FUEL CELL
Anode Cathode
It acts as an electron donor. It acts as an electron acceptor.
The anode is the electrode where electricity The cathode is the electrode where electricity
moves into. is given out or flows out.
Oxidation reaction takes place at the anode. Reduction reaction takes place at the cathode.
An anode of electrolyte cell can become a A cathode of electrolyte cell can become an
cathode of Galvanic cell. anode of Galvanic cell.
Classification of cells and batteries, Primary & Secondary batteries,
There are two basic types of batteries – (i) primary and (ii) secondary. Primary batteries are
“single use” and cannot be recharged. Dry cells and (most) alkaline batteries are examples of
primary batteries. The second type is rechargeable and is called a secondary battery. Examples of
secondary batteries include nickel-cadmium (NiCd), lead acid, and lithium ion batteries
Specifications –
Free energy - Free energy, ΔG, is the electrical work (i.e., energy) given off by the battery or
galvanic cell under optimum condition during a chemical process (discharge).
Theoretical cell voltage - Theoretical cell voltage, Vcell measured in volts, is the voltage
between the anode and the cathode in a battery or fuel cell. It is the sum of the redox potential for
the half reaction at the anode and at the cathode.
Specific capacity - It is a measure of the charge stored in a battery or fuel cell per unit mass. This
measurement is typically presented in mAH/g or AH/Kg etc.
Specific energy - The specific energy is the total electrical energy obtainable from a cell in one
discharge cycle divided by the mass of the individual cell. This measurement is typically
presented in MJ per Kg (MJ/Kg).
Energy density - Energy density is the measure of how much energy a battery contains in its per
unit volume. This measurement is typically presented in MJ per Liter (MJ/L).
Memory effect - The battery memory effect is a reduction in the longevity of a rechargeable
battery due to incomplete discharge in previous uses. Some types of batteries, such as nickel-
cadmium and nickel-metal hydride, can develop a memory effect when only partially discharged
before recharging.
Cycle life - Cyclic life is the number of charge/discharge cycles are battery can sustain in its
useful life and depends on how much of the battery’s capacity you normally use. If you regularly
discharge the batteries at a lower percentage amount, it will have more useful cycles than if you
frequently drain the battery to its maximum DoD.
Shelf life - Shelf life is the length of time a disposable battery will retain its charge unused, or in
the case of rechargeable batteries, how long it spent before it requires a charge. Shelf life is
affected by many factors, including temperature, humidity, and air pressure. For example,
batteries stored in high humidity environments will have a shorter shelf life than those stored in
low humidity environments.
State of charge (SOC) - The state of charge is defined as the ratio of the available capacity Q(t)
and the maximum possible charge that can be stored in a battery, i.e., the nominal capacity Qn.
A fully charged battery has SOC of 100% while a fully discharged battery has an SOC of 0%.
The state of charge is the complement of depth of discharge.
Depth of discharge (DOD) - A battery’s depth of discharge (DoD) indicates the percentage of the
battery that has been discharged relative to the overall capacity of the battery. Depth of
Discharge is defined as the capacity that is discharged from a fully charged battery, divided by
battery nominal capacity. Depth of discharge is normally expressed as a percentage. For,
example, if a 120 Ah battery is discharged for 20 minutes (i.e 0.33 Hrs) at a current of 50 A, the
depth of discharge is (50 * 0.33)*100 / 120 = 13.89 %. The depth of discharge is the complement
of state of charge.
Deep Discharge - Deep Discharge refers to reducing a battery’s capacity for discharge upto 20%
of its capacity or more. When a battery has been fully depleted, the condition is known as deep
discharging. Deep discharge of batteries often leads to mechanical stresses in the plates, which
leads to shedding, poor conductivity, and a diminished lifetime of the system.
Internal resistance - The internal resistance (IR) of a battery is defined as the opposition to the
flow of current within the battery. Ideally, the internal resistance (RDC) of a battery should be
zero. In reality, however, as seen in Figure below, internal resistance is always present. Higher
the internal resistance, greater the energy loss. In addition, "heat" is formed when energy is lost.
