Chapter – 1

Introduction to Bridge Engineering

Bridge
Bridge is a structure which provides passage over the obstacles like valley, river, road or railway
track without closing the way underneath.
Initially fallen trees and wooden logs were used as bridges. With the development of civilization
bridge engineering has also developed, as a result of which we see many varieties of beautiful
bridges for various purposes.

Components of Bridge

Superstructure
The components of a bridge structure above the level of bearings are called superstructure.
Its main parts are decking consisting of slab, girder, trusses, handrails, guard stones, etc.

Substructure
The components of a bridge structure below the level of bearings are called substructure.
Its main parts are abutments, piers, wing-walls, foundations, etc.

1
History of Bridge Development
•Primitive Peoples:
–Fallen trees or Logs of wood
–Intertwined Ropes
–Slabs of Rocks
•Roman Empire—First Great Bridge Builders
–Timber Truss Bridges
–Masonry Arch Bridges

•Europeans
–Followed HRE Until Iron and Steel Use
•Nineteenth Century
–Modern Long Bridges
–Moveable Bridges

2
3
Classification of Bridges
1. Purpose
Under this heading bridges can be classified as road bridges, railway bridges, foot bridges,
aquaduct (for carrying canal water across a valley), viaduct (for taking roads across dry
valleys).

2. Alignment
i) Square Bridge
If the bridge is at right angles to the obstacle it is termed as square bridge.

4
 ii) Skew Bridge
If the bridge is not at right angles to the obstacle it is termed as skew bridge.

3. Nature of life
i) Permanent Bridges
Permanent bridges are seen along highways and railways which are built with masonry, RCC
or steel with strong foundation.
ii) Temporary Bridges
Temporary bridges are built during military operations or during project execution. They are
meant for dismantling after the purpose of construction is satisfied.

4. Span
i) Culverts
Span less than 8m

a) Pipe Culvert b) Box Culvert

5
ii) Minor Bridges
Span between 8m to 30m

iii) Major Bridges

Span between 30m to 120m

iv) Long Span Bridges

Span more than 120m

6
5. Position of High Flood Level
i) Submersible Bridges
Flow of water above the bridge deck is permitted in heavy rainy seasons. They are built for
roads of lesser importance.

ii) Non-Submersible Bridges

Flow of water above the bridge deck is not permitted in all seasons.

6. Fixed or Movable Bridges

Normally fixed bridges are built. Movable bridges are built across navigable channels so as to
avoid obstacles to navigation.

Movable Bridges
i) Swing Bridges
In swing bridges there is a disc bearing placed over the central pier on which two pans of
continuous trusses are provided. By an arrangement of rotating gear, the whole truss rotates
horizontally through 90°.

7
ii) Lift Bridges
A vertical lift bridge consists of a roadway truss, which is lifted up by means of cables passing
over pulleys attached to each of the two tall towers erected at either ends. These cables are
connected to counter weights at the other end.

iii) Bascule Bridges

Entire superstructure is rotated in vertical plane upto 70° to 80°. Suitable hinges and counter
weights are provided for easy operations.

8
7. Location of Bridge Floor
i) Deck Bridge
These are the bridges whose road level or formation, on which vehicles pass are supported at
the top of superstructure. For example, arch bridge, girder bridge, rigid frame bridge, etc.

ii) Through Bridge

These are the bridges whose road level or formation, on which vehicles pass are supported at
the bottom of superstructure. For example, trussed through bridge, suspension bridges, bow
string bridge, etc.

iii) Semi-Through Bridge

These are the bridges whose road level or formation, on which vehicles pass are supported at
some intermediate level of superstructure. For example, truss bridge, girder bridges, etc.
9
8. Superstructure

i) Rigid Frame Bridges

It consists of a longitudinal continuous member rigidly connected with the vertical or inclined
members upon which it rests, resembling a portal frame. They are suitable for spans upto
20m.

ii) Truss Bridges

For rail-road or long railway bridges of spans 100m to 200m, truss bridges are found suitable
and expedient due to relative lightness of its component parts. There are various types of truss
bridges like Warren truss bridge, Pratt truss bridge and N-truss bridge, but the most common
form is Warren truss bridge.

10
iii) Cantilever Bridges
It is a bridge built using cantilevers (structures that project horizontally into space) supported
on only one end. Entire superstructure can be rotated in a horizontal or vertical plane when
required.

11
iv) Arch Bridges
These bridges are one of the oldest and common type of bridges. They are more graceful,
pleasing in appearance and well suited for deep gorges with rocky sides. They are economical
upto 200m span. But due to high cost of construction

v) Suspension Bridges
Suspension bridges are long span bridges, generally they are single span bridges. The
roadway is suspended from the two main cables by means of suspenders. Sometimes the side
spans are suspended from the back stays. They are easily adopted at places where it is difficult
to adopt other types of bridges.

