1

Control Structures

• Sequential execution
– Statements executed in order
• Transfer of control
– Next statement executed not next one in sequence
• 3 control structures Sequence structure
• Programs executed sequentially by default
– Selection structures
• if, if/else, switch
– Repetition structures
• while, do/while, for

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 2

Control Structures

• C++ keywords
– Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names
C++ Keyw o rd s

Keywords common to the

C and C++ programming
languages
auto break case char const
continue default do double else
enum extern float for goto
if int long register return
short signed sizeof static struct
switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while
C++ only keywords
asm bool catch class const_cast
delete dynamic_cast explicit false friend
inline mutable namespace new operator
private protected public reinterpret_cast
static_cast template this throw true
try typeid typename using virtual
wchar_t

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 3

if Selection Structure

• Selection structure
– Pseudocode example:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
• Indenting makes programs easier to read
• C++ ignores whitespace characters (tabs, spaces, etc.)

– Translation into C++

if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";

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 4

if Selection Structure

• Flowchart of pseudocode statement

A decision can be made on

any expression.

true zero - false

grade >= 60 print “Passed”
nonzero - true
Example:
false 3 - 4 is true

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 5

if/else Selection Structure

• if
– Performs action if condition true
• if/else
– Different actions if conditions true or false
• Pseudocode
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
print “Passed”
else
print “Failed”
• C++ code
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
else
cout << "Failed";

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 6

if/else Selection Structure

• Ternary conditional operator (?:)

– Three arguments (condition, value if true, value if false)
• Code could be written:
cout << ( grade >= 60 ? “Passed” : “Failed” );

Condition Value if true Value if false

false true
grade >= 60

print “Failed” print “Passed”

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 7

if/else Selection Structure

• Nested if/else structures

– One inside another, test for multiple cases
– Once condition met, other statements skipped
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”

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 8

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Example
if ( grade >= 90 ) // 90 and above
cout << "A";
else if ( grade >= 80 ) // 80-89
cout << "B";
else if ( grade >= 70 ) // 70-79
cout << "C";
else if ( grade >= 60 ) // 60-69
cout << "D";
else // less than 60
cout << "F";

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 9

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Compound statement
– Set of statements within a pair of braces
if ( grade >= 60 )
{ cout << "Passed.\n";}
else
{
cout << "Failed.\n";
cout << "You must take this course again.\n";
}
– Without braces,
cout << "You must take this course again.\n";
always executed
• Block
– Set of statements within braces

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 10

2.7 while Repetition Structure

• Repetition structure
– Action repeated while some condition remains true
– Psuedocode
while there are more items on my shopping list
Purchase next item and cross it off my list
– while loop repeated until condition becomes false
while ( condition ){
//while_body
}
• Example
int product = 2;
while ( product <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;

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 11

2.7 The while Repetition Structure

• Flowchart of while loop

true
product <= 1000 product = 2 * product

false

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 12
2.8 Formulating Algorithms (Counter-Controlled
Repetition)
• Counter-controlled repetition
– Loop repeated until counter reaches certain value
• Definite repetition
– Number of repetitions known
• Example
A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades (integers in
the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to you.
Determine the class average on the quiz.

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 13
2.8 Formulating Algorithms (Counter-Controlled
Repetition)
• Pseudocode for example:
Set total to zero
Set grade counter to one
While grade counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Add one to the grade counter
Set the class average to the total divided by ten
Print the class average

• Next: C++ code for this example

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 14
1 // Fig. 2.7: fig02_07.cpp
2 // Class average program with counter-controlled repetition.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout; fig02_07.cpp
5
8
namespace std;
using std::cin; (1 of 2)
using std::endl;

9 // function main begins program execution

10 int main()
11 {
12 int total; // sum of grades input by user
13 int gradeCounter; // number of grade to be entered next
14 int grade; // grade value
15 int average; // average of grades
16
17 // initialization phase
18 total = 0; // initialize total
19 gradeCounter = 1; // initialize loop counter
20

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 15
21 // processing phase
22 while ( gradeCounter <= 10 ) { // loop 10 times
Outline
23 cout << "Enter grade: "; // prompt for input
24 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
fig02_07.cpp
25 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
26 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
(2 of 2)
27 }
28 fig02_07.cpp
29 // termination phase output (1 of 1)
30 average = total / 10; // integer division
31
32 // display result
33 cout << "Class average is " << average << endl;
The counter gets incremented each
34
35 return 0;
time the loop executes.
// indicate program ended successfully
36 Eventually, the counter causes the
37 } // end function main loop to end.

Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81 © 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 16
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)
• Suppose problem becomes:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run
– Unknown number of students
– How will program know when to end?
• Sentinel value
– Indicates “end of data entry”
– Loop ends when sentinel input
– Sentinel chosen so it cannot be confused with regular input
• -1 in this case

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 17
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)
• Top-down, stepwise refinement
– Begin with pseudocode representation of top
Determine the class average for the quiz
– Divide top into smaller tasks, list in order
Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average

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 18
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)
• Many programs have three phases
– Initialization
• Initializes the program variables
– Processing
• Input data, adjusts program variables
– Termination
• Calculate and print the final results
– Helps break up programs for top-down refinement

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 19
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)
• Refine the initialization phase
Initialize variables
goes to
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero
• Processing
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
goes to
Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)
While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)

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 20

Nested Control Structures

• Problem statement
A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10
students. Write a program that analyzes the results. If more
than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition".
• Notice that
– Program processes 10 results
• Fixed number, use counter-controlled loop
– Two counters can be used
• One counts number that passed
• Another counts number that fail
– Each test result is 1 or 2
• If not 1, assume 2

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 21
1 // Fig. 2.11: fig02_11.cpp
2 // Analysis of examination results.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_11.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
(1 of 2)
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 // initialize variables in declarations
13 int passes = 0; // number of passes
14 int failures = 0; // number of failures
15 int studentCounter = 1; // student counter
16 int result; // one exam result
17
18 // process 10 students using counter-controlled loop
19 while ( studentCounter <= 10 ) {
20
21 // prompt user for input and obtain value from user
22 cout << "Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): ";
23 cin >> result;
24

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 22
25 // if result 1, increment passes; if/else nested in while
26 if ( result == 1 ) // if/else nested in while
Outline
27 passes = passes + 1;
28
fig02_11.cpp
29 else // if result not 1, increment failures
30 failures = failures + 1;
(2 of 2)
31
32 // increment studentCounter so loop eventually terminates
33 studentCounter = studentCounter + 1;
34
35 } // end while
36
37 // termination phase; display number of passes and failures
38 cout << "Passed " << passes << endl;
39 cout << "Failed " << failures << endl;
40
41 // if more than eight students passed, print "raise tuition"
42 if ( passes > 8 )
43 cout << "Raise tuition " << endl;
44
45 return 0; // successful termination
46
47 } // end function main

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 23
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Outline
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
fig02_11.cpp
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
output (1 of 1)
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Passed 6
Failed 4

Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1

Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Passed 9
Failed 1
Raise tuition

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 24

for Repetition Structure

• General format when using for loops
for ( initialization; LoopContinuationTest;
increment )
statement

• Example
for( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )
cout << counter << endl;
– Prints integers from one to ten
No
semicolon
after last
statement

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 25
1 // Fig. 2.17: fig02_17.cpp
2 // Counter-controlled repetition with the for structure.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_17.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
(1 of 1)
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 // Initialization, repetition condition and incrementing
12 // are all included in the for structure header.
13
14 for ( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )
15 cout << counter << endl;
16
17 return 0; // indicate successful termination
18
19 } // end function main

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 26
1
2
Outline
3
4
fig02_17.cpp
5
6
output (1 of 1)
7
8
9
10

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 27

switch Multiple-Selection Structure

• switch
– Test variable for multiple values
– Series of case labels and optional default case
switch ( variable ) {
case value1: // taken if variable == value1
statements
break; // necessary to exit switch

case value2:
case value3: // taken if variable == value2 or == value3
statements
break;

default: // taken if variable matches no other cases

statements
break;
}

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 28

switch Multiple-Selection Structure

true
case a case a action(s) break

false

true
case b case b action(s) break

false

.
.
.

true
case z case z action(s) break
false

default action(s)

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 29

switch Multiple-Selection Structure

• Example upcoming
– Program to read grades (A-F)
– Display number of each grade entered
• Details about characters
– Single characters typically stored in a char data type
• char a 1-byte integer, so chars can be stored as ints
– Can treat character as int or char
• 97 is the numerical representation of lowercase ‘a’ (ASCII)
• Use single quotes to get numerical representation of character
cout << "The character (" << 'a' << ") has the value "
<< static_cast< int > ( 'a' ) << endl;
Prints
The character (a) has the value 97

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 30
1 // Fig. 2.22: fig02_22.cpp
2 // Counting letter grades.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_22.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
(1 of 4)
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 int grade; // one grade
13 int aCount = 0; // number of As
14 int bCount = 0; // number of Bs
15 int cCount = 0; // number of Cs
16 int dCount = 0; // number of Ds
17 int fCount = 0; // number of Fs
18
19 cout << "Enter the letter grades." << endl
20 << "Enter the EOF character to end input." << endl;
21

