1.

4 The Carbon Cycle -

-​ Based on CO2
-​ Producers remove CO2 from the atmosphere, and generate O2
-​ Consumers use carbon compounds obtained by eating producers (like plants) through
the process of consuming organic matter, which they then release back into the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide through cellular respiration
-​ Some carbon takes a long time to recycle
-​ Humans can affect the carbon cycle in many ways:
-​ Fossil fuel burning:​
The primary way humans affect the carbon cycle is through burning fossil fuels
like coal, oil, and natural gas, which rapidly release carbon dioxide previously
stored underground into the atmosphere.
-​ Deforestation:​
Clearing forests for agriculture or development reduces the amount of
vegetation available to absorb carbon dioxide, further increasing atmospheric
levels.
-​ Land use changes:​
Converting natural ecosystems like grasslands to farmland can also alter
carbon storage capacity, contributing to increased atmospheric carbon.
-​ Industrial processes:​
Certain industrial activities like cement production release additional carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
-​ Carbon Cycle Diagram:
-​ Carbon sinks: areas where carbon can be stored and concentrated for a long time (ex:
the ocean, atmosphere, plants and soil)
 Most important

1.5, The Nitrogen Cycle -

-​ The movement of Nitrogen containing molecules between sources & sinks/reservoirs

-​ Sources release Nitrogen into the atmosphere; sinks take Nitrogen out of the atmosphere
in increasing amounts
-​ These Nitrogen reservoirs (Ex: plants, soil, atmosphere) hold Nitrogen for a relatively short period
of time (less than carbon).
-​ Plants and animals need Nitrogen to build DNA & amino acids to make proteins.
-​ Nitrogen is a limiting factor in ecosystems, because although 80% of the atmosphere comprises
of Nitrogen, most organisms cannot directly access it in its gaseous form (N2), meaning its
availability in usable forms like nitrate (NO3-) often restricts plant growth and, consequently, the
entire food chain that depends on those plants, thus impacting the overall productivity and
biodiversity of the ecosystem
-​ Nitrogen Fixation helps solve this issue, which is the 1st step of the nitrogen cycle, and is the
process of the Nitrogen gas from the atmosphere being converted into biologically usable
nitrogen, which is a form that can be taken in by plants, which are NH3, ammonia, or NO3, nitrate.
-​ This conversion can happen Naturally through nitrogen fixing bacteria, or by lightning
storms which can cause some of that nitrogen in the atmosphere to be converted into
ammonia.
-​ Bacterial fixation: certain bacteria that live in the soil, or in symbiotic (close)
relationship with plant root nodules convert N2 into ammonia (NH3)
-​ Synthetic fixation: humans combust FFs to convert N2 gas into nitrate (NO3)
-​ Other Nitrogen Cycle steps
-​ Assimilation: Plants & animals taking Nitrogen in and incorporating it into their bodies
-​ Ammonification: Soil bacteria, microbes & decomposers converting waste & dead
biomass back into NH3 and returning it to soil.
-​ Nitrification: Conversion of NH4 into nitrite (NO2) & then nitrate (NO3) by soil bacteria
-​ Denitrification: Conversion of NO3 into N2O which returns to the atmosphere as N2
-​ Human Impacts on Nitrogen Cycle
-​ Climate: N2O (Nitrous Oxide) -> greenhouse gas which warms earth's climate
-​ Caused by denitrification of nitrate in agricultural soils
-​ Ammonia volatilization: Excess fertilizer use can lead to NH3 gas entering the
Atmosphere
-​ NH3 gas in the atmosphere can lead to acid rain, and respiratory issues in
humans and animals
-​ Less Nitrogen is kept in soil for crops to use for growth (lower profit)
-​ Leaching & Eutrophication: The use of Synthetic fertilizers leads to nitrates (NO3)
leaching, or being carried out of the soil by the water.
1.6, The Phosphorus Cycle -

●​ Definition: The movement of phosphorus-containing elements between sources and sinks.

