communities. The amount of destruction caused does not do a good job of classifying tornadoes that pass Bridge Creek, Oklahoma,
by such storms depends to a significant degree (but through regions with no structures because there is no on May 4, 1999, following
a major tornado outbreak.
(LM Otero/AP Photo)

A. B.

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 594 Earth Science

EYE ON EARTH 19.3

This satellite image shows a portion of the diagonal path left by a tornado
as it moved across northern Wisconsin in 2007.

QUESTION 1 Toward what direction did the storm advance: the

northeast or the southwest?
QUESTION 2 Did the tornado more likely occur ahead of or behind a
cold front? Explain.
QUESTION 3 Is it more probable that the storm took place in March or
June? Why is the date you selected more likely?

NASA
damage to assess. These tornadoes get rated as weak, if at of such storms are some of the most important services
all, no matter how strong the wind speed. provided by professional meteorologists. Both the timely
Although the greatest part of tornado damage is issuance and dissemination of watches and warnings are
caused by violent winds, most tornado injuries and deaths critical to the protection of life and property.
result from flying debris. The proportion of tornadoes that The Storm Prediction Center (SPC) located in Nor-
result in loss of life is small. In most years, slightly fewer man, Oklahoma, is part of the National Weather Service
than 2 percent of all reported tornadoes in the United (NWS) and the National Centers for Environmental
States are “killers.” Although the percentage of tornadoes Prediction (NCEP). The mission of the SPC is to provide
resulting in death is small, each tornado is potentially timely and accurate forecasts and watches for severe
lethal. When tornado fatalities and storm intensities are thunderstorms and tornadoes.
compared, the results are quite interesting: The major- Severe thunderstorm outlooks are issued several
ity (63 percent) of tornadoes are weak (EF-0 and EF-1), times daily. Day 1 outlooks identify the areas that are
and the number of storms decreases as tornado intensity likely to be affected by severe thunderstorms during the
increases. The distribution of tornado fatalities, however, next 6 to 30 hours, and day 2 outlooks extend the fore-
is just the opposite. Although only 2 percent of tornadoes cast through the following day. Both outlooks describe
are classified as violent (EF-4 and EF-5), they account for the type, coverage, and intensity of the severe weather
nearly 70 percent of tornado deaths. expected. Many local NWS field offices also issue severe
weather outlooks that provide more local descriptions of
the severe weather potential for the next 12 to 24 hours.
Tornado Forecasting
Because severe thunderstorms and tornadoes are small Tornado Watches and Warnings Tornado watches
and relatively short-lived phenomena, they are among alert the public to the possibility of tornadoes over a
the most difficult weather features to forecast precisely. specified area for a particular time interval. Watches
Nevertheless, the prediction, detection, and monitoring serve to fine-tune forecast areas already identified in
severe weather outlooks. A typical watch covers an area
of about 65,000 square kilometers (25,000 square miles)
Table 19.1 Enhanced Fujita Intensity Scale*
for a 4- to 6-hour period. A tornado watch is an impor-
Wind Speed
tant part of the tornado alert system because it sets in
Scale Km/Hr Mi/Hr Damage
motion the procedures necessary to deal adequately with
EF-0 105–137 65–85 Light. Some damage to siding and shingles. detection, tracking, warning, and response. Watches are
EF-1 138–177 86–110 Moderate. Considerable roof damage. Winds can uproot trees and overturn generally reserved for organized severe weather events
single-wide mobile homes. Flagpoles bend.
where the tornado threat will affect at least 26,000 square
EF-2 178–217 111–135 Considerable. Most single-wide mobile homes destroyed. Permanent homes
kilometers (10,000 square miles) and/or persist for at least
can shift off foundations. Flagpoles collapse. Softwood trees debarked.
3 hours. Watches typically are not issued when the threat
EF-3 218–265 136–165 Severe. Hardwood trees debarked. All but small portions of houses destroyed.
is thought to be isolated and/or short-lived.
EF-4 266–322 166–200 Devastating. Complete destruction of well-built residences, large sections
of school buildings.
Whereas a tornado watch is designed to alert people
to the possibility of tornadoes, a tornado warning is
EF-5 7 322 7 200 Incredible. Significant structural deformation of mid- and high-rise buildings.
issued by local offices of the NWS when a tornado has
*The original Fujita scale was developed by T. Theodore Fujita in 1971 and put into use in 1973. The Enhanced
Fujita intensity scale is a revision that was put into use in February 2007. Winds speeds are estimates (not actually been sighted in an area or is indicated by weather
measurements) based on damage and represent 3-second gusts at the point of damage. radar. It warns of a high probability of imminent danger.