12
vi) Cable Stayed Bridges
It is the youngest member of family of long span bridges upto 500m. It has graceful and
delicate appearance, well adopted to urban and rustic environment. They consist of cables
provided above deck and are connected to towers. All the cables are connected at a point as a
bunch or at different levels.

9. Materials
i) Timber Bridges
ii) Masonry Bridges
iii) Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) bridges
iv) Steel Bridges
v) Prestressed Concrete (PSC) Bridges

10. Structural Form

i. Distinctive Features of Girder Bridge
ii. Distinctive Features of Arch Bridge
iii. Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge
iv. Distinctive Features of Suspension Bridge
v. Distinctive Features of Cable-Stayed Bridges

13
Distinctive Features of Girder Bridge
• Widely constructed
• Usually used for Short and Medium spans
• Carry load in Shear and Flexural bending
• Efficient distribution of material is not possible
• Stability concerns limits the stresses and associated economy
• Economical and long lasting solution for vast majority of bridges
• Decks and girder usually act together to support the entire load in highway bridges.

Distinctive Features of Arch Bridge

• Arch action reduces bending moments ( that is Tensile Stresses )
• Economical as compared to equivalent straight simply supported Girder or Truss bridge
• Suitable site is a Valley with arch foundations on a DRY ROCK SLOPES
• Conventional curved arch rib has high Fabrication and Erection costs
• Erection easiest for Cantilever Arch and most difficult for Tied Arch
• Arch is predominantly a Compression member. Buckling must be worked to the detail so
as to avoid reductions in allowable stresses.
• Classic arch form tends to favor Concrete as a construction material
• Conventional arch has two moment resistant components : The deck and the Arch Rib.
• Near the crown of the arch and the region where Spandrel Columns are short, undesirable
B.M. can occur. By using Pin ended columns it can be avoided
• Space beneath the arch is less and hence danger for collision with the Rib, specially on a
highway
• Curved shaped is always very pleasing and arch is the most successful and beautiful
structure

Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge

• The primary member forces are axial loads
• The open web system permits the use of a greater overall depth than for an equivalent solid
web girder, hence reduced deflections and rigid structure
• Both these factors lead to Economy in material and a reduced dead weight

14
• These advantages are achieved at the expense of increased fabrication and maintenance
costs
• Other bridge types have rendered the truss bridge types less likely to be used due to its
high maintenance and fabrication costs.
• The truss is instead being used widely as the stiffening structure for the suspension bridges
due to its acceptable aerodynamic behavior since the wind gusts can pass through the truss
as is not with the case in girder, arch bridges.
• It’s a light weight structure it can be assembled member by member using lifting
equipment of small capacity.
• Rarely aesthetically pleasing complexity of member intersections if viewed from oblique
direction
• In large span structures poor aesthetic appearance of the truss bridge is compensated with
the large scale of the structure. For moderate spans its best to provide a simple and regular
structure

Distinctive Features of Suspension Bridge

• Major element is a flexible cable, shaped and supported in such a way that it transfers the
loads to the towers and anchorage.
• This cable is commonly constructed from High Strength wires, either spun in situ or
formed from component, spirally formed wire ropes. In either case allowable stresses are
high of the order of 600 MPA.
• The deck is hung from the cable by Hangers constructed of high strength ropes in tension
• As in the long spans the Self-weight of the structures becomes significant, so the use of
high strength steel in tension, primarily in cables and secondarily in hangers leads to an
economical structure.
• The economy of the cable must be balanced against the cost of the associated anchorage
and towers. The anchorage cost may be high where foundation material is poor.
• The main cable is stiffened either by a pair of stiffening trusses or by a system of girders at
deck level.
• This stiffening system serves to (a) control aerodynamic movements and (b) limit local
angle changes in the deck. It may be unnecessary in cases where the dead load is great.
• The complete structure can be erected without intermediate staging from the ground

15
 • The main structure is elegant and neatly expresses its function.
• It is the only alternative for spans over 600m, and it is generally regarded as competitive
for spans down to 300m. However, shorter spans have also been built, including some very
attractive pedestrian bridges
• The height of the main towers can be a disadvantage in some areas; for example, within the
approach road for an AIRPORT.

Distinctive Features of Cable-Stayed Bridges

• The use of high strength cables in tension leads to economy in material, weight, and cost..
• As compared with the stiffened suspension bridge, the cables are straight rather than
curved. As a result, the stiffness is greater
• The cables are anchored to the deck and cause compressive forces in the deck. For
economical design, the deck must participate in carrying these forces
• All individual cables are shorter than full length of the superstructure. They are normally
constructed of individual wire ropes, supplied complete with end fittings, pre-stretched and
not spun.
• There is a great freedom of choice in selecting the structural arrangement.
• Less efficient under Dead Load but more efficient in support Live Load. It is economical
over 100-350m, some designer would extend the upper bound as high as 800m.
• Aerodynamic stability has not been found to be a problem in structures erected to date
• When the cables are arranged in the single plane, at the longitudinal center line of the deck,
the appearance of the structure is simplified and avoids cable intersections when the bridge
is viewed obliquely.

