Human Skeletal System

1. What is the Human Skeletal System?

The human skeletal system is the internal framework of bones,
cartilage, ligaments, and joints that provides structure, support,
movement, and protection to the body.

• Key Components:

• Bones – 206 in adults; provide structural support

• Cartilage – flexible tissue at joints; reduces friction

• Ligaments – tough bands that connect bone to bone

• Joints – points where two or more bones meet and allow

movement
2. What is the importance of Skeletal System?
3. Divisions of the Skeleton
• Axial Skeleton (80 bones): Skull (Cranium & face)

Hyoid bone , auditory ossicles, vertebral column,

Thorax ( ribs, sternum)

• Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones): Limbs, shoulder

girdle, pelvic girdle
 3.1 Axial skeleton
Skull
The skull is composed of 22 bones, including the cranial bones, facial bones, ear ossicles, and Hyoid bone. The
cranial bones protect the brain, while the facial bones provide structure to the face and house the sensory organs.
Cranial Bones
•Frontal Bone: The frontal bone protects the front side of the brain. It constitutes the forehead and the upper part
of the eye orbits.

•Parietal Bones: There are two parietal bones, one on each side of the skull. They form the roof of the cranial cavity

•Temporal Bones: The temporal bones are located on the sides of the skull above the ear. They protect the sides of
the brain

•Occipital Bone: The occipital bone is situated at the back of the skull. It contains the largest hole of the human
body known as the foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord passes. Two condyles are present in the
occipital bone which makes the human skull dicondylic.

•Sphenoid Bone: The sphenoid bone is present at the base of the skull. It forms the floor of the cranium. It protects
the lower part of the brain and houses the pituitary gland in its depression known as Sella Tursica.

•Ethmoid Bone: The ethmoid bone is located between the eye sockets and forms part of the nasal cavity.
 Facial Bones
• Maxilla: The maxilla is the upper jawbone. It contains the upper teeth.
• Mandible: The mandible is the lower jawbone. It is the only movable bone in the skull. It
contains the lower teeth and plays an important role in chewing and speaking.
• Zygomatic Bones: The zygomatic bones are also known as cheekbones. They are located on
the sides of the face. They form the cheeks prominence during smiling and also form part
of the eye sockets.
• Nasal Bones: The nasal bones are small, rectangular bones that form the bridge of the
nose.
• Lacrimal Bones: The lacrimal bones are the smallest facial bones. They are present in the
eye orbits and house the lacrimal or tear glands.
• Vomer Bone: The vomer bone is a thin, flat and triangular bone present in the midline of
the nasal cavity. It is a part of the nasal septum, which divides the nasal cavity into two
halves.
• Palatine Bones: The palatine bones form the roof of the buccal cavity by forming the
posterior part of the hard palate.
• Inferior Nasal Conchae: These are the bony ridges in the nasal cavity that are richly
supplied with blood vessels. They add moisture to the air and warm the air.
 Ear ossicles
• There are three pairs of ear ossicles present in the middle ear. They
help in intensifying or amplifying sound waves.
• These are Malleus (Hammer) , Incus(Anvil) and Stapes(Stirrup).
Stapes are the smallest bone of the human body.
• The Stapidius muscle is the smallest muscle in the human body, also
found in the ear and associated with the stapes bone.
 Hyoid Bone
• It is a U-shaped bone. It does not form any joint. It provides a surface
for the attachment of tongue muscle.
 Vertebral Column
The vertebral column is a S-shaped structure essential for bipedal locomotion. It provides support
and protects the spinal cord.
It consists of 33 vertebrae in embryos and 26 vertebrae in adults. These vertebrae are classified
into five regions:
•7 Cervical vertebrae are present in the neck region.
•12 Thoracic vertebrae are present in the thoracic region. In these vertebrae, two additional
attachment sites are present on each vertebra for ribs.
•5 Lumbar vertebrae are present in the upper abdominal region. They are the strongest and
thickest.
•Sacrum is formed by the fusion of 5 vertebrae and is present in the lower abdominal region.
•Coccyx is formed by the fusion of 4 vertebrae and is present in the tail region. It is vestigial as it
was the tailbone of ancestors.
Vertebral formula in adults- C7 T12 L5 S(5) Co(4)
 Ribs & Sternum
• The ribs and sternum along with the vertebral column form the rib cage,
which protects the thoracic cavity. There are 12 pairs of ribs, attached to the
thoracic vertebrae at the back and the sternum at the front. Ribs are
attached to the sternum using hyaline cartilage. The sternum, or
breastbone, is a dagger-shaped, flat bone located in the center of the chest.
It is present on the ventral side and protects the trachea.
• 12 pairs of ribs can be classified into 3 types:
• True Ribs- They are also known as center ribs as they are attached to the
vertebral column dorsally and sternum ventrally. The first to Seventh pairs
of ribs belong to this category.
• False Ribs- They are also known as vertebrochondral ribs as they are
attached to the vertebral column dorsally and the cartilage of the seventh
pair ventrally. Eighth to Tenth pairs of ribs belong to this category.
• Floating Ribs- They are also known as vertebral ribs as they are attached
to the vertebral column dorsally and are free ventrally. Eleventh and Twelfth
pairs of ribs belong to this category.
 3.2 Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton facilitates movement and locomotion. It
comprises the bones of the limbs and the girdles that attach them to
the axial skeleton. It includes the pectoral (shoulder) girdle which
anchors the upper limbs and the pelvic girdle which supports the lower
limbs. The bones of the upper and lower limbs are also included in the
appendicular skeleton enabling various movements.
Pectoral Girdle
• The pectoral girdle is also called the shoulder girdle. It connects the forelimbs to
the axial skeleton and provides mobility to the arms. It consists of four bones-
two clavicles and two scapulae.
• Scapula, also known as the shoulder blade is a flat and triangular bone. It consists
of the body, spine, acromion process, coracoid process and glenoid cavity. The
acromion process is responsible for the formation of the shoulder with clavicle
bone, the Coracoid process is responsible for the attachment of muscles and the
Glenoid cavity is responsible for the articulation of the head of the humerus by
the ball and socket joint
• Clavicle, also known as the collarbone is an F-shaped bone. It has two ends,
namely, dorsal and ventral ends. The Dorsal end of the Clavicle is attached to the
acromion process of the scapula while the ventral end is attached to the sternum.
 Pelvic Girdle
• The pelvic girdle, also known as the hip girdle, connects the lower limbs to the axial skeleton and provides