M19_TARB3536_15_SE_C19.indd 594 6/1/17 7:49 PM

 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 595

SmartFigure 19.25
Doppler radar
A. Doppler radar sites
in the United States.
Go to http://radar.
weather.gov to see
a similar map. You
can click on any site
to view the current
National Weather
Service Doppler radar
display. B. Doppler on
Wheels is a portable
unit that researchers
Hawaii use in field studies
Puerto Rico of severe weather
A. Alaska
Guam
B.
events. (Photo by
University Corporation for
Atmospheric Research)
Warnings are issued for much smaller areas than are sharper gradients of wind speeds. The tornado itself is too
watches, usually covering portions of a county or counties. small to be detected directly by the radar. Video
https://goo.gl/CzmyY5
In addition, they are in effect for much shorter periods, It should also be pointed out that not all tornado-
typically 30 to 60 minutes. Because a tornado warning bearing storms have clear-cut radar signatures and that
may be based on an actual sighting, warnings are occa- other storms can give false signatures. Detection, there-
sionally issued after a tornado has already developed. fore, is sometimes a subjective process, and a given dis-
However, most warnings are issued prior to tornado for- play could be interpreted in several ways. Consequently,
mation, sometimes by several tens of minutes, based on trained observers, called storm spotters, continue to be
Doppler radar data and/or spotter reports of funnel clouds. an important part of the warning system.
If the direction and the approximate speed of a The benefits of Doppler radar are many. As a
storm are known, an estimate of its most probable path research tool, it not only provides data on the forma-
can be made. Because tornadoes often move erratically, tion of tornadoes but also helps meteorologists gain new
the warning area is fan-shaped downwind from the point insights into thunderstorm development, the structure
where the tornado has been spotted. Improved forecasts and dynamics of hurricanes, and air-turbulence hazards
and advances in technology have contributed to a signifi- that plague aircraft. As a practical tool for tornado detec-
cant decline in tornado deaths over the past 50 years. tion, Doppler radar has significantly improved our ability
to track thunderstorms and issue warnings.
Doppler Radar Many of the difficulties that once lim-
ited the accuracy of tornado warnings have been reduced
or eliminated by an advancement in radar technology Concept Checks 19.5
called Doppler radar (Figure 19.25). Doppler radar not 1. Why do tornadoes have such high wind speeds?
only performs the same tasks as conventional radar but
2. What general atmospheric conditions are most
also has the ability to detect motion directly. Doppler
conducive to the formation of tornadoes?
radar can detect the initial formation and subsequent
development of a mesocyclone, the intense rotating wind 3. During what months is tornado activity most
system in the lower part of a thunderstorm that frequently pronounced in the United States?
precedes tornado development. Almost all mesocyclones 4. What scale is commonly used to rate tornado
produce damaging hail, severe winds, or tornadoes. Those intensity? How is a rating on this scale determined?
that produce tornadoes (about 50 percent) can sometimes 5. Distinguish between a tornado watch and a
be distinguished by their stronger wind speeds and their tornado warning.

19.6 Hurricanes
Identify areas of hurricane formation on a world map and discuss the conditions that promote
hurricane formation. List the three broad categories of hurricane destruction.
Most of us view the weather in the tropics with favor. ironic that these relatively tranquil regions produce some
Places such as the islands of the Caribbean are known of the most violent storms on Earth.
for their lack of significant day-to-day variations. Warm Hurricanes are intense centers of low pressure
breezes, steady temperatures, and rains that come as that form over tropical oceans and are characterized by
heavy but brief tropical showers are often the rule. It is intense convective (thunderstorm) activity and strong

M19_TARB3536_15_SE_C19.indd 595 6/1/17 7:49 PM

 596 Earth Science

Figure 19.26 Super the coastal areas of New Jersey, New York, and Connecti-
Typhoon Jangmi In the cut, causing billions of dollars in damages in late October
western Pacific, hurricanes The eye wall surrounds
the eye and is the most 2012. The storm that pounded an unsuspecting Galveston,
are called typhoons. This
intense part of the storm Texas, in 1900 was not just the deadliest U.S. hurricane
storm struck portions of
Taiwan, China, and Japan ever, but the deadliest natural disaster of any kind to affect
in late September 2008. It the United States. The deadliest and most costly storm in
was the strongest storm recent memory occurred in August 2005, when Hurricane
worldwide that year, with Well-developed eye Katrina devastated the Gulf Coast of Louisiana, Mississippi,
sustained winds that and Alabama and took an estimated 1800 lives. Although
reached 270 kilometers hundreds of thousands fled before the storm made landfall,
(165 miles) per hour. The
thousands of others were caught by the storm. In addition to
counterclockwise spiral of
the clouds indicates that it the human suffering and tragic loss of life that were left in
is a Northern Hemisphere the wake of Hurricane Katrina, the financial losses caused
storm. (NASA) by the storm were practically incalculable.
100 km
N

Profile of a Hurricane
cyclonic circulation (Figure 19.26). Sustained winds must Hurricanes form mostly between the latitudes of 5° and
equal or exceed 119 kilometers (74 miles) per hour. 20° over all the tropical oceans except the South Atlantic
Unlike midlatitude cyclones, hurricanes lack contrasting and the eastern South Pacific (Figure 19.27). The North
air masses and fronts. Rather, the source of energy that Pacific has the greatest number of storms, averaging
produces and maintains hurricane-force winds is the 20 each year. Fortunately for those living in the coastal
huge quantity of latent heat liberated during the forma- regions of the southern and eastern United States, fewer
tion of the storm’s cumulonimbus towers. than 5 hurricanes, on average, develop annually in the
The vast majority of hurricane-related deaths and dam- warm sector of the North Atlantic.
age are caused by relatively infrequent, yet powerful, storms. These intense tropical storms are known in various
Hurricane Sandy devastated parts of the Caribbean and parts of the world by different names. In the western Pacific,
they are called typhoons, and in the Indian
Ocean, including the Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea, they are simply called cyclones. In the fol-
60°
lowing discussion, these storms will be referred to
Asia as hurricanes. The term hurricane is derived from
North Europe
America the name Huracan, a Carib god of evil.
June-December August-October
Although many tropical disturbances
30°
Pacific develop each year, only a few reach hurricane sta-
Ocean tus. By international agreement, a hurricane has
Africa

Equator
0°
June-November SmartFigure 19.27 The where and when of
South
America Atlantic hurricanes A. The world map shows the regions
June-October
Ocean where most hurricanes form as well as their
30°
Indian Australia principal months of occurrence and the tracks
Ocean they most commonly follow. Hurricanes do not
January-March
develop within about 5° of the equator because
January-March
the Coriolis effect (a force related to Earth’s
110 rotation that gives storms their “spin”) there is too
A. 100 weak. Because warm ocean-surface temperatures
90 are necessary for hurricane formation, hurricanes
Number of storms per 100 years

Total number of
hurricanes and seldom form poleward of 20° latitude or over the
80
tropical storms cool waters of the south Atlantic and the eastern
70 south Pacific. B. The graph shows the frequency
60 of tropical storms and hurricanes from May 1
50 through December 31 in the Atlantic basin. It
Total number shows the number of storms to be expected over
40
of hurricanes a span of 100 years. The period from late August
30
through October is clearly the most active. (Data
20 from National Hurricane Center/NOAA)
10
VIDEO
0
https://goo.gl/JPdwbo
May 1 June 1 July 1 Aug 1 Sept 1 Oct 1 Nov 1 Dec 1

B.

