Discourse Analysis

What is Discourse?
Discourse is language used in longer forms like conversations, essays, or speeches. It involves
more than individual sentences—it’s about how ideas are connected across a stretch of language.
Example Imagine a teacher giving a lecture:"Today we're going to talk about climate change. It's
one of the biggest problems the world is facing right now. Temperatures are rising, ice caps are
melting, and sea levels are increasing. So, what can we do about it?"
Interpreting Discourse means how we make sense of language—even when it’s ungrammatical,
fragmented or implied—by using context and background knowledge.
Example: Understanding “No shoes, no service” as “You must wear shoes to get served.”

What is Discourse Analysis?

Discourse Analysis is the study of how language is used in real-life situations. It’s about
understanding language beyond individual words or sentences. It looks at how people use
language in conversations, books, speeches, and even in online posts or advertisements.
Discourse Analysis focuses on the context, meaning, social purpose, and structure of language
use.
Example:
Analyzing how news articles describe protestors using either positive or negative language can
reveal media bias.

b. Cohesion
Cohesion refers to how parts of a text are connected using words like “and,” “but,” “because,” or
pronouns like “he” and “it.” These links help make the text easier to follow.
Example:
“I went to the market. Then, I bought apples. They were fresh.” The words “then” and “they”
create cohesion.

Cohesion ties are the words or phrases that connect ideas in a text, making it clear and easy to
follow. They link sentences and parts of a story or speech. The main types include reference,
substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion, which help maintain flow and meaning.
1. Reference:
Reference uses words like “he,” “she,” “it,” or “this” to refer to something mentioned earlier.
Example: Tom lost his keys. He looked everywhere for them.
("He" refers to Tom, and "them" refers to the keys.)

2. Substitution:
Substitution replaces one word or phrase with another to avoid repetition.
Example: I want the blue shirt. Do you have one in my size?
("One" substitutes for "blue shirt.")

3. Ellipsis:
Ellipsis leaves out words that are understood from the context.
Example: She likes apples, and he does too.
(The full sentence would be "he likes apples too," but "likes apples" is left out.)

4. Conjunction:
Conjunctions like “and,” “but,” “because,” or “so” connect ideas and show the relationship
between them.
Example: I was tired, so I went to bed early.
5. Lexical Cohesion:
Lexical cohesion links ideas through the use of related words, such as synonyms or repeated
terms.
Example: The dog barked loudly. The animal was clearly upset.
("Dog" and "animal" are related words, creating cohesion.)

Coherence
Coherence means how logically and clearly ideas are linked in a conversation or text. Even if
grammar is correct, lack of coherence can confuse the listener.
Example: Jumping from topic to topic without links makes the talk hard to follow.
If someone says, “I failed the test. I didn’t study,” it makes sense (coherent). But if they say, “I
failed the test. The cat is orange,” it lacks coherence.

Conversational analysis

Conversation Analysis is the study of how people talk and interact in everyday conversations. It
looks closely at the way we take turns while speaking, how we start and end conversations, how
we ask and answer questions, and even the pauses, hesitations, and tone we use. This helps
researchers understand the hidden rules people follow when they communicate naturally, without
thinking about it.
It’s not just about the words we say, but how we say them, when we say them, and how the other
person responds.
Example:
If two friends are talking and one says,
“Did you hear what happened yesterday?” and the other quickly replies,
“No, what?”,
conversation analysis would look at how the first question sets up the second response as a
natural and expected reply. It would also explore how both speakers know when it's their turn to
talk.

Conversational analysis elements:

 Turn-Taking
 Pauses and Filled Pauses
 Adjacency Pairs
 Insertion Sequences
Turn-Taking
Turn-taking is how people take turns while speaking in conversation. It involves knowing when
to speak, pause, or let someone else talk. Good turn-taking helps conversations run smoothly.
Example:
In a job interview, the interviewer asks a question, and the candidate answers. Each person waits
for the other to finish.