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 31
22 // loop until user types end-of-file key sequence
23 while ( ( grade = cin.get() ) != EOF ) { break causes switch to end and
Outline
24 the program continues with the first
25 // determine which grade was input statement after the switch fig02_22.cpp
26 switch ( grade ) { // switch structure nested in while
structure. (2 of 4)
27
28 case 'A': // grade was uppercase A
cin.get() uses dot notation
29 case 'a': // or lowercase a
30 ++aCount; // increment aCount (explained chapter 6). This
31 break; // necessary to exit switch function gets 1 character from the
32 Assignment statements have a keyboard (after Enter pressed), and
33 case 'B': value,was
// grade which is the same
uppercase B as it is assigned to grade.
34 case 'b': thelowercase
// or variable onb the left of the
35 ++bCount; =. The value
// increment of this statement cin.get() returns EOF (end-of-
bCount
36 break; // exit
is theswitch
same as the value
Compares grade (an int) file) after the EOF character is
37 returned by cin.get(). input, to indicate the end of data.
38to the numerical
case 'C': // grade was uppercase C
39representations A and a.
caseof'c': // or lowercase c
EOF may be ctrl-d or ctrl-z,
This can also be used to depending on your OS.
40 ++cCount; // increment cCount
41 break;
initialize multiple variables:
// exit switch
42
a = b = c = 0;

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 32
43 case 'D': // grade was uppercase D
44 case 'd': // or lowercase d
Outline
45 ++dCount; // increment dCount
46 break; // exit switch
fig02_22.cpp
47 This test is necessary because
48 case 'F': // grade was uppercase F
(3 of 4)
Enter is pressed after each
49 case 'f': // or lowercase f
letter grade is input. This adds
50 ++fCount; // increment fCount
a newline character that must
51 break; // exit switch
52
be removed. Likewise, we
53 case '\n': // want to ignore any
ignore newlines,
54 case '\t': // tabs, whitespace.
55 case ' ': // and spaces in input
56 break; Notice the default
// exit switch statement, which
57 catches all other cases.
58 default: // catch all other characters
59 cout << "Incorrect letter grade entered."
60 << " Enter a new grade." << endl;
61 break; // optional; will exit switch anyway
62
63 } // end switch
64
65 } // end while
66

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 33
67 // output summary of results
68 cout << "\n\nTotals for each letter grade are:"
Outline
69 << "\nA: " << aCount // display number of A grades
70 << "\nB: " << bCount // display number of B grades
fig02_22.cpp
71 << "\nC: " << cCount // display number of C grades
72 << "\nD: " << dCount // display number of D grades
(4 of 4)
73 << "\nF: " << fCount // display number of F grades
74 << endl;
75
76 return 0; // indicate successful termination
77
78 } // end function main

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 34
Enter the letter grades.
Enter the EOF character to end input.
Outline
a
B
fig02_22.cpp
c
C
output (1 of 1)
A
d
f
C
E
Incorrect letter grade entered. Enter a new grade.
D
A
b
^Z

Totals for each letter grade are:

A: 3
B: 2
C: 3
D: 2
F: 1

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 35

do/while Repetition Structure

• Similar to while structure

– Makes loop continuation test at end, not beginning
– Loop body executes at least once
• Format
do {
statement
} while ( condition ); action(s)

true
condition

false

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 36
1 // Fig. 2.24: fig02_24.cpp
2 // Using the do/while repetition structure.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_24.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
(1 of 1)
7
8 // function main begins program execution fig02_24.cpp
9 int main() output (1 of 1)
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialize counter
12 Notice the preincrement in
13 do { loop-continuation test.
14 cout << counter << " "; // display counter
15 } while ( ++counter <= 10 ); // end do/while
16
17 cout << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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 37

break and continue Statements

• break statement
– Immediate exit from while, for, do/while, switch
– Program continues with first statement after structure
• Common uses
– Escape early from a loop
– Skip the remainder of switch

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 38
1 // Fig. 2.26: fig02_26.cpp
2 // Using the break statement in a for structure.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_26.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
(1 of 2)
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11
12 int x; // x declared here so it can be used after the loop
13
14 // loop 10 times
15 for ( x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) { Exits for structure when
16 break executed.
17 // if x is 5, terminate loop
18 if ( x == 5 )
19 break; // break loop only if x is 5
20
21 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
22
23 } // end for
24
25 cout << "\nBroke out of loop when x became " << x << endl;

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 39
26
27 return 0; // indicate successful termination
Outline
28
29 } // end function main
fig02_26.cpp
(2 of 2)
1 2 3 4
Broke out of loop when x became 5
fig02_26.cpp
output (1 of 1)

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 40

break and continue Statements

• continue statement
– Used in while, for, do/while
– Skips remainder of loop body
– Proceeds with next iteration of loop
• while and do/while structure
– Loop-continuation test evaluated immediately after the
continue statement
• for structure
– Increment expression executed
– Next, loop-continuation test evaluated

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 41
1 // Fig. 2.27: fig02_27.cpp
2 // Using the continue statement in a for structure.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_27.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
(1 of 2)
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 // loop 10 times
12 for ( int x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) {
13 Skips to next iteration of the
14 // if x is 5, continue with loop.
next iteration of loop
15 if ( x == 5 )
16 continue; // skip remaining code in loop body
17
18 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
19
20 } // end for structure
21
22 cout << "\nUsed continue to skip printing the value 5"
23 << endl;
24
25 return 0; // indicate successful termination

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