M19_TARB3536_15_SE_C19.indd 596 6/1/17 7:49 PM

 85° 80° 75° 70° 65° 85° 80° 75° 70° 65°
57 198 56 189
1020 +8 +4
1020

75 200
1020
73 190 Figure 19.28 Hurricane Fran These weather
+ 11 1020 +1
72 204 73 194
71
+8
70
+5 maps show Hurricane Fran at 7:00 a.m. EST on
67 190 69 160 Tropical Storm “Fran” two successive days, September 5 and 6, 1996.
66 181 +9 35° 69 170 –1 35°
65
+8 65
67 + 9
64 980 MB On September 5, winds exceeded 190 kilometers
73 172
+5 1016 75 010 (118 miles) per hour. As the storm moved inland,
66 153 73 79 149 71 109 72 – 15 80 +155
+8 +7 1016 +3 12 heavy rains caused flash floods, killed 30 people,

00
66 67
1016
and caused more than $3 billion in damages. The

101004
x

08
69 140 1012 77 037 station information plotted off the Gulf and Atlantic

10
67 133 +5 023 69 128 + 19 x 133
67
+8
65 81 – 15
0 99 67
+ 15
57 80 + 22 coasts is from data buoys, which are remote floating

10
00
30° 30°
75 078 6 73 097 x instrument packages. The small boxes extending
–6 1

04
+ 24
72 1008 68

8
x southeast from the storm’s center show the position
98
x
1012 70 109 71 119 of the eye at 6-hour intervals. Numerals and symbols
+ 10 75 076 992 x + 16 72 124
69
73
+4 x 1012 61
71
+ 22 on the maps refer to temperature, dew point, and
x wind speed and direction at select weather stations.
77 072
+7
Hurricane “Fran”
75
74 105
+6 954 MB 25°
75 120
+ 13
82 129
+ 20
25°
72 72 75
79 083 wind speeds in excess of 119 kilometers (74 miles)
81 138 1016
+ 15 + 17
75
per hour and a rotary circulation. Mature hurricanes
75

83 093 84 122
74
+9 + 10
81 133
76 + 13 average 600 kilometers (375 miles) across, although
83 101
+3 they can range in diameter from 100 kilometers
0 300 600 Miles
1012 (60 miles) up to about 1500 k­ ilometers (930 miles).
Thursday, September 5, 1996 Friday, September 6, 1996 From the outer edge to the center, the barometric
pressure has on occasion dropped
Outflow of air at the top of the hurricane is 60 millibars, from 1010 m ­ illibars to
SmartFigure 19.29 ­Conditions important because it prevents the convergent 950 millibars or less. The lowest pres-
inside a ­hurricane (Data from World flow at lower levels from “filling in” the storm. sures ever recorded in the Western
Meteorological Organization) Hemisphere are associated with these
storms. (Pressures inside tornadoes are
video
https://goo.gl/9XuBl4
often lower but are usually estimated;
Eye obtaining actual measurements from tor-
nadoes is both difficult and dangerous.)
Sinking air in the eye
warms by compression. A steep pressure gradient generates
the rapid, inward-spiraling winds
Eye wall, the zone of a hurricane (­Figure 19.28).
where winds and rain As the air rushes toward the
are most intense.
Tropical moisture center of the storm, its velocity
spiraling inward increases. This occurs for the
creates rain bands same reason that skaters with their arms
that pinwheel around
the storm center. extended spin faster as they pull their arms
in close to their bodies.
As the inward rush of warm, moist sur-
A. Cross section of a hurricane. Note that the vertical face air approaches the core of the storm,
dimension is greatly exaggerated. (After NOAA) it turns upward and ascends in a ring of cumulonimbus
­towers ­(Figure 19.29A). This doughnut-shaped wall of intense
90 1010 convective activity surrounding the center of the storm is
1005 called the eye wall. It is here that the greatest wind speeds
80
Pressure and heaviest rainfall occur (­Figure 19.29B). Surrounding
1000
70 the eye wall are curved bands of clouds that trail away in a
995
Pressure (millibars)
Wind speed (knots)

60 spiral fashion. Near the top of the hurricane, the airflow is

990 outward, ­carrying the rising air away from the storm center,
50 985 thereby providing room for more inward flow at the surface.
B. Measurements Mean speed
of surface pressure 40 980 At the very center of the storm is the eye of the
and wind speed 975 hurricane. This well-known feature is a zone about 20
during the passage 30
970 kilometers (12.5 miles) in diameter where precipitation
of Cyclone Monty 20
at Mardie Station, Minimum 965 ceases and winds subside. It offers a brief but deceptive
Western Australia, 10 pressure 964 break from the extreme weather in the enormous curv-
between February 960
on 2 March ing wall clouds that surround it. The air within the eye
29 and March 2, 0 955
2004. (Hurricanes 12 6 12 6 12 6 12 6 12 6 gradually descends and heats by compression, making it
are called PM AM PM AM PM the warmest part of the storm. Although many people
“cyclones” in this 2/29 3/1 3/2
part of the world.)
597