support for the body's weight.

• It consists of two coxal bones. These two bones are joined by a cartilaginous joint, known as Pubic

Symphysis.

• It opens at the time of delivery resulting in a broader hip region of females after childbirth.

• Coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones during the embryonic stage. These bones

are Ilium(largest), Ischium, and Pubis(smallest).

• In the region of Ischium, Obturator Foramen is present which is formed by the ischium and pubis. It is a

hole from where blood vessels, nerves, ducts etc. go from the upper body to the lower body.

• Acetabulum is formed by all three bones and is responsible for the attachment of the femur.
 Lower Limbs
• Bones of lower limbs enable walking, running, and various other
movements
• The lower limbs consist of-
• Femur is the thickest, strongest, and longest bone of the human body.
It is present in the thigh. The head of the femur articulates with the
acetabulum of the hip girdle.
• Tibia and Fibula are bones present in the leg. Tibia, also known as the
shin bone, is the second longest and strongest bone of the body.
• 7 Tarsals are present in the ankle.
• 5 Metatarsals are present in the foot.
• 14 Phalanges are present in the toe having a digit formula similar to
that of the fingers of the Forelimbs.
4. Types of bones – Long , short, irregular, flat & sesmoid
 4.1 Long bones

These bones develop via endochondral ossification, a process in which the

hyaline cartilage plate is slowly replaced. A shaft, or diaphysis, connects
the two ends known as the epiphyses (plural for epiphysis). The marrow
cavity is enclosed by the diaphysis which is thick, compact bone. The
epiphysis is mainly spongy bone and is covered by a thin layer of compact
bone; the articular ends participate in the joints.
The metaphysis is situated on the border of the diaphysis and the
epiphysis at the neck of the bone and is the place of growth during
development.
Some examples of this type of bones include:
The humerus
The fibula
The tibia
The metacarpal bones
The metatarsal bones
The phalanges
The radius and ulna.
 4.2 Short bones
• The short bones are usually as long as they are
wide. They are usually found in the carpus of the
hand and tarsus of the foot.
• In the short bones, a thin external layer of compact
bone covers vast spongy bone and marrow, making
a shape that is more or less cuboid.
• The main function of the short bones is to provide
stability and some degree of movement.
• Some examples of these bones are:
• Carpals – wrist bones (8 per wrist)

• Tarsals – ankle bones (7 per ankle)

 4.3 Flat bones
• In flat bones, the two layers of compact
bone cover both spongy bone and bone
marrow space. They grow by replacing
connective tissue. Fibrocartilage covers
their articular surfaces. This group includes
the following bones:
• The skull bones
• The ribs
• The sternum
• The scapulae
• The prime function of flat bones is to
protect internal organs such as the brain,
heart, and pelvic organs. Also, due to their
flat shape, these bones provide large areas
for muscle attachments.
 4.4 Irregular bones
• Definition:
Irregular bones have complex shapes that do not fit into other bone categories (long, short, flat, or sesamoid).
Their varied shapes reflect specialized functions.

