Chapter 42:

The Nervous System

BIO 202

1
 CHAPTER OUTLINE

 Nervous System Organization

 The Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Transmission
 Synapses: Where Neurons Communicate with Other Cells
 The Central Nervous system: Brain and Spinal Cord
 The Peripheral Nervous System: Spinal and Cranial
nerves

2
 THE NEURAL TISSUE

• The nervous system is a complex Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies.

collection of nerve and specialized cells

• The structural and functional units of the
nervous system are the neurons. They
transmit signals between different parts
of the body and are essential for the
body’s electrical wiring.
• The neural tissue is also comprised of
glial cells (neuroglia), which provide
support for neurons and insulation
between them.
A Purkinje cell, a neuron from the
cerebellum of the brain

3
 NERVOUS SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

 All animals must be able to respond to

environmental stimuli
 In most invertebrate phyla and in all vertebrate
classes, animals use:
• Sensory receptors – detect stimulus.
• Motor effectors – respond to it.
• Nervous system links the two.
• Consists of neurons and supporting cells.

4
 TYPES OF NEURONS

Vertebrates have three types of neurons

1. Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) carry
impulses to central nervous system (CNS)
2. Motor neurons (efferent neurons) carry impulses
from CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)
3. Interneurons (association neurons) provide more
complex reflexes and associative functions
(learning and memory)

5
THREE TYPES OF NEURONS

Axon

6
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS

Sensory (afferent)
neurons conduct
signals from receptors
to the CNS Interneurons (association
neurons) are confined to the
CNS and interconnect the
incoming sensory signal with
the outgoing motor signal

Motor (efferent) neurons

conduct signals from the
CNS to effectors such as
glands and muscles
7
DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The CNS is comprised of:

• Brain
• Spinal cord

The PNS is comprised of:

• Cranial and spinal nerves
• Ganglia

8
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

• The PNS is comprised of sensory and motor neurons

• Motor neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles to contract

make up the somatic nervous system

• Motor neurons that regulate the activity of the smooth

muscles, cardiac muscle, and glands compose the
autonomic nervous system, which includes:
• Sympathetic nervous system
• Parasympathetic nervous system.
which counterbalance each other.

9
DIVISIONS OF THE VERTEBRATE
NERVOUS SYSTEM

10
 HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CARRIES OUT ITS TASKS?

(1) Sense organs receive information about

changes in the body and the external
environment, and transmit coded messages
to the spinal cord and the brain (CNS)

(2) The CNS processes this information and

determines what response is appropriate to
the circumstances

(3) The CNS issues commands to muscles

and gland cells via nerve fibers (PNS)

11
 COMPONENTS OF A NEURON
 Neurons have the same basic structure:

 Cell body: Enlarged part containing nucleus.

 Dendrites: Short, cytoplasmic extensions that receive stimuli.
 Axon: Single, long extension that conducts impulses away from the
cell body.

12
 VARIATIONS OF THE BASIC NEURONAL STRUCTURE
SERVE DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS IN DIFFERENT
LOCATIONS

From Caterina Tomba, Thesis Manuscript, University of Grenoble

13
 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF
NEURONS
a) Multipolar neurons
• One axon and multiple dendrites
• Most common form in the brain and spinal cord
b) Bipolar neurons
• 2 processes: One axon and one dendrite
• Involved in sight, smell, hearing and balance
• Ex: Olfactory cells, retina, inner ear

c) Pseudounipolar neurons
• One axon that splits into two processes
• Carry sensory signals from the skin and organs to the
spinal cord

14
 SUPPORTIVE CELLS
Neuroglia ("nerve glue")
• Support neurons both structurally and functionally.
• These cells are 1/10th as big and 10 times more numerous than
neurons,
• 2 of the most important kinds of neuroglia are:
• Schwann cells (produce myelin in the PNS)
• Oligodendrocytes (produce myelin in the CNS)
which produce myelin sheaths surrounding axons.
• In the CNS, myelinated axons form white matter.
• Dendrites/cell bodies form gray matter.
• In the PNS, myelinated axons are bundled to form nerves.