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 598 Earth Science

believe that the eye is characterized by clear blue skies, the clusters of thunderstorms that make up the tropical
this is usually not the case because the subsidence in the disturbance, areas within the disturbance get warmer.
eye is seldom strong enough to produce cloudless condi- As a result, air density lowers and surface pressure drops,
tions. Although the sky appears much brighter in this creating a region of weak low pressure and cyclonic cir-
region, scattered clouds at various levels are common. culation. As pressure drops at the storm center, the pres-
sure gradient steepens. If you were watching an animated
Hurricane Formation and Decay weather map of the storm, you would see the isobars get
closer together. In response, surface wind speeds increase
A hurricane is a heat engine that is fueled by the latent and bring additional supplies of moisture to nurture storm
heat liberated when huge quantities of water vapor con- growth. The water vapor condenses, releasing latent heat,
dense. The amount of energy released by a typical hur- and the heated air rises. Adiabatic cooling of rising air trig-
ricane in just a single day is truly immense. The release gers more condensation and the release of more latent heat,
of latent heat warms the air and provides buoyancy for which causes a further increase in buoyancy. And so it goes.
its upward flight. The result is to reduce the pressure Meanwhile, at the top of the storm, air is diverging.
near the surface, which encourages a more rapid inward Without this outward flow up top, the inflow at lower lev-
flow of air. To get this engine started, a large quantity els would soon raise surface pressures (that is, fill in the
of warm, moisture-laden air is required, and a continual low) and thwart storm development.
supply is needed to keep it going.
Other Tropical Storms Many tropical disturbances
Hurricane Formation Hurricanes develop most often
occur each year, but only a few develop into full-fledged
in the late summer, when ocean waters have reached
hurricanes. By international agreement, lesser tropi-
temperatures of 27°C (80°F) or higher and thus are able
cal cyclones are placed in different categories, based on
to provide the necessary heat and moisture to the air
wind strength. When a cyclone’s strongest winds do not
(Figure 19.30). This ocean-water temperature require-
exceed 61 k­ ilometers (38 miles) per hour, it is called a
ment accounts for the fact that hurricanes do not form
tropical depression. When winds are between 61 and
over the relatively cool waters of the South Atlantic and
119 k­ ilometers (38 and 74 miles) per hour, the cyclone
the eastern South Pacific. For the same reason, few hur-
is termed a tropical storm and given a name (Andrew,
ricanes form poleward of 20° latitude. Although water
Katrina, Sandy, etc.). If the tropical storm becomes a hur-
temperatures are sufficiently high, hurricanes do not
ricane (more than119 kilometers/74 miles per hour), the
form within 5° of the equator because the Coriolis effect
name remains the same. Each year, between 80 and 100
is too weak to initiate the necessary rotary motion.
tropical storms develop around the world. Of these, usu-
Many tropical storms begin as disorganized arrays
ally half or more eventually become hurricanes.
of clouds and thunderstorms that develop weak pressure
gradients but exhibit little or no rotation. Such areas of
Hurricane Decay Hurricanes diminish in intensity when-
low-level convergence and lifting are called tropical dis-
ever they (1) move over ocean waters that cannot supply
turbances. Most of the time, these zones of convective
warm, moist tropical air; (2) move onto land; or (3) reach
activity die out. However, tropical disturbances occasion-
a location where the large-scale flow aloft is unfavorable.
ally grow larger and develop a strong cyclonic rotation.
When a hurricane moves onto land, it loses its punch rapidly.
What happens on occasions when conditions favor
The most important reason for this rapid demise is the fact
hurricane development? As latent heat is released from
that the storm’s source of warm, moist air is cut off. When
an adequate supply of water vapor does not exist, con-
densation and the release of latent heat must diminish. In
addition, friction from the increased roughness of the land
surface rapidly slows surface wind speeds. This factor causes
the winds to move more directly into the center of the low,
thus helping to eliminate the large pressure differences.
Figure 19.30
Sea-surface
temperatures Among
Hurricane Destruction
the necessary ingredients A location only a few hundred kilometers from a hur-
for a hurricane is warm ricane—just 1 day’s striking distance away—may experi-
ocean temperatures above ence clear skies and virtually no wind. Prior to the age of
27°C (80°F). This color-
weather satellites, this situation made the task of warning
coded satellite image from
June 1, 2010, shows sea-
people of impending storms very difficult.
surface temperatures at Sea Surface Temperature (°C) The amount of damage caused by a hurricane
the beginning of hurricane depends on several factors, including the size and popu-
season. (NASA) –2 16.5 27.8 35 lation density of the area affected and the shape of the

M19_TARB3536_15_SE_C19.indd 598 6/1/17 7:49 PM

 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 599

A. B.

Figure 19.31 Storm surge destruction A. This classic image shows the aftermath of the historic Galveston hurricane. The storm struck an unsuspecting
and unprepared city on September 8, 1900. It was the worst natural disaster in U.S. history, taking the lives of 8000 people. Entire blocks were swept clean,
and mountains of debris accumulated around the few remaining buildings. (Photo by Associated Press) B. This is Crystal Beach, Texas, on September 16, 2008,
3 days after Hurricane Ike came ashore. At landfall the storm had sustained winds of 165 kilometers (105 miles) per hour. The extraordinary storm surge
caused most of the damage shown here. (Photo by Smiley N. Pool/Rapport Press/Newscom)