• Functions:

• Protect nervous tissue (e.g., vertebrae protect the spinal cord)

• Certain have large air spaces lined by epithelium – called pneumatic bones

• Serve as muscle attachment points

• Contribute to the support and structural integrity of the body

• Examples: Vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar)
• Sacrum and Coccyx
• Pelvic bones
• Facial bones with sinuses such as:
• Ethmoid
• Sphenoid
• Maxilla
 Pneumatic bones
• Pneumatic bones are hollow bones that contain air-filled spaces
(sinuses) lined by mucous membrane. These bones are connected to
the respiratory tract.
• Key Features:
• Light in weight but strong
• Improve respiratory efficiency (especially in birds)
• Assist in voice resonance in humans
• Lined by epithelium continuous with nasal mucosa
• E.g. frontal bone, maxilla, ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, and temporal
bone (mastoid part).
 4.5 Sesamoid Bones – Small Bones in Tendons
• Definition:
Sesamoid bones are small, round bones embedded within tendons, usually found near joints. They are
named after the resemblance to sesame seeds in size and shape.
• Most are not fixed in number – they vary between individuals
• Some people may have extra sesamoid bones (especially in hands or feet)
• These variations are usually asymptomatic, but occasionally may be mistaken for fractures on X-rays
Functions:
• Protect tendons from wear and tear
• Increase mechanical efficiency of muscles
• Alter the direction of muscle pull to improve leverage
Examples:
Patella (kneecap) – the largest and most consistent sesamoid bone
Small sesamoid bones found in:
Hands – in tendons of the thumb (flexor pollicis brevis)
Feet – under the big toe near the first metatarsal head
 5. Common terms about bones
Term Description
The shaft or long, central part of a long
Diaphysis
bone
The ends of a long bone, often expanded
Epiphysis
and involved in joint formation
The growth zone between diaphysis and
Metaphysis
epiphysis in growing bones
Central hollow space in the diaphysis
Medullary cavity
containing bone marrow
Cortex (Cortical bone) Dense, compact outer layer of bone
Inner porous bone found in epiphyses and
Cancellous (spongy) bone
flat bones
Outer fibrous membrane covering the bone
Periosteum
(except at joints)
Endosteum Thin membrane lining the medullary cavity
6. Structure of bones
 6.1 Gross (Macroscopic) Structure of a Long Bone (Anatomy of bone)
Example: femur, humerus
1. Diaphysis (Shaft)
Long central part of bone.
Made of compact bone (cortex) surrounding medullary cavity.
Medullary cavity contains bone marrow (yellow in adults, red in children).
2. Epiphyses (Ends)
Expanded ends of bone.
Made of spongy bone with red marrow.
Covered by articular cartilage.
3. Metaphysis
Region between diaphysis & epiphysis.
Contains epiphyseal plate (growth plate) in children, becomes epiphyseal line in adults.
4. Periosteum
Outer covering of bone (except joints).
Outer fibrous layer – protection, attachment of muscles & tendons.
Inner osteogenic layer – contains bone-forming & bone-destroying cells.
Rich in blood vessels and nerves.
5. Medullary Cavity
Hollow central cavity inside diaphysis.
Filled with yellow bone marrow (fat) in adults, red marrow (blood cell formation) in children.
6. Cortex (Compact Bone)
Hard, dense outer layer.
Provides strength and support.
7. Endosteum
Thin inner membrane lining medullary cavity.
Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
Structure of growing & mature bone
 6.2 Types of bone tissues
1. Compact Bone (Cortical Bone)
•Dense, solid outer layer of bone

•Forms the shaft of long bones and outer layer of all bones

•Composed of osteons (Haversian systems)

•Provides strength and rigidity

•Rich in blood vessels and nerves within Haversian canals

•Function: Supports weight, resists bending and torsion

•Compact bone makes up 80 percent of the human skeleton

•Compact bone forms a shell around cancellous bone and is the primary component of the long

bones of the arm and leg and other bones, where its greater strength and rigidity are needed.
• Mature compact bone is lamellar, or layered, in structure.

• It is permeated by an elaborate system of interconnecting vascular canals, the haversian systems,

which contain the blood supply for the osteocytes; the bone is arranged in concentric layers

around those canals, forming structural units called osteons.

• Immature compact bone does not contain osteons and has a woven structure.

• It forms around a framework of collagen fibres and is eventually replaced by mature bone in

a remodeling process of bone resorption and new bone formation that creates the osteons.
 2 .Spongy Bone (Cancellous Bone)
• Light, Porous, honeycomb-like inner structure, enclose large spaces

• Found mainly at the epiphyses of long bones and in flat/irregular bones

• Composed of trabeculae (struts of bone)- The bone matrix, or framework, is organized into a
three-dimensional latticework of bony processes, called trabeculae, arranged along lines of stress.

• Spaces filled with red bone marrow for hematopoiesis

• Function: Lightens bone weight, supports marrow, absorbs shock

• Osteoporosis mainly affects cancellous bone because its large surface area

and metabolic activity make it more susceptible to bone loss.

