General Mathematics II

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Olivia University Bujumbura
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Isidore B.
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May 21, 2025

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Chapter 1
Applications of Integral culculus

Introduction
The study of integral calculus consists in developping techniques for the determination of integral
of a given function.
Historically the subject arose in connection with the determination of areas of plane regions and

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was based on the notion of the limit of a type of a sum when the number of terms in the sum

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tends to innity and each term tends to zero.
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The subject nds extensive applications to Geometry (determination of plane areas, length of
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arcs and volumes and surfaces of solids of revolution, centre of gravity and moment of Inertia) as
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well as in Natural and Social Sciences.

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1.1 Mean value/Average value of a function

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Let f (x) be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]. Then there exists a number c in the
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interval ]a, b[ such that the average value of the function favg = f (c) is given by
Z b
1
f (c) = f (x)dx
b−a a

which is also the mean value m of a function between two limits x = a and x = b.
The mean value may be thought of as the height of the rectangle that has the same area (over the
same interval) as the area under the curve.

Example :
1. Find the average value of the function f (x) = x2 on the interval [2, 4]
2. Find c for f (x) = x2 on [0, 2]

1.2 Rectication: Length of plane curves

We shall be concerned with the determination of the lengths of arcs of plane curves whose equations
are given in the cartesian, parametric cartesian or polar form.

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1.2. RECTIFICATION:
CHAPTER [Link]
APPLICATIONS
OF PLANE
OFCUR
INTEGRAL
VES CULCULUS

The process is known as rectication.

1.2.1 Cartesian Equations y = f (x)

Suppose te curve whose length we want to nd is the graph of the function y = f (x) from x = a to
x = b. Here we denote by Pk−1 and Pk , two successive points. By connecting them with straight
line segments so that, together, they form a polygonal path whose length approximates the length
of the curve.
The length of the segment line in the path is

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p
Lk = (∆xk )2 + (∆yk )2
a

Thus the length of the curve is approximated by the sum

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n n
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X X p
L= Lk = (∆xk )2 + (∆yk )2
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k=1 k=1
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If f ′ (x) is continuous on [a, b] and n is approaching innity, then the length is given by
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n
X n
X p
lim Lk = lim (∆xk )2 + (∆yk )2
n→∞ n→∞
k=1 k=1
Xn
p
= lim (∆xk )2 + (f ′ (ck ) · ∆xk )2 ; xk−1 ≤ ck ≤ xk
n→∞
k=1

n
X n
X p
L = lim Lk = lim 1 + [f ′ (ck )]2 ∆xk
n→∞ n→∞
k=1 k=1
Z bp
= 1 + [f ′ (x)]2 dx
a

If s denotes the length of the arc of the curve included between a xed point A and a variable
point P whose abscissa is x so that it is a function of x, we have
s  2
ds dy
= 1+
dx dx

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1.2. RECTIFICATION:
CHAPTER [Link]
APPLICATIONS
OF PLANE
OFCUR
INTEGRAL
VES CULCULUS

s 2
Z b Z b 
dy
⇒ ds = 1+ dx
a a dx
s 2
Z b 
dy
[s]ba = 1+ dx
a dx

which is arc AB.

Let AB be two points with abscissae a, b on the curve y = f (x).

The length of the arc of the curve y = f (x) included between two points whose abscissae are a
and b is given by s
Z b  2 Z bp
dy
L= 1+ dx = 1 + f ′2 (x)dx
a dx a

Example: Determine the length of the curve

1. f (x) = x 2 from x = 0 to x = 2
3

√
2. y = 4 2 32
3
x − 1 between x = 0 and x = 1

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3. f (x) = x3
12
+ x1 ; 1 ≤ x ≤ 4

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1.2.2 Cartesian Equations x = g(y)
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The length of the arc of the curve x = g(y), included between two points whose ordinates are c, d
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Z d  2 Z d
dx p
L= 1+ dy = 1 + g ′2 (y)dy
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c dy c
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Find the length of the cuve x = 2y ; 0 ≤ y ≤ 1

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Example:
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1.2.3 Parametric Cartesian Equations x = f (t), y = g(t)

Let C be a curve given by the parametric equation x = f (t), y = g(t); α ≤ t ≤ β .
p
Lk = (∆xk )2 + (∆yk )2