ocean bottom near the shore. The most significant factor, across the coast near the point where the eye makes land-
of course, is the strength of the storm. By studying past fall. If all wave activity were smoothed out, the storm surge
storms, a scale has been established to rank the relative would be the height of the water above normal tide level.
intensities of hurricanes. As Table 19.2 indicates, a cat- In addition, tremendous wave activity is superimposed on
egory 5 storm is the worst possible, whereas a category 1 the surge. The worst surges occur in places like the Gulf
hurricane is least severe. (In the Pacific, a super typhoon of Mexico, where the continental shelf is very shallow and Figure 19.32
is equivalent to a strong category 4 or 5 storm.) gently sloping. In addition, local features such as bays and An approaching
hurricane This
During hurricane season, it is common to hear sci- rivers can cause the surge height to double and increase in
hypothetical storm,
entists and reporters use the numbers from the Saffir–­ speed, and high tide conditions during a surge can com- with peak winds of 175
Simpson hurricane scale. When Hurricane Katrina made pound the water volume and damage. kilometers (109 miles) per
landfall, sustained winds were 225 kilometers (140 miles) As a hurricane advances toward the coast in the hour, is moving toward
per hour, making it a strong category 4 storm. Storms that Northern Hemisphere, storm surge is always most intense the coast at 50 kilometers
fall into category 5 are rare. Damage caused by hurricanes where winds are blowing toward the shore. In addition, (31 miles) per hour. On the
can be divided into three categories: (1) storm surge, (2) on this side of the storm, the forward movement of the right side of the eye when
looking in the direction the
wind damage, and (3) heavy rains and inland flooding. hurricane contributes to the storm surge. In Figure 19.32,
hurricane is moving, the
175-kilometer-per-hour
Storm Surge The most devastating damage in the winds are in the same
coastal zone is usually caused by storm surge (­ Figure 19.31). North Carolina
direction as the movement
It not only accounts for a large share of coastal property of the storm (50 kilometers
losses but also is responsible for a high percentage of all South ane per hour). Therefore, the
Carolina and f rric ent
Hu vem ph net wind speed on the
hurricane-caused deaths. A storm surge is a dome of p eedtion oe mo 0 k
S ec an 5 right side of the storm is
water 65 to 80 kilometers (40 to 50 miles) wide that sweeps dir urric ent d do
n
h vem
t winph = Win t side 225 kilometers (140 miles)
mo kph Ne 5 k he i g h kph
50 22 m t est r 175 per hour. On the left side,
fro thw
sou
the hurricane’s winds
Table 19.2 Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale Georgia are blowing opposite
Scale Central Storm the direction of storm
d
Number Pressure Winds Surge win movement, so the net
(category) (millibars) (km/hr) (meters) Damage n e N et kph
a 5 e
rric ent 12 th t winds of 125 kilometers (78
1 980 119–153 1.2–1.5 Minimal Hu vem ph = from hwes
o t
m 0k
5 nor miles) per hour are away
2 965–979 154–177 1.6–2.4 Moderate d on from the coast. Storm
n e
Wi ft sid h
3 945–964 178–209 2.5–3.6 Extensive le 5 kp surge will be greatest
17 along the part of the coast
4 920–944 210–250 3.7–5.4 Extreme
Florida hit by the right side of the
5 6 920 7 250 7 5.4 Catastrophic
advancing hurricane. (NASA)

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 600 Earth Science

assume that a hurricane with peak winds of 175 kilometers tornadoes associated with tropical storms and hurricanes
(109 miles) per hour is moving toward the shore at 50 kilo- was extraordinary. Tropical Storm Bonnie and five land-
meters (31 miles) per hour. In this case, the net wind speed falling hurricanes—Charley, Frances, Gaston, Ivan, and
on the right side of the advancing storm is 225 kilometers Jeanne—produced nearly 300 tornadoes that affected
(140 miles) per hour. On the left side, the hurricane’s winds the southeastern and mid-Atlantic states.
are blowing opposite the direction of storm movement, so
the net winds are away from the coast at 125 kilometers Heavy Rains and Inland Flooding The torrential rains
(78 miles) per hour. Along the shore facing the left side that accompany most hurricanes pose a third significant
of the oncoming hurricane, the water level may actually threat: flooding. Whereas the effects of storm surge and
decrease as the storm makes landfall. strong winds are concentrated in coastal areas, heavy
rains may affect places hundreds of kilometers from the
Wind Damage Destruction caused by wind is perhaps coast for up to several days after the storm has lost its
the most obvious of the classes of hurricane damage. Debris hurricane-force winds.
such as signs, roofing materials, and small items left outside The severity of flooding is not only influenced by
become dangerous flying missiles in hurricanes. For some the rate at which rain is falling but also by how quickly or
structures, the force of the wind is sufficient to cause total slowly the storm is moving. A slowly moving hurricane or
ruin. Mobile homes are particularly vulnerable. High-rise tropical storm can increase the risk of flooding along the
buildings are also susceptible to hurricane-force winds. coast or far inland. For example, Tropical Storm Alison
Upper floors are most vulnerable because wind speeds (2001) is among the costliest and deadliest storms in U.S.
usually increase with height. Recent research suggests that history because it was moved very slowly.
people should stay below the tenth floor but remain above
any floors at risk for flooding. In regions with good building Monitoring Hurricanes
codes, wind damage is usually not as catastrophic as storm- Today we have the benefit of numerous observational
surge damage. However, hurricane-force winds affect a tools for monitoring tropical storms and hurricanes.
much larger area than storm surge and can cause huge eco- Using input from satellites, aircraft reconnaissance,
nomic losses. For example, in 1992 it was largely the winds coastal radar, and remote data buoys in conjunction with
associated with Hurricane Andrew that produced more than sophisticated computer models, meteorologists monitor
SmartFigure 19.33 Hot
$25 billion of damage in southern Florida and Louisiana. and forecast storm movements and intensity. The goal is
towers This Tropical A hurricane may produce tornadoes that contribute to issue timely watches and warnings.
Rainfall Measuring Mission to the storm’s destructive power. Studies have shown
(TRMM) satellite image that more than half of the hurricanes that make landfall The Role of Satellites The greatest single advancement
of Hurricane Katrina was produce at least one tornado. In 2004 the number of
acquired early on August
in tools used for observing hurricanes has been the devel-
28, 2005. The cutaway opment of meteorological satellites. Vast
view of the inner portion areas of open ocean must be observed in
of the storm shows cloud order to detect a hurricane. Before satel-
height on one side and lites, this was an impossible task. Today
rainfall rates on the other. Hot tower
instruments aboard satellites can detect
Two hot towers (in red)
Hot tower a potential storm even before it develops
are visible: one in an
outer rain band and the
its characteristic circular cloud pattern.
other in the eye wall. The In recent years two methods
eye wall tower rises 16 of using satellite-acquired data to
kilometers (10 miles) above monitor hurricane intensity have been
the ocean surface and is developed. One technique uses instru-
associated with an area ments aboard a satellite to estimate
of intense rainfall. Towers
wind speeds within a storm. A second
this tall near the core
often indicate that a storm
method uses satellites to identify areas
is intensifying. Katrina of extraordinary cloud development,
grew from a category 3 called hot towers, in the eye wall of an
to a category 4 storm approaching hurricane (Figure 19.33).
soon after this image was 20
received. (NASA)
Track Forecasts The predicted
video 10 path of a hurricane is called the track
https://goo.gl/jW4kai
forecast. The track forecast is probably
0 Rain rate (mm/hr) the most basic information because
Height (km) 0 10 20 30 40 50 accurate prediction of other storm
characteristics (winds and rainfall) is of