Both compact and cancellous ( soft) bone types are
found in most of the bones
 6.3 Microscopical Classification of Bone
[Link] Bone
1. Immature bone.
2. Collagen fibers arranged irregularly (haphazard).
3. Found in embryonic development and during fracture healing.
4. Less organized → mechanically weaker.
5. Woven bone is normal in early development and fracture repair, but if it persists in adults, it usually indicates a
pathological condition.
6. Seen in diseases: Paget’s disease, fibrous dysplasia, osteogenesis imperfecta, bone tumors (e.g., osteosarcoma).
[Link] Bone
1. Mature bone.
2. Collagen fibers arranged in regular parallel or concentric layers (lamellae).
3. Strong and organized.
4. Replaces woven bone during growth and remodeling.
5. Subtypes:
1. Compact (cortical) bone – dense, forms outer layer.
2. Spongy (cancellous) bone – porous, found in epiphyses and flat bones.
[Link] Bone (rare, primitive type)
1. Collagen fibers dominate.
2. Found in some lower vertebrates and pathological cases.
[Link] Hard Tissues Related to Bone
1. Dentine – forms bulk of tooth beneath enamel.
2. Cementum – covers tooth root, anchors tooth to periodontal ligament.
 Fibrous bone

Dentine & Cementum

 Classification of bones
1. According to position – Axial & Appendicular

2. According to structure ( types of tissues) – Compact &

Cancellous

3. According to shapes – Long , short, irregular , flat & sesmoid

4. Microscopic classification – Woven , lamellar, fibrous &

specialised
7. Blood supply to bones

Bones are highly vascular structures.

They receive blood from multiple sources
Bone is a highly vascularized tissue. An adequate blood supply is essential
for:

1. Bone growth, remodeling, and repair

[Link] of nutrients and oxygen
[Link] of waste products
 Main Sources of Blood Supply to Bone:

Vascular Source Region Supplied

Diaphysis and inner 2/3 of the cortex;
Nutrient artery
medullary cavity
Metaphyseal and epiphyseal arteries Metaphysis and epiphysis (ends of bone)
Periosteal arteries Outer 1/3 of cortex (via the periosteum)
Arteries from surrounding muscles Provide collateral support
1. Nutrient Artery
•Main blood supply to long bones.
•Enters through the nutrient foramen (in the diaphysis).
•Divides into branches inside medullary cavity → supply medullary cavity, inner 2/3 of cortex, and bone
marrow.
2. Periosteal Arteries
•Small arteries arising from vessels in the periosteum.
•Supply the outer 1/3 of cortex.
•Important in compact bone, especially in flat bones.
3. Metaphyseal Arteries
•Arise from arteries around the joints.
•Supply the metaphysis (region near the growth plate).
•Important for growth during childhood.
4. Epiphyseal Arteries
•Arise from periarticular vascular arcades around the joint.
•Supply the epiphysis and the growth plate in growing bone.
8. Types of bone cells
 8. Bone Cells: Types & Functions
1. Osteoprogenitor Cells
•Type: Stem cells found in inner layer of periosteum & endosteum.
•Function: Differentiate into osteoblasts.
•Role: Important for bone growth and fracture repair.

2. Osteoblasts
Type: Bone-forming cells.
Location: Found on bone surface.
Function:
Secrete osteoid (organic matrix of bone).
Help in mineralization (deposit calcium & phosphate).
Fate: Some osteoblasts get trapped in bone matrix and become osteocytes.

3. Osteocytes
Type: Mature bone cells (former osteoblasts trapped in lacunae).
Function:
Maintain bone matrix.
Communicate via canaliculi (tiny channels).
Sense mechanical stress → signal osteoblasts & osteoclasts.
4. Osteoclasts
Type: Large, multinucleated bone-resorbing cells.
Origin: Derived from fusion of monocyte–macrophage lineage (hematopoietic stem cells in bone
marrow)
Function:
Break down bone by secreting enzymes & acids.
Important for bone remodeling and calcium homeostasis.
 9. Process of Formation of Bone Cells

Mesenchymal stem cell → Osteoprogenitor → Osteoblast →

Osteocyte

Hematopoietic stem cell → Monocyte lineage → Osteoclast

•Mesenchymal stem cells (in bone marrow, periosteum, endosteum) → give rise to osteoprogenitor cells.

•Osteoprogenitor cells → differentiate into osteoblasts under the influence of transcription factors like

Runx2 and osterix.

•Osteoblasts → actively secrete osteoid (organic bone matrix) and initiate mineralization.

•Some osteoblasts remain on the bone surface.

•Some osteoblasts get embedded in the matrix → become osteocytes.

•Osteocytes → mature cells residing in lacunae, connected via canaliculi, maintain bone and sense mechanical

stress.

•Osteoclasts (different origin) → do not come from osteoprogenitors. Instead, they arise from hematopoietic

stem cells (monocyte–macrophage lineage) in bone marrow, and differentiate under the influence of M-

CSF and RANKL secreted by osteoblasts.

•Function: bone resorption, remodeling, calcium regulation.