∆xk = f (tk ) − f (tk−1 = f ′ (t⋆k )∆tk ; ∆yk = g(tk ) − g(tk−1 = g ′ (t⋆⋆

k )∆tk

p
Lk = [f (tk ) − f (tk−1 )]2 + [g(tk ) − g(tk−1 )]2
Z βp
L= [f ′ (t)]2 + [g ′ (t)]2 dt
α

The length of the arc of the curve x = f (t), y = g(t) included between two points whose
parametric values are α, β is
s 2 2
Z β  Z β
dx dy p
+ dt = f ′2 (t) + g ′2 (t)dt
α dt dt α

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1.2. RECTIFICATION:
CHAPTER [Link]
APPLICATIONS
OF PLANE
OFCUR
INTEGRAL
VES CULCULUS

Example:

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1. Find the length (circumference) of the circle of radius r, dened parametrically by

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x = r cos t and y = r sin t; 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

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2. Find the length of the curve dened parametrically by the following equations:
x = cos3 t and y = sin3 t; 0 ≤ t ≤ π2
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a

1.2.4 Polar Equations r = f (θ)

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The length of the arc of the curve r = f (θ) included between two points whose vectorial angles
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are α, β is
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s  2
Z β  Z βp
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dr
L= r2 + dθ = f 2 (θ) + f ′2 (θ)dθ
dθ
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α α

Example : Find the arc length of the cardioid

π π
r = 1 + cos θ; θ ∈ [− , ]
2 2

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1.3. COMPUTING
CHAPTER
AREAS
1. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRAL CULCULUS

1.3 Computing Areas

1.3.1 Area under a curve
Let f (x) be a continuous and nonnegative function of x on the closed inteval [a, b].
The area of the region bounded by the graph of y = f (x), the x−axis and the vertical lines (two
ordinates) x = a and x = b is given by the denite integral
Z b
S= f (x)dx
a

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a is a lower limit of integration; b is the upper limit of integration

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The area under a curve is always given as a positive number.

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Similarly, the area bounded by a curve x = g(y), the axis of y and two abscissae , y = c and
y = d is given by the denite integral Z d
g(y)dy
c
The process of determining the area of a plane region is known as quadrature.

In general case where f (x) crosses the x−axis between a and b, the value of the denite integral
may be positive or negative.

However, the area under the curve is always taken as the sum of modulus of the signed area.

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1.3. COMPUTING
CHAPTER
AREAS
1. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRAL CULCULUS

Generally, it may happen that some portion of the curve is above x-axis and some is below the
x-axis.

Therefore, the area A bounded by the curve y = f (x), x−axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b
is given by
A = −A1 + A2
Example: Given the function f (x) = 4x − x2 , nd the area between the graph of the function
and the x−axis.

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1.3.2 Area of a region between two curves
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Let f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b] such that f (x) ≥ g(x), x ∈ [a, b]. Then
the area of the region bounded by the curves y1 = f (x), y2 = g(x) and the vertical lines x = a,
a

x = b is
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Z b
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A= [f (x) − g(x)]dx
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Area formula: let f (x) and g(x) be continuous functions on a closed interval [a, b] such that
f (x) ≥ g(x), ∀x ∈ [a, b]. The area of the region between the curves in this interval is given by
Z b
A= [f (x) − g(x)]dx
a

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1.3. COMPUTING
CHAPTER
AREAS
1. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRAL CULCULUS

Example: Find the area

1. of the region bounded by
f (x) = x + 2 and g(x) = x2

2. of the triangle whose sides are y = x, y = 0 and x = 2, also verify your result by elementary
geometry

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1.3.3 Area in polar coordinates
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Suppose we are given a polar curve r = f (θ) and wish to calculate the area swept out by this polar
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curve between two given angles θ = a and θ = b. This is the region R in the picture below: The
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Area of the shaded region is given by

b b
r2
Z Z
1
A= dθ = [f (θ)]2 dθ
a 2 2 a

Example : Compute the area bounded by the curve r = sin 2θ; 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

2

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1.4. VOLUMES
CHAPTER
OF SOLIDS
1. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRAL CULCULUS

1.4 Volumes of solids

Area have been calculated using integration and may be computed by evaluating an integral. In
this section we shall see how our knowledge of integration can be used to nd the volume of certain
solids.