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 601

little value if there is significant uncertainty about where 35° N NC

Tropical Storm Gonzalo
the storm is going. Accurate track forecasts are important October 13, 2014
SC 5 AM EDT Monday
because they can lead to timely evacuations from the Current center location 16.8 N, 60.9 W
surge zone, where the greatest number of deaths usu- GA
Forecast
Bermuda Max sustained wind 60 mph
Current movement W at 10 mph
ally occur. Track forecasts have been steadily improving. cone Current center location
30° N Forecast center positions
Current 5-day track forecasts are now as accurate as the H Sustained wind > 73 mph
H S Sustained wind 39–73 mph
3-day forecasts of 20 years ago (Figure 19.34). Despite FL
Potential day 1–3 track area
2 AM Sat
improvements in accuracy, forecast uncertainty still 2 AM Fri
Potential day 4–5 track area

requires that hurricane warnings be issued for relatively H

large coastal areas. Only about one-quarter of an average 25° N

Bahamas
warning area experiences hurricane conditions. 2 AM Thu
H
Location
Cuba of Tropical
H Storm Gonzalo
Concept Checks 19.6 2 AM Wed at time of
H
20° N forecast
1. Define hurricane. What names are used for this Haiti Dominican
Republic Puerto S
type of storm in other parts of the world? Jamaica
Rico
S
2 AM Tue
2. In what latitude zone do hurricanes develop?
15° N
5 AM Mon
3. Distinguish between the eye and the eye wall of a
hurricane. How do conditions differ in these zones? 80° W 75° W 70° W 65° W 60° W

4. What is the source of energy that drives a hurricane? SmartFigure 19.34 Five-day track forecast for Tropical Storm video
5. Why do hurricanes not form near the equator? Gonzalo, issued at 5 a.m. EDT, Monday, October 13, 2014 When https://goo.gl/2h0Oyd
Explain the lack of hurricanes in the South Atlantic a hurricane track forecast is issued by the National Hurricane Center,
and eastern South Pacific. it is termed a forecast cone. The cone represents the probable track
of the center of the storm and is formed by enclosing the area swept
6. When do most hurricanes in the North Atlantic and out by a set of circles along the forecast track (at 12 hours, 24 hours,
Caribbean occur? Why are these months the most 36 hours, etc.). The circles get larger as they extend further into
common times for hurricanes? the future. The entire track of an Atlantic tropical cyclone can be
7. Why does the intensity of a hurricane diminish expected to remain entirely within the cone roughly 60 to 70 percent
rapidly when it moves over land? of the time. (National Weather Service/National Hurricane Center)

8. What are the three broad categories of hurricane

damage?

19
19.1 Air Masses
Concepts in Review
Weather Patterns and Severe Storms

Discuss air masses, their classification, and associated weather.

latitudes and are cold. Tropical (T) air masses form in low latitudes and
are warm. According to this classification scheme, the four main types of
air masses are continental polar (cP), continental tropical (cT), maritime
KEY TERMS: air mass, air-mass weather, source region, polar (P) air mass, polar (mP), and maritime tropical (mT).
arctic (A) air mass, tropical (T) air mass, continental (c) air mass, maritime (m)
air mass, lake-effect snow, nor’easter
• Continental polar (cP) and maritime tropical (mT) air masses influence
the weather of North America most, especially east of the Rocky
• An air mass is a large body of air, usually 1600 kilometers (1000 miles) Mountains. Maritime tropical
or more across, that is characterized by a sameness of temperature and air is the source of much, if
moisture at any given altitude. When this air moves out of its region A
not most, of the precipitation
of origin, called the source region, it carries these temperatures and received in the eastern two-
moisture conditions elsewhere, perhaps eventually affecting a large E
thirds of the United States.
portion of a continent.
? Identify the source region B
• Air masses are classified according to the nature of the surface in the associated with each letter
source region and the latitude of the source region. Continental (c) on this map. One letter D
designates an air mass of land origin, with the air likely to be dry; a is not associated with a C
maritime (m) air mass originates over water and, therefore, will be source region. Which one
relatively humid. Polar (P) and arctic (A) air masses originate in high is it?

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 602 Earth Science

19.2 Fronts
Compare and contrast typical weather associated with a warm front and a cold front. Describe an occluded
front and a stationary front. A. C.
KEY TERMS: front, overrunning, warm front, cold front, stationary front, occluded front

• Fronts are boundary surfaces that separate air masses of different densities, one usually warmer and more
humid than the other. As one air mass moves into another, the warmer, less dense air mass is forced aloft in a B. D.
process called overrunning.
• Along a warm front, a warm air mass overrides a retreating mass of cooler air. As the warm air ascends, it cools
adiabatically to produce clouds and, frequently, light to moderate precipitation over a large area.
• A cold front forms where cold air is actively advancing into a region occupied by warmer air. Cold fronts are about twice as steep as and move more
rapidly than warm fronts. Because of these two differences, precipitation along a cold front is generally more intense and of shorter duration than
precipitation associated with a warm front.
? Identify each of these symbols used to designate fronts. On which side of each symbol are the warmer air and the cooler air?

19.3 Midlatitude Cyclones • Most midlatitude cyclones have a cold front and frequently a warm
front extending from the central area of low pressure. Convergence and
Summarize the weather associated with the passage of a mature mid-
latitude cyclone. Describe how airflow aloft is related to cyclones and forceful lifting along the fronts initiate cloud development and frequently
anticyclones at the surface. cause precipitation. The particular weather experienced by an area
depends on the path of the cyclone.
KEY TERMS: midlatitude (middle-latitude) cyclone
• Guided by west-to-east-moving jet streams, cyclones generally move
• The primary weather producers in the middle latitudes are large centers eastward across the United States. Airflow aloft (divergence and
of low pressure that generally travel from west to east, called midlatitude convergence) plays an important role in maintaining cyclonic and
cyclones. These bearers of stormy weather, which last from a few days anticyclonic circulation. In cyclones, divergence aloft supports the
to a week, have a counterclockwise circulation pattern in the Northern inward flow at the surface.
Hemisphere, with an inward flow of air toward their centers.