●​ Major Reservoirs:
○​ Rocks & sediments are the largest phosphorus reservoirs.
○​ No atmospheric (gas) phase in the phosphorus cycle.
●​ Cycle Speed:
○​ The phosphorus cycle is extremely slow.
○​ Phosphorus minerals take a long time to weather out of rocks and enter soil/water.
●​ Limiting Nutrient:
○​ Phosphorus is often a limiting nutrient in ecosystems.
○​ Limited availability in soil and water restricts plant growth.
○​ Aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems frequently experience phosphorus limitations.
●​ Natural Phosphorus Sources:
○​ Weathering of Rocks:
■​ Wind and rain break down rock, releasing phosphate (PO4).
■​ Phosphate dissolves into water and is carried into soils and bodies of water.
■​ This process is very slow, making phosphorus naturally scarce.
●​ Human (Synthetic) Phosphorus Sources:
○​ Mining phosphate minerals for use in synthetic fertilizers and detergents.
○​ Fertilizers containing phosphates are applied to lawns and fields.
○​ Runoff from fertilizers carries phosphorus into nearby water bodies.
●​ Assimilation & Decomposition:
○​ Assimilation:
■​ Plants absorb phosphorus through their roots and incorporate it into tissues.
■​ Animals assimilate phosphorus by consuming plants or other animals.
○​ Excretion & Decomposition:
■​ Animal waste, plant matter, and other organic material decompose.
■​ Bacteria and soil decomposers return phosphate to the soil.
●​ Eutrophication (Excess Nutrient Input):
○​ Extra nitrogen and phosphorus in water systems cause eutrophication.
○​ Leads to algal blooms, which:
■​ Cover the water’s surface, blocking sunlight and killing submerged plants.
■​ Die off, leading to bacterial decomposition that consumes dissolved oxygen (O2).
○​ Oxygen Depletion (Hypoxia):
■​ Low dissolved oxygen kills aquatic animals (e.g., fish).
■​ More dead organisms lead to increased bacterial decomposition, further
depleting oxygen.
■​ This creates a positive feedback loop, worsening the oxygen shortage.
●​ Key Takeaway:
○​ Phosphorus is primarily stored in rocks.
○​ Weathering releases phosphate ions into soil and water, making them available to plants.
○​ The cycle’s slow nature makes phosphorus a critical and often scarce nutrient in
ecosystems.
-​ Weathering of rocks: Phosphorus is primarily stored in rocks, and when these rocks weather,
phosphate ions are released into the soil and water. This is important because it is the primary
way that phosphorus, stored in rocks as phosphate compounds, is released into the environment,
making it available to plants and subsequently other organisms in the food chain
4.2 Soil Formation and Erosion -

What is Soil?

Soil is a mixture of geological and organic components, including:

●​ Sand, silt, and clay: The three main mineral particles that determine soil texture.
●​ Humus: The organic component, made up of decomposed plants, leaves, and animal
matter, which gives soil its dark color and nutrient richness.
●​ Nutrients: Essential elements like ammonium, phosphates, and nitrates that promote
plant growth.
●​ Water and Air: These fill soil pores, providing oxygen for roots and assisting in nutrient
transport.
●​ Living Organisms: Earthworms, fungi, bacteria, and decomposers contribute to nutrient
cycling and soil health.

Functions of Soil in Ecosystems

1.​ Plant Growth Support - Provides an anchor for roots and supplies essential nutrients.
2.​ Water Filtration - Helps trap pollutants and recharge groundwater sources.
3.​ Nutrient Recycling - Decomposers break down organic matter, returning nutrients to the
soil.
4.​ Habitat Provision - Supports various organisms, including fungi, bacteria, and burrowing
animals.

Weathering and Erosion

These processes break down rock and transport sediments, leading to soil formation.

Weathering (Breakdown of Rock):

●​ Physical Weathering: Wind, rain, and freezing water cause rock to crack and fragment.
●​ Chemical Weathering: Acids (e.g., acid rain) dissolve rock minerals.
●​ Biological Weathering: Plant roots grow into rock cracks, breaking them apart.

Erosion (Transport of Rock Particles):

●​ Rainfall Detachment: Rain loosens weathered rock.

●​ Transportation: Wind and water move the sediment.
●​ Deposition: Particles settle in new locations, contributing to soil formation.

Factors Affecting Soil Formation

 1.​ Soil Formation from Below - Weathering of parent material (bedrock) contributes
minerals to the soil.
2.​ Soil Formation from Above - Decomposing plants and animals add organic material
(humus).
3.​ Weathering and Erosion - Continue to add new mineral and organic components to soil.