Factors Considered In Deciding Bridge Type

 Geometric Conditions of the Site
 Subsurface Conditions of the Site
 Functional Requirements
 Aesthetics
 Economics and Ease of Maintenance
 Construction and Erection Consideration
 Legal Considerations

16
 Geometric Conditions of the Site
• The type of bridge selected will always depend on the horizontal and vertical alignment of
the highway route and on the clearances above and below the roadway
• For Example: if the roadway is on a curve, continuous box girders and slabs are a good
choice because they have a pleasing appearance, can readily be built on a curve, and have a
relatively high torsion resistance
• Relatively high bridges with larger spans over navigable waterways will require a different
bridge type than one with medium spans crossing a flood plain
• The site geometry will also dictate how traffic can be handled during construction, which
is an important safety issue and must be considered early in the planning stage.

 Subsurface Conditions of the Site

• The foundation soils at a site will determine whether abutments and piers can be
founded on spread footings, driven piles, or drilled shafts
• If the subsurface investigation indicates that creep settlement is going to be a problem,
the bridge type selected must be one that can accommodate differential settlement over
time
• Drainage conditions on the surface and below ground must be understood because they
influence the magnitude of earth pressures, movement of embankments, and stability of
cuts or fills
• For Example: An inclined leg frame bridge requires strong foundation material that can
resist both horizontal and vertical thrust. If it is not present, then another bridge type is
more appropriate.
• The potential for seismic activity at a site should also be a part of the subsurface
investigation. If seismicity is high, the substructure details will change, affecting the
superstructure loads as well
• All of these conditions influence the choice of substructure components which in turn
influence the choice of superstructure

17
 Functional Requirements
• Bridge must function to carry present and future volumes of traffic.
• Decisions must be made on the number of lanes of traffic, inclusion of sidewalks and/or
bike paths, whether width of the bridge deck should include medians, drainage of the
surface waters, snow removal, and future wearing surface.
• For Example: In the case of stream and flood plain crossings, the bridge must continue to
function during periods of high water and not impose a severe constriction or obstruction
to the flow of water or debris.
• Satisfaction of these functional requirements will recommend some bridge types over
others.
• For Example: if future widening and replacement of bridge decks is a concern, multiple
girder bridge types are preferred over concrete segmental box girders.

 Aesthetics
• It should be the goal of every bridge designer to obtain a positive aesthetic response to the
bridge type selected.

• There are no equations, no computer programs or design specifications that can make our
bridge beautiful.
• It is more an awareness of beauty on our part so that we can sense when we are in the
presence of something good.
• Aesthetics must be a part of the bridge design program from the beginning. It can’t be
added on at the end to make the bridge look nice. At that time it is too late. From the
beginning, the engineer must consider aesthetics in the selection of spans, depths of
girders, piers, abutments, and the relationship.

 Economics and Ease of Maintenance

• The initial cost and maintenance cost over the life of the bridge govern when comparing
the economics of different bridge types.
• A general rule is that the bridge with the minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints,
and widest spacing of girders will be the most economical.
• For Example: (1) By reducing the number of spans in a bridge layout by one span, the
construction cost of one pier is eliminated. (2) Deck joints are a high maintenance cost
18
 item, so minimizing their number will reduce the life cycle cost of the bridge. (3) When
using the empirical design of bridge decks in the AASHTO (1994) LRFD Specifications,
the same reinforcement is used for deck spans up to 4.1m. Therefore, there is little cost
increase in the deck for wider spacing for girders and fewer girders means less cost
although at the “expense” of deeper sections.
• Generally, concrete structures require less maintenance than steel structure. The cost and
hazard of maintenance painting of steel structures should be considered in type selection
studies.
• One effective way to reduce the overall project cost is to allow contractors to propose an
alternative design or designs.

 Construction and Erection Consideration

• The length of the time required to construct a bridge is important and will vary with the
bridge type.
• Generally, larger the prefabricated or pre-cast members shorter the construction time.
However, the larger the members, the more difficult they are to transport and lift into
place.
• The availability of skilled labor and specified materials will also influence the choice of a
particular bridge type.
• For Example: if there are no pre-cast plants for pre-stressed girders within easy transport
but there is a steel fabrication plant nearby that could make the steel structure more
economical.
• The only way to determine which bridge type is more economical is to bid alternative
designs.

 Legal Considerations
• Regulations are beyond the control of an engineer, but they are real and must be
considered.
Examples of certain regulations are as follows:
• Permits Over Navigable Waterways
• National Environmental policy Act
• Department of Transportation Act

19
• National historic preservation Act
• Clean Air Act
• Noise Control Act
• Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
• The Endangered Species Act
• Water Bank Act
• Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
• In addition to the environmental laws and acts defining national policies, local and regional
politics are also of concern.

20
21