19.4 Thunderstorms 19.5 Tornadoes

List the basic requirements for thunderstorm formation and locate Summarize the atmospheric conditions and locations that are favorable
places on a map that exhibit frequent thunderstorm activity. to the ­formation of tornadoes. Discuss tornado destruction and tornado
Describe the stages in the development of a thunderstorm. forecasting.
KEY TERMS: thunderstorm KEY TERMS: tornado, mesocyclone, wind shear, Enhanced Fujita intensity scale
­(EF-scale), tornado watch, tornado warning, Doppler radar
• Thunderstorms are caused by the upward movement of warm,
moist, unstable air. They are associated with cumulonimbus • A tornado is a violent windstorm that takes the form of a rotating column
clouds that generate heavy rainfall, lightning, thunder, and of air called a vortex that extends downward from a cumulonimbus cloud.
occasionally hail and tornadoes. Many strong tornadoes contain smaller internal vortices. Because of the
• Air-mass thunderstorms tremendous pressure gradient associated with a strong tornado, maximum
frequently occur in maritime winds can approach 480 kilometers (300 miles) per hour.
tropical (mT) air during spring • Tornadoes are most often spawned along the cold front of a midlatitude
and summer in the middle cyclone or in association with a supercell thunderstorm. Tornadoes also
latitudes. Generally, three stages form in association with tropical cyclones (hurricanes). In the United States,
are involved in the development April through June is the period of greatest tornado activity, but tornadoes
of these storms: the cumulus can occur during any month of the year.
stage, mature stage, and 0°C 32°F • Most tornado damage is caused by the tremendously strong winds. One
dissipating stage. commonly used guide to tornado intensity is the Enhanced Fujita intensity
? Which stage in the scale (EF-scale). A rating on the EF-scale is determined by assessing
development of a thunderstorm damage produced by the storm.
is shown in this sketch? • Because severe thunderstorms and tornadoes are small and short-lived
Describe what is occurring. phenomena, they are among the most difficult weather features to forecast
Is there a stage that follows precisely. When weather conditions favor the formation of tornadoes, a tornado
this one? If so, describe what watch is issued. The National Weather Service issues a tornado warning when
occurs during that stage. a tornado has been sighted in an area or is indicated on Doppler radar.

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 603

19.6 Hurricanes the lowest severity. Damage caused by hurricanes is divided into three
Identify areas of hurricane formation on a world map and discuss the
categories: (1) storm surge, (2) wind damage, and (3) heavy rains and
conditions that promote hurricane formation. List the three broad cat- inland flooding.
egories of hurricane destruction. ? This graph shows the number of hurricanes in the North Atlantic
KEY TERMS: hurricane, eye wall, eye, tropical depression, tropical storm, Saf- between May and December over a 100-year span. Why is the
fir–Simpson hurricane scale, storm surge occurrence of hurricanes low in early summer?

• Hurricanes, the greatest storms on Earth, are tropical cyclones with

wind speeds in excess of 119 kilometers (74 miles) per hour. These
80
complex tropical disturbances develop over tropical ocean waters and are

Number of hurricanes per 100 years

fueled by the latent heat that is liberated when huge quantities of water 70

vapor condense. 60

• Hurricanes form most often in late summer, when ocean-surface 50

temperatures reach 27°C (80°F) or higher and thus are able to provide Total number
40 of hurricanes
the necessary heat and moisture to the air. Hurricanes diminish in 30
intensity when they move over cool ocean water that cannot supply 20
adequate heat and moisture, move onto land, or reach a location where 10
large-scale flow aloft is unfavorable.
0
• The Saffir–Simpson scale ranks the relative intensities of hurricanes. A May 1 June 1 July 1 Aug 1 Sept 1 Oct 1 Nov 1 Dec 1
5 on the scale represents the strongest storm possible, and a 1 indicates

GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT

1 Refer to Figure 19.4 to answer these questions: 3 Apply your knowledge of fronts to explain the following weather
a. Thunder Bay and Marquette are both on the shore of Lake Supe- proverb:
rior, yet Marquette gets much more snow than Thunder Bay. Why Rain long foretold, long last;
is this the case? Short notice, soon past.
b. Notice the narrow, north–south zone of relatively heavy snow east 4 If you hear that a cyclone is approaching, should you immediately seek
of Pittsburgh and Charleston. This region is too far from the Great shelter? Why or why not?
Lakes to receive lake-effect snowfall. Speculate on a likely reason
for the higher snowfalls here. Does your answer explain the shape 5 The accompany- 5° 40°
45°
of this snowy zone? ing diagrams show
0°
surface tempera- 50°
2 Refer to the accompanying weather map to answer the following tures with isotherms 10° 55°
questions: labeled in degrees
5°

a. What is a likely wind direction at each city? Fahrenheit for 15° 60°
b. Identify the likely air mass that is influencing each city. noon and 6 p.m. on
10

c. Identify the cold front, warm front, and occluded front. ­January 29, 2008.
65°

d. What are the barometric tendencies at city A and city C? On this day, a pow- 20° St. Louis

e. Which one of the three cities is probably coldest? Which one is erful front moved 70°
probably warmest? through ­Missouri 25°

and Illinois. 30°

30°
a. What type of 35°
40°
front passed
5° through40° the
45°
Midwest?
L b. Describe how
50°
0°

City C 10° the temperature

55°
5°
changed in St.
City A
15° Louis, 60°Missouri,
10°
over the 6-hour
65°
City B period.
20° St. Louis 15° St. Louis
c. Describe the
70°
likely shift in wind
25°
direction in St. 20°
45°
40°
30° Louis during this 35°
30° 25° 30° 55°
35°
40° time span. 50° 60°