Key Factors Influencing Soil Formation:

●​ Parent Material: Determines soil pH and mineral content (e.g., limestone adds calcium,
buffering acidity).
●​ Topography: Steep slopes experience high erosion, slowing soil formation, while flat
areas accumulate more soil.
●​ Climate:
○​ Warm temperatures accelerate decomposition, increasing soil formation.
○​ High precipitation promotes weathering but may also lead to erosion.
●​ Soil Organisms: Earthworms, fungi, and bacteria enhance decomposition, enriching the
soil.

Soil Horizons (Soil Profiles)

Soil develops in layers known as horizons, each with distinct characteristics.

1.​ O Horizon (Organic Layer):

○​ Contains decomposing leaves, plant roots, and animal waste.
○​ Retains moisture and provides nutrients for plant growth.
2.​ A Horizon (Topsoil):
○​ Composed of humus and minerals.
○​ Supports most biological activity and nutrient storage.
3.​ B Horizon (Subsoil):
○​ Contains more clay and minerals leached from the A Horizon.
○​ Typically lighter in color due to lower organic content.
4.​ C Horizon (Weathered Parent Material):
○​ Consists of partially broken-down rock.
○​ The source of soil minerals.
5.​ D Horizon (Bedrock):
○​ The unweathered rock layer beneath the soil.
○​ Provides parent material for soil formation.
4.3, Soil Composition and Properties -

Sand, Silt, and Clay

●​ Soil composition: Combination of rock fragments (sand, silt, clay), humus (organic
matter), air, and water.
●​ Weathering breaks rock into smaller particles:
○​ Sand = largest particles → large pores → high porosity.
○​ Clay = smallest particles → small pores → low porosity.
●​ Porosity = Amount of pore space between soil particles.
○​ More sand → higher porosity (air and water move easily) (higher permeability).
○​ More clay → lower porosity (denser, holds water longer) (lower permeability).

Soil Texture Chart

●​ Most soils are a mix of sand, silt, and clay.

●​ Texture determines classification and porosity.
●​ How to determine soil texture:
1.​ Collect soil sample, place in jar with water.
2.​ Let settle overnight → layers form based on particle density.
3.​ Measure layers:
■​ Sand (bottom, largest particles)
■​ Silt (middle layer)
■​ Clay (top, smallest particles)
4.​ Use soil texture chart:
■​ Follow the percentage of sand at the bottom.
■​ Move diagonally to silt percentage.
■​ Move horizontally to clay percentage.
■​ Ensure total = 100%.

Porosity & Permeability

●​ Porosity = amount of open space between particles.

●​ Permeability = ability of water to drain through soil.
●​ Inverse relationship between permeability & water-holding capacity:
○​ More permeability (sand) → less water retention
○​ Less permeability (clay) → more water retention.
●​ Ideal soil for plants = balanced permeability and water retention.
●​ Loam (40% sand, 40% silt, 20% clay) = best mix for plant growth.

Soil Properties Affecting Fertility

●​ Nutrient availability:
 ○​ Important nutrients: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Magnesium
(Mg), Calcium (Ca).
○​ Factors increasing soil nutrients:
■​ More organic matter → decomposers break it down into humus.
■​ Clay holds nutrients due to negative charge attracting positive ions.
■​ Calcium carbonate (limestone) buffers pH, preventing excessive acidity.
○​ Factors decreasing soil nutrients:
■​ High acidity → leaching of nutrients.
■​ Over-farming → depletes nutrients without replenishment.
■​ Erosion from excessive tilling → removes topsoil and nutrients.
●​ Water availability:
○​ Good aeration (air channels from organisms like worms) helps retain water.
○​ Organic matter (humus) prevents excessive evaporation loss.
○​ Deep-rooted plants help hold moisture in soil.
○​ Compaction & erosion dry out soil by reducing pores and moisture retention.

Soil Quality Tests

●​ Texture Test:
○​ Determine % of sand, silt, and clay.
○​ Jar test: let soil settle in water and measure layer thickness.
●​ Porosity Test:
○​ Measure water retention to assess air and water movement.
●​ Permeability Test:
○​ Measure drainage rate of water through soil.
●​ pH Test:
○​ Determines soil acidity/alkalinity, which affects nutrient availability.
●​ Nutrient Tests:
○​ Measure N, P, K levels to determine soil fertility.
●​ Compaction Test:
○​ Measures density and aeration, important for root penetration.