The vlume of a solid of known integrable cross sectional area A(x) from x = a to
x=b is the integral of A from a to b
dV = A(x)dx
Z
⇒ V = A(x)dx
√
Example : If the cross-sectional area of a solid is A(x) = 2x 9 − x2 , nd its volume from x = 0
to x = 3

1.4.1 Volume of a solid of revolution (using disk method)

The rotation of any curve y = f (x) produces a solid of revolution.

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Rotating a
ˆ horizontal line around the x axis gives a cylinder,
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ˆ sloping line gives a cone,

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ˆ a semicircle gives a sphere.

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The volume of that solid is made easier because every cross-section is a circle. Rotating the
curve y = f (x) around the x axis gives disks of radius y , so the area is A = π[f (x)]2

The volume of the solid generated by a region under f (x) bounded by the x− axis and vertical
lines x = a and x = b, revolved about x− axis, is given by
Z b Z b
V = A(x)dx = π[f (x)]2 dx
a a

where A(x) = π(f (x)) is the cross-sectional area at the value of x on x−axis.
2

Example:

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1.4. VOLUMES
CHAPTER
OF SOLIDS
1. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRAL CULCULUS

√
1. Compute the obtained volume after rotating y = x around x axis, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.
2. The region between y = x; 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 and the x− axis is rotated about the x− axis to
generate a solid. Find its volume
Let us compute the volume of a sphere. Let x2 + y 2 = r2 be the equation of a circle , with radius
r, centered at the origin.
To form a sphere, we rotate it about the x− axis through 360 degrees.
√
y= r2 − x2 = f (x)

The volume is given by

Z r √
V = π[ r2 − x2 ]2 dx
−r
x3 r
= π[r2 x − ]
3 −r
4πr3
=
3

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Example: Evaluate the volume of the solid generated by rotating the region bounded by f (x) =
x − 4x + 5, the lines x = 1, x = 4 and the x − axis about x − axis
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We have the cross-sectional area A(x) given by
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A(x) = πr2 = π[f (x)]2 = π[x2 − 4x + 5]2

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Evaluating the volume, we have

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Z 4
78π
V = π[x2 − 4x + 5]2 dx =
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1.4.2 Volume of a solid of revolution (using washer method)

This method is an extension of the disk method. The procedure is essentially the same, but now
we are dealing with a hollowed object and two functions instead of one, so we have to take the
dierence of these functions into the account.
In this case A = π(R2 − r2 ) where R is an outer radius and r is the inner radius.
Let f and g be continuous and nonegative functions on [a, b] sucg that f (x) ≥ g(x); ∀x ∈ [a, b].
Let R be the region that is bounded above y y1 = f (x), below by y2 = g(x); and on both sides by
the lines x = a; x = b.
The volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving the region R, bounded by vertical
lines x = a and x = b,about x−axis , is given by
Z b
V =π |[f (x)]2 − [g(x)]2 |dx
a

Example: Using washer method, nd the volume as shown on the following graph

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1.4. VOLUMES
CHAPTER
OF SOLIDS
1. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRAL CULCULUS

Equation Volume
y = f (x); about x− axis
Rb Rb
V = a π[y] dx = π a [f (x)]2 dx
2

x = g(y); about y− axis

Rb Rb
V = a π[x]2 dy = π a [g(y)]2 dy
x = f (t), y = g(t); about x−axis V = α π[g(t)]2 f ′ (t)dt = π α [g(t)]2 f ′ (t)dt
Rβ Rβ

x = f (t), y = g(t); about y−axis V = α π[f (t)]2 g ′ (t)dt = π α [f (t)]2 g ′ (t)dt

Rβ Rβ

Example:

1. Evaluate the volume of the solid generated by rotating the region bounded by f (x) = x2 −

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4x + 5, the lines x = 1, x = 4 and the x − axis about x − axis

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We have the cross-sectional area A(x) given by
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A(x) = πr2 = π[f (x)]2 = π[x2 − 4x + 5]2
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Evaluating the volume, we have

a

4
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Z
78π
V = π[x2 − 4x + 5]2 dx =
re

1 5
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2. Find the volume of the solid generated when the region between the graphs of equation
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f (x) = x2 + 12 and g(x) = x; x ∈ [0, 2] is revolved about the x− axis.

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3. Find the volume of the solid generated when the region under the curve y = x2 over the
interval [0, 2] is rotated about the line y = −1

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