This heat degrades the battery.
Coulombic efficiency (CE) – Coulombic efficiency (CE), also called faradaic efficiency or
current efficiency, describes the charge efficiency by which electrons are transferred in batteries.
CE is the ratio of the total charge extracted from the battery to the total charge put into the
battery over a full cycle.
3.4 Solid-State battery, Molten Solvent Battery.
Lead Acid Ni Cd Nickel Metal Hydride
Positive Lead Peroxide Nickel Oxy-hydroxide Nickel Oxy-hydroxide
Electrode (PbO2) NiO(OH) NiO(OH)
Negative
Sponge Lead (Pb) Cadmium (Cd) Metal hydride
Electrode
Diluted Sulphuric Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Hydroxide
Electrolyte
Acid (H2SO4) (KOH) (KOH)
Nylon or polyolefin
Separator Nylon Separator Hydrophilic polyolefin
film
Specific
0.18 MJ/Kg 0.27 MJ/Kg 0.29 MJ/Kg
Energy
Energy
0.25 MJ/L 0.41 MJ/L 0.54 MJ/L
Density
Energy
70% 75% 70%
Efficiency
Cell
2.1V 1.2V 1.4V
Voltage
Use of Metal Hydride
Chances of fall of
in place of Cadmium
PbSO4to the bottom
Light Weight so (in case of Ni-Cd Cell)
of the cell due to
preferred for mobility reduces the
light weight during
environmental impact
discharge reaction
Chances of Less Capable of
Longer Life and more
occurrence of deep delivering high peak
temperature tolerant
Other discharge power
Points to
Comparatively This Cell has Memory High Self Discharge
Remember
heavier in weight Effect Rate
Internal impedance Disposal poses
is high which causes environmental impacts Susceptible to damage
voltage fluctuations due to use of toxic due to over charging
during transient load metal e.g Cadmium
May get damage due More expensive
to sulfation compared to Ni-Cd Cell
Lead Acid Cell:
Discharge Reactions:
Anode/ -Ve Electrode: Pb + H2SO4 PbSO4 + 2H+ + 2e-
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: PbO2 + H2SO4 + 2H+ + 2e- PbSO4 + 2H2O
Net Discharge Reaction: PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Charging Reactions:
Anode / +Ve Electrode: PbSO4 + 2H2O PbO2 + H2SO4 + 2H+ + 2e-
Cathode / -Ve Electrode: PbSO4 + 2H+ + 2e- Pb + H2SO4
Net Charing Reaction: 2PbSO4 + 2H2O PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4
Nickel Cadmium Cell:
Discharge Reactions:
Anode / -Ve Electrode: Cd + 2OH- Cd(OH)2 + 2e-
Cathode / +Ve Electrode: 2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e- 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH-
Net Discharge Reaction: 2NiO(OH) + Cd + 2H2O 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
Charging Reactions:
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH- 2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e-
Anode / -Ve Electrode: Cd(OH)2 + 2e- Cd + 2OH-
Net Charing Reaction: 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2 2NiO(OH) + Cd + 2H2O
Nickel Metal Hydride:
Discharge Reactions:
Anode / -Ve Electrode: OH- + MH H2O + M + e-
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: NiO(OH) + H2O + e- Ni(OH)2 + OH-
Net Discharge Reaction: NiO(OH) + MH Ni(OH)2 + M
Charging Reactions:
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: Ni(OH)2 + OH- NiO(OH) + H2O + e-
Anode / -Ve Electrode: H2O + M + e- OH- + MH
Net Charging Reaction: Ni(OH)2 + M NiO(OH) + MH
Lithium Ion Sodium Sulphur Flow Battery
Positive Carbon-
Graphite Carbon (C6) Liquid molten sulphur
Electrode based electrodes, such
Negative Lithiated Metal Oxide as graphite felt, carbon
Liquid molten sodium
Electrode (LiCoO2 or Li MO2) felt and carbon paper.