Hierarchical organisation of bone
Level Structure
Organ (Macro) Whole bone (femur, skull, etc.)
Tissue Compact vs. spongy bone
Osteoblasts, osteocytes,
Cellular
osteoclasts
Osteons, lamellae, lacunae,
Histological
canals
Matrix (Submicroscopic) Collagen + Hydroxyapatite
Molecular/Nano Mineralized collagen fibrils
 10. Types of sutures
Suture Name Bones Connected Location
Frontal bone + Left & Runs across the top of the
1. Coronal Suture
Right Parietal bones skull, ear to ear
Runs along the midline of
2. Sagittal Suture Right & Left Parietal bones
the skull (top)
Occipital bone + Left & Posterior skull, forms an
3. Lambdoid Suture
Right Parietal bones inverted "V"
Parietal bone + Temporal Lateral sides of the skull
4. Squamous Suture
bone (each side) above the ears
5. Frontozygomatic Frontal bone + Zygomatic Near the outer edge of the
Suture bone eye socket
6. Zygomaticotemporal Zygomatic bone + Side of the skull, near
Suture Temporal bone cheekbone
7. Sphenoparietal Sphenoid bone + Parietal Just anterior to the
Suture bone squamous suture
8. Occipitomastoid Occipital bone + Mastoid Behind the ear, near skull
Suture portion of temporal bone base
11. Cartilage
In general structure of Connective tissue
• Cartilage is a specialized connective tissue that is firm, smooth, elastic, and avascular (lacks blood
vessels). It provides support and flexibility to various parts of the body and plays a crucial role in
development, cushioning, and articulation of joints.
Composition of Cartilage:
[Link]:
1. Chondrocytes: The primary cells found in cartilage.
1. Reside in small spaces called lacunae
[Link] and maintain the extracellular matrix
[Link] Matrix:
1. Collagen fibers: Provide tensile strength
2. Elastic fibers (in some types): Provide flexibility
3. Proteoglycans (e.g., chondroitin sulfate): Retain water and resist compression
[Link] blood vessels or nerves
1. Nutrients and waste diffuse through the matrix
2. Healing is slow due to limited blood supply
Example of cartilage

Damage to cartilage : joint pain &

stiffness like in osteoarthritis ,
chrondrosarcoma
 Functions of Cartilage
•Support: Provides shape and support to soft tissues (e.g., nose, ear)

•Flexibility: Especially in areas that need both support and movement

•Smooth Articulation: Covers joint surfaces to reduce friction between bones

•Shock Absorption: Especially fibrocartilage in spine and knees

•Growth and Development: Forms the template for bone growth in the fetal

skeleton and in epiphyseal (growth) plates during childhood

 12.2 Types of cartilages
Type Features Location
Articular surfaces of
Most common; smooth,
Hyaline cartilage joints, nose, trachea,
glassy; rich in collagen
bronchi, fetal skeleton
Contains elastic fibers; External ear (auricle),
Elastic cartilage
flexible and resilient epiglottis
Strongest; thick Intervertebral discs,
Fibrocartilage collagen bundles; pubic symphysis,
resists compression menisci of knee
Feature Hyaline Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Fibrocartilage

Type I (mainly) +
Collagen Type Type II Type II + Elastic fibers
Type II

Present (except
Perichondrium Present Absent
articular)

Flexibility Moderate High Low

Strength Moderate Moderate Very High

Ear, epiglottis, Discs, menisci, pubic

Location Joints, nose, trachea
auditory tube symphysis
 Hyaline cartilage
•Most common type of cartilage

•Matrix: Glassy, translucent, homogeneous, rich in type II

collagen fibers (not visible distinctly under light

microscope)

•Cells: Chondrocytes lie in lacunae, often arranged in

groups called isogenous groups (cell nests)

•Perichondrium: Present (except in articular cartilage)

•Location: Nose, trachea, bronchi, larynx, costal cartilage,

articular surfaces, epiphyseal plates

 Elastic Cartilage
•Similar to hyaline cartilage but with
elastic fibers in the matrix
•Matrix: Dense network of elastic fibers
+ type II collagen makes it flexible and
resilient
•Cells: Chondrocytes in lacunae, more
closely packed than in hyaline
•Perichondrium: Present
•Location: Epiglottis, external ear
(auricle, external auditory canal),
eustachian tube
 Fibrocartilage
•Combination of dense connective tissue and

cartilage

•Matrix: Abundant type I collagen fibers arranged

in bundles + small amount of type II collagen; less

ground substance

•Cells: Chondrocytes in lacunae, often arranged in

rows between bundles of collagen fibers

•Perichondrium: Absent

•Location: Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis,

menisci of knee joint, temporomandibular joint

12.3 Process of formation
of chondrocytes
•Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs):
Multipotent stem cells present in embryonic mesenchyme. They can differentiate into bone, cartilage, or fat cells
depending on signals.

•Mesenchymal Cell Condensation:

MSCs migrate and aggregate at sites where cartilage will form. This condensation is essential for chondrogenesis.

•Differentiation into Chondroprogenitor Cells:

Under the influence of transcription factors like SOX9, MSCs commit to the chondrogenic lineage and become
chondroprogenitors.