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 604 Earth Science

6 If you were located 400 kilometers ahead of the surface position of a 11 Refer to the graph in Figure 19.29. Explain why wind speeds are
typical warm front that had a slope of 1:200, how high would the fron- greatest when the slope of the pressure curve is steepest.
tal surface be above you? 12 Assume that it is late September 2021, and that the eye of Hurricane
7 The accompanying table lists the number of tornadoes reported in the Fred, a category 5 storm, is projected to follow the path shown on the
United States by decade. Propose a reason to explain why the totals for accompanying map of Texas. Answer the following questions:
the 1990s and 2000s are so much higher than for the 1950s and 1960s. a. Name the stages of development that Fred must have gone
through to become a hurricane. At what stage did the storm
Number of U.S. Tornadoes Reported, by Decade receive its name?
Decade Number of Tornadoes Reported b. If the storm follows the projected path, will the city of Houston
1950–1959 4796 experience Fred’s fastest winds and greatest storm surge? Explain
1960–1969 6613 why or why not.
1970–1979 8579 c. What is the greatest threat to life and property if this storm
1980–1989 8196 approaches the Dallas–Fort Worth area?
1990–1999 12,138
2000–2009 12,914

8 The number of tornado deaths in the United States in the 2000s was
less than 40 percent the number that occurred in the 1950s, even
though there was a significant increase in population. Suggest a likely
Dallas–
reason for the decline in the death toll. Fort Worth
9 A television meteorologist is able to inform viewers about the intensity
of an approaching hurricane. However, the meteorologist can report the

Tr
intensity of a tornado only after it has occurred. Why is this the case?

ac
Houston
fH

k
o
10 Figure 19.28 shows Hurricane Fran on successive days. Did the storm ur
ric
an
get stronger or weaker on September 6 compared to September 5? eF
red
What feature on the weather map (other than the label change from
one day to the next) is most useful in figuring this out at a glance?
Suggest a reason that the storm’s intensity changed.

EXAMINING THE EARTH SYSTEM

1 This image shows the effects of a major snowstorm that dropped 2 This world map shows the tracks and intensities of thousands of
nearly 2 meters (7 feet) of snow on Buffalo, New York, in December hurricanes and other tropical cyclones. It was put together by
2001. This weather event was unrelated to a midlatitude cyclone. the National Hurricane Center and the Joint Typhoon Warning
Places not far from Buffalo received only modest amounts of snow or Center.
no snow at all. Which spheres of the Earth system interacted in the a. What area has experienced the greatest number of category 4 and
Great Lakes region to produce this snowstorm? What term is applied 5 storms?
to heavy snows such as this? b. Why do hurricanes not form in the very heart of the tropics, astride
the equator?
c. Explain the absence of storms in the South Atlantic and the ­eastern
South Pacific.

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Intensity Scale

Tropical Tropical 1 2 3 4 5
depression storm
Mike Groll/Stringer/Getty Images

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 Chapter 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 605

3 The situations described below involve interactions between the atmosphere

and Earth’s surface. In each case, indicate whether the air mass is being made Mozambique
more stable or more unstable. Briefly explain each choice. Zimbabwe Channel
a. An mT air mass moving northward from the Gulf of Mexico over
the southeastern United States in winter A
b. An mT air mass from the Gulf of Mexico moving northward over
B
the southeastern United States in summer
c. A wintertime cP air mass from Siberia moving eastward from Asia
across the North Pacific C
4 This satellite image shows Tropical Cyclone Favia as it came ashore along the
coast of Mozambique, Africa, on February 22, 2007. This powerful storm was D
moving from east to west. Portions of the storm had sustained winds of 203 kilo-
meters (126 miles) per hour as it made landfall. Letters A–D relate to Question c. South
Africa
a. Identify the eye and the eye wall of the cyclone.
b. Based on wind speed, classify the storm using the Saffir–Simpson hurri-
cane scale.
c. Which one of the lettered sites should experience the strongest storm N
surge? Explain.
NASA
d. Describe the possible effects of the storm on coastal lands (geosphere),
drainage networks (hydrosphere), and plant and animal life (biosphere).

DATA ANALYSIS
Current Weather Conditions
Weather data are collected worldwide. These data keep people informed Go back to the page with the map of your region. Then, depending on your
about what to wear and whether to bring an umbrella. More importantly, region's forecast office page, either scroll down and click on the Weather
these data are used by forecasters to predict upcoming weather changes Map, or click on the green Forecast Maps button to bring up the current
and hazards. surface analysis showing fronts and regions of precipitation. The default
map is Today’s Forecast, which is the first tab above the map.
Activities
6 Which of the fronts discussed in the chapter are shown on the map?
Go to the National Weather Service page, at www.weather.gov, to display Where is each located? What type of precipitation is near each of the
a map of current weather-related watches and warnings for the United fronts?
States.
7 Where are the midlatitude cyclones, if any, located on the map? How
1 List the two current weather alerts that cover the largest area. are the midlatitude cyclones on the map similar to and different from
2 Under the map click on the name of the alert next to its color square. the idealized cyclone shown in Figure 19.12? Be sure to compare the
In one to two sentences, describe the current weather situation for types of fronts, frontal orientation, and any precipitation.
each of your chosen alerts. 8 Click on the Tomorrow’s Forecast tab. How has each of the fronts
3 Go back to the map and click on your current location to bring up a moved?
more zoomed-in map. What weather advisories, if any, are currently 9 Compare the weather shown on the map to tomorrow’s forecasted
active in your region? Click on each and give a brief (one to two sen- weather from Question 5. Does the weather forecast for tomorrow make
tences each) description. sense, given the location and movement of fronts? Why or why not?
4 Click on your exact location on the zoomed-in map of your region map 10 Click on the Day 3 Forecast tab. How has each of the fronts moved?
to bring up a local forecast. What weather advisories, if any, are cur-
rently active at your location? 11 Compare the weather shown on the map to the day after tomorrow’s
forecasted weather from Question 5. Does the weather forecast for day 3
5 How is your weather expected to change over the next 2 days? make sense, given the location and movement of fronts? Why or why not?

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