Structural Engineering Notes – Fundamentals (Class Notes)
Author: Original notes prepared for educational purposes
Version: 1.0
Language: English (technical)
1) Structural Systems Overview
- Primary systems: moment-resisting frames, braced frames, shear walls, dual systems.
- Typical materials: reinforced concrete (RC), structural steel, timber, masonry.
- Load path: gravity and lateral loads transfer from slab → beams → girders → columns/walls →
foundations → soil.
2) Actions and Load Types
- Dead load (G): self-weight of structural and non-structural elements.
- Live load (Q): occupancy loads, imposed roof loads.
- Wind load (W): pressure/suction on building surfaces, dynamic effects on slender structures.
- Earthquake/EQ (E): inertial forces due to ground motion; depends on mass and dynamic
properties.
- Other: snow (S), temperature (T), differential settlement, shrinkage/creep (for RC).
3) Basic Analysis Methods
- Tributary area method for gravity beams/columns.
- Line elastic analysis: 2D/3D frame solver; stiffness method.
- P-Delta: account for second-order effects when drift and axial load are significant.
- Modal response spectrum: linear dynamic analysis using natural modes.
- Time-history analysis: step-by-step integration; requires selected ground motions.
- For members: shear, bending moment, axial force diagrams; deflection checks.
4) Serviceability vs. Strength
- Ultimate Limit State (ULS): capacity (ϕRn) ≥ demand (U).
- Serviceability Limit State (SLS): deflection, vibration, crack width, drift limits.
- Common drift limits: interstory drift ≤ 0.02–0.025 rad for EQ; ≤ 0.01–0.015 for wind (typical
practice; project-specific).
5) Typical Load Combinations (illustrative)
- Strength (gravity + lateral):
U = 1.2G + 1.5Q
U = 1.2G + 1.5W
U = 0.9G + 1.5W (uplift/overturning)
U = 1.2G + 1.0Q + 1.0E
U = 0.9G + 1.0E
- Serviceability:
S=G+Q
S = G + ψL Q + W (ψL ~ 0.3–0.7 depending on occupancy)
S = G + ψL Q + E
6) Member Design Quick Notes
- RC beams: design for Mu, Vu; choose b, h, d; As = Mu/(ϕ*0.87fy*z); stirrups from shear
demand; minimum steel ratios per code.
- RC columns: Pu-Mu interaction; ensure confinement (ties/spirals) and slenderness P-Δ.
- Steel beams: select section by plastic moment Mp ≥ Mu; check shear Vv, deflection; LTB
(lateral torsional buckling) checks.
- Steel columns: axial capacity ϕNc; consider effective length K, slenderness KL/r; combined
Pu-Mu via interaction eqns.
- Connections: for steel, verify bolts/welds; for RC, detail anchorage and development length.
7) Floor Systems
- One-way slabs: span ratio Lx/Ly ≥ 2; design strips; min reinforcement and crack control.
- Two-way slabs (flat plate/flat slab): punching shear at columns; drop panels and column
capitals as needed.
- Composite slabs/beams: steel deck + RC topping; shear studs for composite action.
8) Foundations
- Shallow foundations: isolated, strip, combined, mat; check bearing capacity, settlement,
punching.
- Deep foundations: driven piles, bored piles; group effects; lateral load resistance (p–y curves).
- Soil–structure interaction: springs (k), dashpots for damping in dynamic analysis (advanced).
9) Lateral Systems Notes
- Shear walls: stiffness and strength control drift; coupling beams in openings; boundary
elements at high compressive strain.
- Braced frames: concentric (CBF) vs eccentric (EBF); link design in EBF for ductile energy
dissipation.
- Moment frames: strong-column/weak-beam; beam plastic hinges preferred; panel zone shear
design.
- Dual systems: frame + wall; ensure proportioning so both share lateral forces.
10) Detailing & Constructability
- Clear cover, bar spacing, development and splice length (tension/compression) per material
code.
- For seismic regions: confinement at plastic hinge zones; transverse reinforcement and hook
detailing.
- Steel: continuity plates, doubler plates in panel zones; bracing gusset plates with adequate
clearance for inelastic rotation.
11) QA/QC and Deliverables
- Model verification: check geometry, boundary conditions, mass source, diaphragm constraints.
- Independent hand checks of key members.
- Drawings: general notes, plans, elevations, sections, details; schedules and bar bending lists
where applicable.
12) References (generic)
- Standard textbooks in structural analysis and design.
- National codes for concrete, steel, wind and earthquake actions.
End of notes.