•Formation of Early Chondroblasts:

Chondroprogenitor cells differentiate into chondroblasts.
•Chondroblasts are actively dividing.
•They secrete extracellular matrix (ECM) rich in type II collagen and proteoglycans.

•Maturation into Chondrocytes:

Chondroblasts eventually become enclosed in their own secreted ECM, occupying spaces called lacunae. Once
trapped, they are called chondrocytes.

•Proliferation and Organization:

•Chondrocytes continue to divide within lacunae, forming groups called isogenous groups (clusters of daughter
chondrocytes).
•They maintain and remodel cartilage by secreting ECM.
 Anatomy of lower limb
Anatomy of upper limb

Pelvic girdle
 13. Joint
• A joint, also called an articulation, is a point where two or more bones
meet in the body.

• Joints allow for movement and provide mechanical support. Some joints
permit a wide range of motion (e.g., shoulder), while others allow very limited
or no movement (e.g., skull sutures).
 Functions of Joints:
• Enable movement between bones (e.g., walking, bending)

• Provide mechanical support

• Hold the skeleton together

• Some joints allow freely movable actions (like the shoulder), while others
are immovable (like skull sutures).
Basic Components of a Joint:

•Bones involved in the articulation

•Cartilage covering bone ends (usually hyaline cartilage)

•Joint capsule (in synovial joints)

•Ligaments (connect bone to bone and stabilize joints)

•Synovial fluid (lubricates the joint)

 Major Classification of joints

Functional Structural By no of articulating

bones
• Synoarthrosis • Fibrous • Simple

• Amphiarthrosis • Cartilagenous • Compound

• Diarthrosis • Synovial • Complex

 Functional classification of joints
Joint Type Movement Example

Synarthrosis Immovable Skull sutures, tooth socket

Pubic symphysis,
Amphiarthrosis Slightly movable
intervertebral discs
Diarthrosis Freely movable Knee, shoulder, hip
 Structural classification joints
• 1. Fibrous Joints

• These joints are held together by dense fibrous connective tissue.

They are immovable or allow very little movement.

• Key Features:

• No joint cavity

• Bones are joined directly by collagen fibers

• Function: Mostly Synarthrotic (immovable)

 Types of Fibrous joints
Type Description Example
Interlocking bones held
Skull bones (e.g.,
Sutures by short connective
coronal suture)
tissue fibers
Bones connected by
ligaments or
Syndesmoses Distal tibiofibular joint
interosseous
membranes
Teeth in alveolar sockets
Gomphoses "Peg-in-socket" joint (connected by
periodontal ligament)
Suture Type Description Example
Interlocking, saw-tooth- Coronal suture (between
Serrate Suture
like edges frontal and parietal bones)
Like serrate but with
Sagittal suture (between
Dentate Suture deeper, tooth-like
parietal bones)
projections
Flat edges, bones meet
Internasal suture
Plane (Butt) Suture edge-to-edge without
(between nasal bones)
overlap
Squamous suture
Squamous Suture Overlapping beveled edges (between temporal and
parietal bones)
A thin plate of bone fits Between vomer and
Schindylesis into a cleft or groove of sphenoid bone (in nasal
another septum)
Internasal suture
Coronal (Serrate) suture Dentate suture ( Sagittal )
(Nasal)

Squamous suture Schindylesis suture

2. Cartilaginous Joints
• Bones are joined by cartilage.
These joints allow limited movement.

Key Features:

• No joint cavity

• Bones united by hyaline or fibrocartilage

• Function: Mostly amphiarthrotic (slightly movable)

Type Description Example
Primary cartilaginous joints or Bones joined by hyaline cartilage; Epiphyseal plate (growth plate),
Synchondroses often temporary joint between first rib and sternum
Secondary cartilaginous joints or Pubic symphysis, intervertebral
Bones joined by fibrocartilage
Symphyses discs
[Link] joints
These are the most common and most movable joints in the body.
Key Features:
Joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
Articular cartilage covers bone ends
Surrounded by a joint (articular) capsule
Function: All are diarthrotic (freely movable)
 Types of synovial joints

Type Movement Example

Ball and socket Multiaxial (all directions) Shoulder, hip

Hinge Flexion and extension Elbow, knee

Pivot Rotation around one axis Atlantoaxial joint (neck)

Thumb (carpometacarpal
Saddle Biaxial movement
joint)

Condyloid Biaxial movement Wrist joint

Plane (gliding) Sliding motion Intercarpal joints

Synovial joints of upper limb
Synovial joints of lower limb
Types of Joints by Number of Articulating Bones
Type Definition Example
Shoulder joint (humerus
A joint formed between
Simple Joint and scapula), Hip joint
two bones
(femur and pelvis)
Elbow joint (humerus,
A joint formed between radius, and ulna), Knee
Compound Joint
more than two bones joint (femur, tibia, and
patella)
Knee joint (contains
Contains an articular
menisci),
disc or meniscus
Temporomandibular
Complex Joint within the joint cavity
joint (has an articular
(may involve two or
disc), Sternoclavicular
more bones)
joint
 Knee joint
Temperomandibular joint

Sternoclavicular joint joint

 Important vitamins for bones

•Vitamin D → Increases calcium and phosphate absorption from gut; essential for mineralization of bone.