Anolyte & Catholyte
are Electrolytes
Lithium Salt (LiPF6) composed of ions of
Solid beta alumina
Electrolyte dissolved in organic different valence states
(β -Al2O3) ceramic
carbonates (vanadium redox,
polysulphide bromide
and zinc bromide)
Nylon or polyolefin
Separator polymer membranes
film
Specific
0.45 MJ/Kg 0.86 MJ/Kg 0.036 to 0.072 MJ/Kg
Energy
Energy
0.72 MJ/L 0.65 MJ/L 0.54- 0.065 MJ/L
Density
Energy
90% or above 90% 65-75%
Efficiency
Cell
3.7V 2.07 – 1.78V 1.41V
Voltage
The cell must be
operated at sufficiently It stores and releases
Lithium is the lightest
high temperature (270- electrical energy by
of all metals, has the
350°C) to keep all the means of reversible
greatest electrochemical
active electrode materials electro-chemical
potential and provides
in a molten state and reactions in two
the largest specific
adequate ionic electrolytes
energy per weight.
conductivity through the
(β -Al2O3) electrolyte
The capacity of the
Due to high efficiency it
It has low internal system is scalable by
is suitable for stationary,
Other resistance simply increasing the
bulk storage applications.
Points to amount of solution
Remember The heat produced by
charging and discharging The battery can be fully
Lithium reacts with
cycles is enough to discharged with no ill
liquid electrolyte
maintain operating effects and gas little
creating a sort of
temperature and no loss of electrolyte over
passivation film on it.
external heat source is time
required
To compensate with Suitable for large
shorter life span, thick application (1 KWH –
electrode is required 10 MWH ) stationary
which is adding the cost applications
Lithium Ion Cell:
Discharge Reactions:
Anode / -Ve Electrode: xLi+ + xe- + xC6 xLiC6
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: LiCoO2 Li1-xCoO2 + xLi+ + xe-
Net Discharge Reaction: LiCoO2 + xC6 Li1-xCoO2 + LixC6
Charging Reactions:
Anode / -Ve Electrode: xLiC6 xLi+ + xe- + xC6
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: Li1-xCoO2 + xLi+ + xe- LiCoO2
Net Charing Reaction: Li1-xCoO2 + LixC6 LiCoO2 + xC6
Sodium Sulphur Battery:
Discharge Reactions:
Anode / -Ve Electrode: 2Na 2Na+ + 2e-
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: xS + 2e- Sx2-
Net Discharge Reaction: 2Na + xS Na2Sx
Charging Reactions:
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: Sx2- xS + 2e-
Anode / -Ve Electrode: 2Na+ + 2e- 2Na
Net Charing Reaction: Na2Sx 2Na + xS
Flow Battery:
Discharge Reactions:
Anode / -Ve Electrode: V2+ V3+ + e-
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: V5+ + e- V4+
Net Discharge Reaction: V5+ + V2+ V4++ V3+
Charging Reactions:
Cathode/ +Ve Electrode: V4+ V5+ + e-
Anode / -Ve Electrode: V3+ + e- V2+
Net Charging Reaction: V4++ V3+ V5+ + V2+
Application / Use of different types of cells:
Type of batteries Application
UPS systems, Solar lighting, Ignition power sources for
automobiles & grid-scale power systems, Backup power source
Lead Acid batteries
in Telephone Exchanges.
Used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting,
Ni Cd batteries and other portable electronic gadgets that requires sealed
batteries.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are used in many products such
as electronics, toys, wireless headphones, handheld power
Lithium Ion batteries tools, small and large appliances, electric vehicles and
electrical energy storage systems.
Mostly used for backup power, load leveling, and renewable
energy stabilization applications. For instance, the NaS battery
Sodium Sulphur batteries system can be used as an emergency power supply during
momentary voltage drops and power outages.
NiMH hydride batteries are used in hybrid automobile
batteries, electric razors, toothbrushes, cameras, camcorders,
NiMH hydride batteries mobile phones, pagers, medical instruments/equipment, and
numerous other applications.
Mainly redox flow batteries are used for stationary applications
Flow batteries to cover peak loads and load balancing or for uninterruptible
power supply.
