Robinson Crusoe
Plot
Robinson Crusoe is an English adventure novel by Daniel Defoe, first published in
1719. Inspired by the story of Alexander Selkrik, a Scottish sailor who managed on
the island of Juan Fernandez for five years. The novel follows Robinson Crusoe,
born in York in 1632, who leaves home to seek adventure. After being captured by
pirates and later rescued, he becomes a plantation owner in Brazil. During a voyage
to acquire slaves, he is shipwrecked on a deserted island, where he lives for 28
years, keeps a diary, and struggles with isolation. He encounters cannibals, saves a
prisoner he names Friday, and later rescues Friday’s father. Crusoe finally returns to
England, discovering he has become wealthy thanks to his plantation.
Setting
The setting of most of the story is the desert island. Robinson organises his own
form of a primitive empire on the island, thus becoming the prototype of the English
coloniser. Friday is the first native character to be portrayed in the English novel.
The first word Robinson teaches him after rescuing him is “master”.
The Hero
Robinson belongs to the middle class.
Style
The novel is narrated in the first person and provides a realistic description of
everyday life through clear and precise details. Defoe concentrates his description
on the primary qualities of objects, especially their solidity, extension and number.
The language is simple, matter - of - fact and concrete, to reinforce the impression of
reality conveyed by the first person narration.
Themes
Pragmatism and individualism. It can be read as an exaltation of 18th century
England and its pragmatic and individualistic outlook.
A spiritual autobiography. There are a lot of religious references to God. Robinson
read the Bible to find comfort and guidance. He prays to God to be freed from sin
rather than to be rescued from the island.
The Journal
The Journal is a diary that the protagonist Robinson keeps during his time on the
deserted island.
● September 30: Robinson Crusoe is shipwrecked during a violent storm and
finds himself alone on a barren, deserted island, which he names the Island of
Despair. He is overwhelmed with grief and fear, realizing he has no food, shelter,
clothes, or weapons. His only option for safety is to sleep in a tree, terrified of wild
animals that might attack at night. Despite the rain, he surprisingly sleeps soundly.
● October 1: Crusoe discovers that the wrecked ship has drifted closer to shore
with the high tide and remains largely intact. This gives him hope of retrieving
essential supplies. At the same time, he feels deep sorrow for his lost shipmates,
thinking that if they had stayed on board, they might have survived. He swims to the
ship and starts salvaging items.
● October 1–24: Crusoe dedicates these days to making several trips between
the ship and the shore, constructing rafts to carry as many supplies as possible. He
manages to bring ashore food, tools, and materials, which are crucial for his
survival. Despite heavy and frequent rains, he works tirelessly, aware that these
resources are vital.
● October 20: While transporting goods on a raft, Crusoe's raft overturns, and
he loses many items into the shallow water. However, he waits until the tide goes out
and successfully recovers much of the lost cargo.
● October 25: A powerful storm breaks the wrecked ship into pieces, leaving
only fragments visible at low tide. Crusoe spends the entire day working to secure
and cover his salvaged goods to protect them from the constant rain, ensuring
nothing essential is ruined.
● October 26: Realizing he needs a secure and defensible place to live, Crusoe
explores the coastline. He finds a suitable spot under a large rock and begins
planning a fortification to protect himself from possible attacks by wild animals or
hostile humans.
● October 26–30: Crusoe works hard, transporting all his salvaged goods to his
new chosen site. Even though the rain is heavy at times, he focuses on setting up
his new home, determined to establish a safe and functional living space.
● October 31: Equipped with his gun, Crusoe ventures inland for the first time
to hunt and explore the island. He successfully kills a she-goat for food.
Interestingly, her kid follows him back to his camp, but Crusoe eventually kills it too,
as it refuses to eat and survive.
● November 1: Crusoe sets up his tent under the rock, making it as large and
sturdy as possible. He places stakes in the ground to support his hammock,
preparing for his first proper night's sleep in his new shelter.
● November 2: Using chests, planks, and timber salvaged from the shipwreck,
Crusoe builds a strong fence around his tent. This fortification is meant to provide
an additional layer of safety, making his new home more secure and better defended.
The Industrial Revolution
Economic change
At the end of the 18th century, Britain experienced significant economic
transformations that shifted the country from a mainly agricultural society to an
industrialised one. These changes had their roots in earlier periods, starting after the
final outbreak of the Black Death, when improved living standards and a growing
population led to more intensive farming. The 18th century saw a true agricultural
revolution: new methods of soil management increased land fertility and boosted
cereal production, while scientific breeding of animals improved meat output.
Technological innovation
Thomas Newcomen invented the steam engine in 1712, which made pumping water
out of coal mines possibile. James Hargreaves’s spinning jenny increased spinning
efficiency. Heavy investment in technological development increased and innovation
became linked to energy generated from coal.
The workers life
Many working-class families needed additional income, so their children also had to
work. First, they could pay children less than adults for doing the same work.
Second, children were easier to control and were generally more obedient than
adults. The third reason for employing children rather than adults was because of
their size.