Key Takeaways

●​ Soil is made of sand, silt, and clay, and its texture affects water and nutrient retention.
●​ Porosity & permeability influence how well soil holds water and supports plants.
●​ Loam (40-40-20 mix) is ideal for plant growth.
●​ Nutrients, pH, organic matter, and aeration determine soil fertility.
●​ Soil quality tests help measure soil health and guide conservation efforts.
5.3, Green Revolution

Impacts of the Green Revolution

Positive Effects

✅ Increased Food Production: Higher crop yields helped reduce starvation.​

✅ More Efficient Land Use: More food could be produced on smaller plots of land.​
✅ Higher Earth's Carrying Capacity: Allowed the human population to grow by ensuring food
✅ Economic Benefits: Improved economies in many countries (e.g., Mexico, India, Pakistan).
security.​

Negative Effects (Environmental Concerns)

❌ Soil Erosion: Heavy mechanization and tilling lead to loss of fertile topsoil.​
❌ Loss of Biodiversity: Reliance on fewer, genetically similar crop species makes agriculture
❌ Water Contamination: Runoff from fertilizers and pesticides pollutes groundwater and
vulnerable to pests & diseases.​

surface water.

Major Agricultural Changes

1. Mechanization

●​ Shift from manual & animal labor to machines (tractors, tillers, combines).
●​ Pros: Increases farm profits & crop yields.
●​ Cons:
○​ Fossil Fuel Dependence → Increased CO₂ emissions → Climate change.
○​ Soil Compaction → Reduced water retention → More erosion.

2. High-Yield Variety (HYV) Crops

●​ Hybrid Crops: Crossbreeding of parent plants with desired traits to produce higher
yields.
●​ Genetic Modification (GMOs): Inserting specific genes into a plant’s DNA to enhance
resistance to drought, pests, or disease.
●​ Example: BT Corn (produces its own pesticide).
●​ Cons of GMOs:
○​ Genetic Uniformity → Susceptibility to widespread disease.
 ○​ Reduced Biodiversity.

3. Synthetic Fertilizers

●​ Shift from organic fertilizers (manure, compost) to chemical fertilizers (ammonium

nitrate, phosphates).
●​ Pros:
○​ Rapidly boosts plant growth.
○​ Increases agricultural yields.
●​ Cons:
○​ Eutrophication: Excess nutrients runoff into water, causing algal blooms →
Oxygen depletion → Fish die-offs.
○​ Fossil Fuel Use: Fertilizer production contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.

4. Industrial Irrigation

●​ Increased Water Access: Allowed farming in dry regions, expanding arable land.
●​ Pros:
○​ Supports agriculture in drought-prone areas.
○​ Reduces famine risk.
●​ Cons:
○​ Overuse of Aquifers: Underground water sources deplete faster than they can
recharge.
○​ Waterlogging: Excessive irrigation can suffocate plant roots.

Conclusion
●​ The Green Revolution increased global food production, preventing widespread famine.
●​ However, it led to major environmental issues (soil degradation, pollution, and
biodiversity loss).
●​ The challenge today is balancing high agricultural productivity with environmental
sustainability.
5.4 Impact of Agricultural Practices

1. Monocropping

●​ Definition: Growing a single crop species over a large area.

●​ Advantages:
○​ High efficiency and profit maximization in the short term.
○​ Simplifies irrigation, fertilizer, and pesticide use.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Decreases biodiversity – Makes crops more vulnerable to pests.
○​ Increases soil erosion – No root structures to hold soil together after harvest.
○​ Reduces habitat diversity – Eliminates natural predators and pollinators.

2. Tilling

●​ Definition: Mechanically breaking up soil for easier planting.

●​ Environmental Consequences:
○​ Increases soil erosion – Loose soil is easily washed or blown away.
○​ Loss of organic matter – Nutrients and humus are depleted over time.
○​ Air pollution – Increases particulate matter, worsening respiratory issues.
○​ Water pollution – Leads to higher turbidity, harming aquatic life.

3. Slash-and-Burn Agriculture

●​ Definition: Cutting and burning vegetation to clear land for farming.