Pauses and Filled Pauses

A pause is a short break or silence during speaking. A filled pause is when someone fills that
silence with words like “uh,” “um,” “you know,” “I mean” or “like” while thinking of what to
say next. These are common in natural speech and show that the speaker needs time to think or
organize their thoughts.
Example:
“I was… um… thinking about going to the party, but… you know… I’m not sure.”

Adjacency Pairs
Adjacency pairs are two related parts of a conversation that follow each other naturally. The first
part is a question or statement, and the second part is a direct response. These pairs help keep the
conversation smooth and understandable.
Example:
A: “How are you?”
B: “I’m good, thanks. How about you?”

Insertion Sequences
An insertion sequence is a short conversation or question that comes in between an adjacency
pair. It interrupts the flow for a moment but is related and helps complete the original
conversation in a better way.
Example:
A: “Can I have a coffee, please?”
B: “Do you want sugar in it?” (insertion)
A: “No, thanks.”
B: “Okay, one black coffee coming up.”

4. Hedges
Hedges are words or phrases people use to soften what they are saying. They make speech sound
less direct or forceful, which helps in being polite or careful, especially when sharing opinions or
suggestions.
Example:
“I think it might rain today.”
“I’m not sure, but he could be at work.”

5. Background Knowledge
Background knowledge is the information or understanding someone already has about a topic
before hearing or reading something new. This helps them make sense of what they hear or read
more easily because they already know something about it.
Example:
If someone says, “He’s got a red card,” a soccer fan (with background knowledge) knows that
means the player is being sent off the field.
If someone says, “She baked a cake for his birthday,” you know it was likely a special day and
that the cake is a way of celebrating. You understand this because of your background
knowledge about birthday traditions.
6. Schemas & Scripts
Schemas are mental structures or ideas that help us understand how things work based on past
experiences. Scripts are like specific step-by-step guides for what usually happens in a situation.
Both help us make sense of daily life and communication.
Example:
Your script for going to the movies might look like this: You buy a ticket, get popcorn, find your
seat, watch previews, then the movie starts. Your schema for a movie theater includes the big
screen, dark room, seats in rows, and snacks.

4. Implicature
Definition:
Implicature is when a speaker suggests or implies something without saying it directly. The
listener has to read between the lines to figure out the meaning.
Example:
A: “Do you want to go to the party?”
B: “I have a lot of work.”
Implicature: B is likely saying no without directly refusing.

 Conversational Implicature:
Happens in everyday talk when people assume each other is following Grice’s maxims.
Meaning is hinted rather than stated.
 Conventional Implicature:
Comes from the meaning of specific words or phrases, such as “but” implying contrast.

Cooperative Principle & Its Maxims

Grice’s Maxims

Grice’s Maxims are four conversational rules that people generally follow to make
communication smooth, cooperative, and meaningful. Breaking them can create humor, sarcasm,
or hidden meanings.
The Four Maxims:
 Maxim of Quantity:
Provide just enough information—not too little or too much.
Example: Don’t explain everything if one sentence is enough.
 Maxim of Quality:
Speak truthfully and do not say what you believe is false or lack evidence for.
Example: Don’t say “It’s raining” if you know it’s sunny.
 Maxim of Relation (Relevance):
Say things that are related to the current topic of conversation.
Example: If someone asks, “How was your trip?” don’t start talking about your dog.
 Maxim of Manner:
Speak clearly, avoid ambiguity, and be orderly.
Example: Instead of saying “He is a sort of leader thing,” say “He’s the team captain.”

g. Intertextuality
Intertextuality means that texts often refer to other texts. It shows how meaning is shaped by
other pieces of writing, speech, or cultural references.
Example:
A movie quoting a famous line from Shakespeare is using intertextuality.

h. Genre
Genre in discourse refers to the type of text or communication, like a recipe, a news report, a
love letter, or a courtroom speech. Each genre has its own rules and style.
Example:
A news report uses formal language and facts. A personal diary uses informal and emotional
language.

i. Framing
Framing is how people choose to present information to make others think in a certain way. The
same fact can be described in different ways depending on the frame.
Example:
Saying “90% success rate” frames something more positively than saying “10% failure rate.”

j. Power and Ideology

Power and Ideology are important in discourse. Language can reflect and shape power
relationships, such as who has authority. Ideology is a set of beliefs, and language often
expresses these beliefs, sometimes without people realizing.
Example:
In a workplace, a manager may use formal, commanding language, while an employee uses
polite, respectful speech. This shows power difference.