•Vitamin C → Required for collagen synthesis in osteoid; deficiency → scurvy (weak bones).

•Vitamin K → Important for osteocalcin activation (bone mineralization protein).

•Vitamin A → Regulates activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts; excess → bone fragility, deficiency → poor

growth.

•B-complex (esp. B12, folate, B6) → Involved in homocysteine metabolism; deficiency linked to osteoporosis

risk.
 Important minerals for bones

Calcium → Main mineral of bone (hydroxyapatite); essential for strength and rigidity.

Phosphorus → Combines with calcium in hydroxyapatite crystals.

Magnesium → Involved in bone matrix formation; deficiency → reduced bone mass.

Fluoride → Stimulates bone formation in small amounts; excess → skeletal fluorosis.

Zinc, Copper, Manganese → Cofactors for enzymes in collagen synthesis and bone

mineralization.
 Important Hormones
•Parathyroid hormone (PTH) → Increases bone resorption (osteoclast activity) and raises blood
calcium.
•Calcitonin → From thyroid C cells; inhibits osteoclasts, decreases bone resorption.
•Vitamin D (Calcitriol, active form) → Enhances calcium absorption and bone mineralization.
•Growth hormone (GH) → Stimulates bone growth via IGF-1; deficiency → dwarfism, excess →
gigantism/acromegaly.
•Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) → Essential for normal bone growth and maturation; excess → bone
resorption.
•Sex hormones (Estrogen, Testosterone) → Promote epiphyseal plate closure; estrogen prevents
osteoporosis by inhibiting bone resorption.
•Glucocorticoids → In excess, cause bone loss (inhibit osteoblasts, increase resorption).
 Hormonal control of bone homeostasis
1. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
•Secreted by parathyroid glands.
•Increases blood calcium by:
• Stimulating osteoclast activity (via osteoblast signaling → RANKL).
• Increasing calcium reabsorption in kidney.
• Promoting activation of Vitamin D (calcitriol) in kidney.
•Overall effect: Bone resorption ↑, blood calcium ↑.
2. Calcitonin
Secreted by C cells (parafollicular cells) of thyroid gland.
Decreases blood calcium by:
Inhibiting osteoclast activity.
Promoting calcium deposition into bone.
Overall effect: Bone resorption ↓, blood calcium ↓.
Functions of bones
Vertebral column
Vertebra

Intervertebral disc
Structure of a Typical Vertebra
 1. Vertebral Body
•Large, cylindrical, anterior portion.
•Bears weight and transmits it down the spine.
•Surfaces are covered with cartilage for articulation with intervertebral discs.
 2. Vertebral Arch
•Posterior part, encloses the vertebral foramen.
•Formed by:
• Pedicles – short bony projections from the body.
• Laminae – flat plates that form the back of the arch.
 3. Vertebral Foramen
•Opening between the body and arch.
•Together, all vertebral foramina form the vertebral canal, housing the spinal cord.
 4. Processes
•Spinous Process – projects posteriorly; muscle & ligament attachment.
•Transverse Processes (2) – project laterally; muscle attachment & rib articulation (thoracic vertebrae).
•Articular Processes (4):
• Superior Articular Processes (2) – face upward; articulate with vertebra above.
• Inferior Articular Processes (2) – face downward; articulate with vertebra below.
 5. Intervertebral Foramina
•Openings formed between vertebrae (when stacked); spinal nerves exit here.
 6. Facets
•Smooth cartilage-covered surfaces on articular processes for joint articulation.
 Intervertebral Disc – Structure
• Definition:
A fibrocartilaginous cushion between adjacent vertebral bodies, acting as a shock absorber and allowing limited
movement.
• Main Components:
1. Annulus Fibrosus
• Outer ring of tough fibrocartilage.
• Composed of several concentric layers (lamellae) of collagen fibers.
• Fibers are oriented at alternating angles in each layer for strength.
• Function:
• Resists compression, twisting, and shear forces.
• Contains the inner core (nucleus pulposus).
2. Nucleus Pulposus
• Soft, gel-like central portion.
• Rich in water and proteoglycans.
• Function:
• Distributes pressure evenly across the disc.
• Acts as a cushion to absorb shock.
3. Cartilaginous End Plates
• Thin layers of hyaline cartilage on the top and bottom of the disc.
• Attach the disc to the vertebral bodies.
• Allow nutrient exchange between vertebra and disc (discs are avascular).
Muscles
 MUSCLES – The Body’s Engines of Movement
• Definition:
Soft tissues made of specialized fibers that contract to produce movement,
maintain posture, and generate heat.
• Functions:
• Movement of body & limbs
• Maintaining posture
• Stabilizing joints
• Generating heat
• Moving substances within the body (e.g., food, blood)
• Fun Fact:
Muscles make up about 40% of your body weight!
 Skeletal (Straited ) muscles
• Skeletal muscles comprise 30% to 40% of total body mass. They’re the muscles that connect to
bones and allow us to perform a wide range of movements and functions.