Britain and America
When George III ascended to the throne in 1760, Britain was a dominant naval power,
enjoying internal stability and economic growth. However, his reign is most
remembered for the significant loss of the American colonies. To manage public
debt, Britain imposed taxes on goods like corn, paper, and tea and expected the
American colonies to contribute to their own defense. These new taxes sparked
outrage in the colonies, leading to widespread protests. Although some taxes were
repealed, a tax on tea remained, fueling continued anger.
The famous "Boston Tea Party" of 1773 became a symbol of rebellion, where
American patriots, disguised as Native Americans, dumped a shipment of British tea
into Boston Harbour. Their rallying cry was "No taxation without representation,"
emphasizing their lack of political voice in the British Parliament.
In Britain, some intellectuals sympathized with the colonists, like Edmund Burke and
Thomas Paine, whose pamphlet Common Sense inspired revolutionary ideals. The
War of Independence began in 1775, dividing colonists into Patriots and Loyalists.
Despite lacking a formal army, the Patriots used their knowledge of the land and
local support effectively. British forces were stronger but limited by distance and
supply issues. French military aid played a crucial role in turning the tide.
On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence, drafted mainly by Thomas
Jefferson, articulated not just the break from Britain but also universal principles of
human rights and governance based on the "consent of the governed." The war
ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, officially recognizing American
independence.
The newly founded United States became a symbol of hope and a fresh start for
immigrants. In 1787, a federal constitution was established, and in 1789, George
Washington was inaugurated as the first President. Meanwhile, many Loyalists
relocated to Canada, reinforcing British influence there.
Gothic fiction
Gothic fiction emerged in the late 18th century as a literary genre that blended horror
and terror. The adjective “Gothic” was first applied to architecture long before it was
used to describe literature. Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto (1764) is
considered the first Gothic novel, setting many conventions of the genre, including
haunted castles, ancestral curses, and tragic heroines.
In Gothic fiction, critics often distinguish between terror and horror:
● Terror is internal and psychological. It involves suspense, anticipation, and
fear of the unknown. Terror creates a sense of dread and anxiety before
anything actually happens. It plays with the imagination and keeps the reader
in a state of nervous expectation.
● Horror is external and physical. It shocks the reader with explicit scenes of
violence, death, or supernatural events. Horror provokes immediate reactions
of disgust or fear through graphic details.
Gothic fiction is set in isolated places such as castles, abbeys, and convents, often
far from civilization, which enhances the feeling of mystery and fear. The events
typically occur at night, a time associated with darkness and danger. The plot is
usually complex and full of suspense, often made even more intricate by stories
within stories. The characters include supernatural beings like monsters, ghosts,
wanderers, or outcasts who bring an element of the uncanny. The typical Gothic hero
is portrayed as sensitive and honourable, often struggling with inner or external
conflicts. The heroine is usually a young woman who is innocent and virtuous but
becomes the victim of persecution by a cruel villain, highlighting themes of
vulnerability and evil.
Mary Shelley and Frankenstein
Mary Shelley was born in 1797, the daughter of two famous radicals: Mary
Wollstonecraft, a pioneer of women’s rights, and William Godwin, a political
philosopher. In 1816, during a stay at Villa Diodati in Switzerland with Lord Byron and
other friends, bad weather kept them indoors, where they amused themselves by
reading horror stories. This inspired Mary, then only 18, to write Frankenstein,
published anonymously in 1818. After many personal tragedies, including the death of
Percy Shelley in 1822, Mary returned to England and continued her writing career until
her death in 1851.
The novel Frankenstein tells the story of Robert Walton, an explorer who, on an Arctic
expedition, rescues Victor Frankenstein. Frankenstein recounts how, as a scientist
fascinated by natural philosophy and science, he created a living being from parts of
dead bodies. However, horrified by his creation, he abandoned it. The creature, feeling
rejected and vengeful, destroys Frankenstein’s life, killing his loved ones, including
his wife Elizabeth. In the end, Frankenstein dies aboard Walton’s ship, regretting his
failure to destroy the monster. The creature, full of remorse, disappears into the
Arctic, vowing to end his own life.
Levels of Narration
Frankenstein is not told chronologically. It is written as an epistolary novel. It is
composed of three narratives, with three different narrators and three different points
of view:
Robert Walton tells the story of his expedition to the Arctic to his sister
Victor Frankenstein tells his life story to Walton
The creature tells his story to Frankenstein.
Literary Influences
The monster can be considered Rousseau's Natural man', that is, a man in a primitive
state, not influenced by civilisation.
The myth of Prometheus is also important. In Greek mythology, Prometheus was a
giant who stole fire from the Gods in order to give it to men. In doing so, he
challenged divine authority and freed men from the Gods' power.
The role of science
Percy and Mary Shelley were particularly fascinated by the experiments with
electricity. The monster is the first literary embodiment of the theme of science and its
moral responsibilities and potentially dangerous consequences.
Themes
Frankenstein explores the limits of life and death, the danger of forbidden knowledge,
and the overreacher figure in Walton and Frankenstein. It also shows the usurpation
of the female role through artificial creation of life. The monster symbolizes social
prejudice and the pain of rejection.