4. Types of Discourse Analysis

There are several types of Discourse Analysis, each with a different focus. Let's explore them.
a. Conversation Analysis
Conversation Analysis studies how people talk in everyday conversations. It focuses on how
people start, continue, and end talks, how they take turns, and how misunderstandings are solved.
Example:
Looking at how two friends greet each other, interrupt, or laugh during a phone call.

b. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

Critical Discourse Analysis looks at how language is used to express power, control, and
inequality in society. It focuses on political speeches, media, and laws to show how language can
control people's thinking.
Example:
Studying how newspapers describe immigrants using words like “flood” or “invasion” to create
fear or negativity.

c. Narrative Analysis
Narrative Analysis studies how stories are told in conversations, books, or media. It looks at
structure, characters, time order, and what message the story carries.
Example:
Analyzing how someone tells their life story in an interview, including what events they
highlight or leave out.

d. Genre Analysis
Genre Analysis focuses on different types of texts and how they are structured. It helps
understand how writing in different situations follows certain rules.
Example:
Looking at how a formal email starts with “Dear Sir” and ends with “Sincerely,” while a text
message doesn’t.

e. Pragmatic Discourse Analysis

Pragmatic Discourse Analysis studies how people use language based on the situation and what
they mean beyond the literal words. It involves politeness, tone, and indirect speech.
Example:
When someone says, “Could you pass the salt?” they’re making a polite request, not asking
about your ability.

f. Multimodal Discourse Analysis

Multimodal Discourse Analysis includes other ways of communication along with language,
like images, gestures, sounds, and layout. It studies how these elements work together to make
meaning.
Example:
In an advertisement, words, music, color, and facial expressions together send a message.
c. Discourse Markers
Discourse Markers are words or phrases like “well,” “so,” “anyway,” and “you know” that help
organize speech or writing. They don’t add meaning but help guide the listener.
Example:
“Well, I think it’s a good idea.” The word “well” shows the speaker is about to share an opinion.

d. Register
Register refers to the level of formality or style of language depending on the situation. People
speak differently at work, home, or with friends.
Example:
Saying “I am writing to inform you…” is a formal register. Saying “Just letting you know…” is
informal.

e. Discourse Community
A Discourse Community is a group of people who share common language practices, terms,
and goals. Members understand each other through shared ways of speaking and writing.
Example:
Doctors form a discourse community. They use medical terms and understandings that outsiders
may not know.

6. Applications of Discourse Analysis

Discourse Analysis is used in many fields, including:
 Education: Understanding how teachers talk in classrooms.
 Media: Analyzing news reports, ads, and social media.
 Politics: Studying speeches and debates.
 Law: Looking at courtroom language and legal documents.
 Health: Studying doctor-patient communication.
Example:
Analyzing how a doctor explains a diagnosis to a patient can help improve communication and
trust.

7. Tools Used in Discourse Analysis

Some common tools and techniques include:
 Transcription: Writing down spoken language for analysis.
 Coding: Highlighting patterns or themes in text.
 Corpus Analysis: Studying large collections of texts using software.
 Text Structure: Looking at how texts are organized (introduction, body, conclusion).
Example:
A researcher may transcribe 10 interviews and use coding to find how often people mention
“stress” or “help.”
Conclusion
Discourse Analysis is a powerful tool for understanding how language works in real life. It goes
beyond grammar and vocabulary to explore how people create meaning, express power, shape
identity, and build relationships through language. By learning Discourse Analysis, we can
become better communicators, critical thinkers, and more aware of how language affects our
world.