●​ Environmental Consequences:
○​ Deforestation – Reduces biodiversity and habitat availability.
○​ Air pollution – Releases CO₂, CO, and nitrous oxide, worsening climate change.
○​ Increases particulate matter – Causes respiratory problems.
○​ Lowers albedo – Darkened soil absorbs more heat, raising local temperatures.

4. Synthetic (Inorganic) Fertilizers

●​ Definition: Man-made fertilizers containing ammonium, phosphates, and nitrates.

●​ Advantages:
○​ Increases plant growth quickly.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ No organic matter added – Soil loses water retention and microbial activity.
○​ Easily leached from soil – Can contaminate groundwater.
○​ Causes eutrophication – Excess nutrients lead to algal blooms, oxygen depletion,
and fish die-offs.
○​ Difference from organic fertilizers: Organic fertilizers release nutrients slowly,
reducing eutrophication risk.
Important stuff to remember​

A key chemical process in the carbon cycle is photosynthesis, where plants

use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into organic
compounds like glucose, releasing oxygen as a byproduct; essentially "fixing"
carbon from the air into living matter.

A key chemical process in the nitrogen cycle is nitrification, where bacteria

convert ammonia (NH3) into nitrite (NO2-) and then nitrate (NO3-) making
nitrogen available to plants in a usable form.

A key chemical process in the phosphorus cycle is weathering of rocks, where

phosphate ions are released from rocks and minerals into the soil through the
action of rain and other environmental factors, making phosphorus available
to plants to be absorbed as a nutrient; this is considered the primary source of
phosphorus in the cycle.

1. Nitrogen Cycle

●​ Key Processes:
○​ Nitrogen Fixation – Atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) is converted into usable forms
(ammonia, NH₃) by bacteria or lightning.
○​ Nitrification – Ammonia is converted into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and then nitrates (NO₃⁻)
by bacteria.
○​ Assimilation – Plants absorb nitrates and incorporate them into proteins and
nucleic acids.
○​ Ammonification – Decomposers break down organic matter, returning nitrogen
to the soil as ammonia.
 ○​ Denitrification – Bacteria convert nitrates back into atmospheric nitrogen (N₂).
●​ Major Reservoirs: The atmosphere (78% nitrogen gas).
●​ Human Impact: Fertilizer use, fossil fuel combustion, and livestock waste contribute to
nitrogen pollution, leading to eutrophication and acid rain.

2. Carbon Cycle

●​ Key Processes:
○​ Photosynthesis – Plants absorb CO₂ and convert it into organic matter.
○​ Respiration – Organisms release CO₂ back into the atmosphere.
○​ Decomposition – Organic matter breaks down, releasing carbon into soil and air.
○​ Combustion – Burning fossil fuels and biomass releases CO₂.
○​ Ocean Uptake – CO₂ dissolves in oceans, forming carbonates used by marine
organisms.
●​ Major Reservoirs: The atmosphere (CO₂), oceans, fossil fuels, and living organisms.
●​ Human Impact: Burning fossil fuels and deforestation increase CO₂ levels, contributing
to climate change.

3. Phosphorus Cycle

●​ Key Processes:
○​ Weathering – Rocks release phosphate (PO₄³⁻) into soil and water.
○​ Assimilation – Plants absorb phosphate, which moves up the food chain.
○​ Decomposition – Organic material breaks down, returning phosphorus to soil.
○​ Sedimentation – Phosphate settles in bodies of water, forming new rock over
time.
●​ Major Reservoirs: Rocks, soil, and ocean sediments (not the atmosphere).
●​ Human Impact: Fertilizer runoff causes eutrophication, leading to harmful algal blooms
and dead zones in aquatic ecosystems.

Key Differences:

Cycle Main Reservoir Atmospheric Human Impact

Involvement?
 Nitrogen Atmosphere (N₂) Yes (fixation & Fertilizers, pollution,
denitrification) eutrophication

Carbon Ocean Yes (CO₂) Climate change, fossil fuel

burning

Phosphorus Rocks No Eutrophication from

fertilizers

On the apes task 1 assessment:​

​
Using this image showing the soil layer horizons, which layer represents the soil that is the least
weathered? (least weathered and contains rock that is starting to break down into soil is soil
horizon D, and the soil horizon that has very little organic matter and accumulates soluble
metals and nutrients that are transported to other soil layers is horizon C)