• Skeletal muscles are voluntary. It’s important to keep skeletal muscles as strong and healthy as
possible.

• Tendons (tough bands of connective tissue) attach skeletal muscle tissue to bones throughout
body.

• Shoulder muscles, hamstring muscles and abdominal muscles are all examples of skeletal
muscles.
What do skeletal muscles do? Striated muscles are a vital part of your musculoskeletal system. They serve a
variety of functions, including:
• Chewing and swallowing, which are the first parts of digestion
• Expanding and contracting chest cavity for inhalation and exhalation
• Maintaining body posture
• Moving the bones in different parts of your body
• Protecting joints and holding them in place
• Storing nutrients & Sustaining body temperature
Where are the skeletal muscles located?
Skeletal muscles are located between the bones (skeletal system) throughout the body. They consist of flexible
muscle fibers that range from less than half an inch to just over 3 inches in diameter. These fibers usually span
the length of the muscle. The fibers contract (tighten), which allows the muscles to move bones so one can
perform lots of different movements.

What are the common conditions and disorders that affect striated muscles?
A wide range of conditions can affect skeletal muscles, from mild injuries to serious or even life-
threatening myopathies (diseases that affect skeletal muscles). A few are:
•Muscular dystrophies
•Myasthenia gravis (MG)
•Rhabdomyolysis
•Sarcopenia
•Strains
•Tendonitis
 Types of skeletal muscle fiber arrangements
Circular
•Fibers arranged in a ring shape.
•Function: Controls openings by contracting and relaxing.
•Example: Orbicularis oris (around the mouth), orbicularis oculi (around the eyes).
Convergent (Triangular)
•Broad origin, fibers converge toward a single tendon.
•Function: Allows strong contractions in multiple directions.
•Example: Pectoralis major (chest muscle).
Parallel
•Fibers run parallel to the muscle’s long axis.
•Function: Can shorten a lot, but not very strong compared to other types.
•Example: Sartorius (thigh), rectus abdominis (abs).
Fusiform
•Spindle-shaped: wide in the middle, narrow at the ends.
•Function: Produces strong contractions and good range of motion.
•Example: Biceps brachii.
Pennate (feather-like arrangement — more fibers packed in)
Unipennate: Fibers attach on one side of the tendon (e.g., extensor digitorum).
Bipennate: Fibers attach on both sides of a central tendon (e.g., rectus femoris).
Multipennate: Several tendons with fibers attaching at different angles (e.g., deltoid).
 Structure of Skeletal Muscle
Levels of Organization

Muscle → Fascicles → Muscle Fibers → Myofibrils → Sarcomeres → Myofilaments

Connective Tissue Coverings

•Epimysium → surrounds whole muscle
•Perimysium → surrounds fascicles
•Endomysium → surrounds individual fibers

Muscle Fiber Components

•Sarcolemma → cell membrane
•Sarcoplasm → cytoplasm (myoglobin, glycogen, mitochondria)
•T-tubules → carry action potential inside
•Sarcoplasmic Reticulum → calcium storage & release
 Structure of Sarcomere
The sarcomere is the smallest working unit of a muscle. Sarcomere Composition

Z line: Sarcomere boundary.

A band: Thick filaments (myosin) + overlapping thin filaments.

I band: Thin filaments (actin).

H zone: Only thick filaments.

M line: Center of thick filaments.

Regulatory proteins:

Tropomyosin → covers actin binding sites.

Troponin → binds Ca²⁺, moves tropomyosin.

Contraction of Skeletal Muscle (Sliding Filament Theory)
Step-by-Step:
[Link] impulse at neuromuscular junction → release of acetylcholine (ACh).
[Link] binds sarcolemma receptors → depolarization → action potential travels via T-tubules.
[Link] reticulum releases Ca²⁺ into sarcoplasm.
[Link]²⁺ binds troponin → tropomyosin shifts → exposes myosin-binding sites on actin.
[Link]-bridge formation: Myosin heads bind to actin.
[Link] stroke: Myosin pulls actin toward sarcomere center → sarcomere shortens.
[Link] binds to myosin → detaches from actin.
[Link] hydrolysis → myosin re-cocks → cycle repeats while Ca²⁺ & ATP available.
Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle

Step-by-Step:

[Link] impulse stops → no more ACh release.

[Link] broken down by acetylcholinesterase.

[Link] repolarizes → Ca²⁺ pumped back into sarcoplasmic reticulum (active transport).

[Link]²⁺ detaches from troponin → tropomyosin covers actin binding sites again.

[Link] cross-bridge formation → muscle fiber returns to resting length (with help from elastic components &

opposing muscles).