15
THE FORMATION OF THE MYELIN SHEATH AROUND A
PERIPHERAL AXON

16
For your own scientific growth, not for the exam:

DISEASES OF THE MYELIN SHEATH

 Multiple sclerosis is the most well

© OHSU

known example of demyelinating

disease
• Oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths in
the CNS deteriorate
• Disrupts the ability of parts of the
nervous system to transmit signals
• Symptoms include double vision, muscle
weakness, trouble with sensation or
coordination, and speech defect
• Onset between the ages of 20-40

17
 OTHER GLIAL CELLS INCLUDE
Astrocytes (“star-shaped” cells):
• aid the capillaries in the brain in the formation of the blood–brain barrier,
which selectively restricts the movements of compounds from the blood
into the CNS.
• aid in removing excess potassium ions from the extracellular fluid.
Ependymal cells:
• ciliated cells lining the cavities of
the brain and the central canal of
the spinal cord.
• produce the cerebrospinal fluid that
provides nutrients and the
elimination of waste for the CNS.
Microglia:
• aid with immune responses and
serve as macrophages to clear
away cellular debris, dead cells, and
any foreign invaders such as
viruses or bacteria 18
 CHAPTER OUTLINE

 Nervous System Organization

 The Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Transmission
 Synapses: Where Neurons Communicate with Other Cells
 The Central Nervous system: Brain and Spinal Cord
 The Peripheral Nervous System: Spinal and Cranial
nerves

19
 ELECTRICAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE

 A potential difference exists across every cell’s

plasma membrane
• Negative pole − cytoplasmic side.
• Positive pole − extracellular fluid side.
 When a neuron is not being stimulated, it maintains
a resting potential
• Ranges from −40 to −90 millivolts (mV).
• Average about −70 mV.

20
 HOW THE RESTING (EQUILIBRIUM) POTENTIAL IS
CREATED?

The inside of the cell is more negatively charged relative to

the outside because of 3 factors:
1) The sodium–potassium pump:
 brings 2 K+ into the cell for every 3 Na+ it pumps out
 results in high K+ and low Na+ inside the cell, and high Na+ and
low K+ concentrations outside the cell

2) Ion channels in the cell membrane are more numerous

for K+ than for Na+:
 membrane more permeable to K+ and it will diffuse out of the
cell
3) Negatively charged molecules (proteins, nucleic acids,…)
accumulate inside the cell (because the membrane is not
permeable to negative molecules)
21
The build-up of positive charge up outside the membrane and
negative charge inside the membrane results in an electrical potential
which is an attractive force pulling K+ ions back inside the cell.

Result: The balance between the diffusional force and the

electrical force produces an equilibrium potential.

22
 CHANGES IN MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

 The uniqueness of neurons compared with other

cells is not the production and maintenance of the
resting membrane potential (RMP) but the sudden
temporary disruptions to the RMP that occur in
response to stimuli
 2 types of changes
• Graded potentials (depolarizing or hyperpolarizing)
• Action potentials

23
 OVERVIEW OF POTENTIALS

Graded potentials
• The summation of subthreshold potentials produced
by the opening of different chemically gated ion
channels.
Action potentials
• Transient disruptions triggered by a threshold change
in potential.
• The actual signals that move along an axon.

24
 GATED CHANNELS
Chemically-gated or ligand-gated channels
• Ligands are chemical signals.
• hormones or neurotransmitters.
• Induce opening and cause changes in cell membrane
permeability.

25
 DEPOLARIZATION

 Depolarization makes the membrane potential more

positive
 Hyperpolarization makes it more negative
 These small changes result in graded potentials
 Size depends on either the strength of the stimulus or the
amount of ligand available to bind with their receptors
 Can reinforce or negate each other
 Summation is the ability of graded potentials to
combine

26
 GRADED POTENTIALS
Graded potentials are the summation of subthreshold potentials produced
by the opening of different chemically gated channels.
(1) A weak excitatory stimulus, E1, elicits a smaller depolarization than (2)
(2) A stronger stimulus, E2.
(3) An inhibitory stimulus, I, produces a hyperpolarization.
(4) If all three stimuli occur very close together, the resulting polarity change
will be the sum of the three individual changes.

27
 SUMMARY
 The motor division of the PNS comprises the
somatic nervous system, which is voluntary, and
the autonomic nervous system , which is involuntary
 Neurons maintain high K+ levels inside the cell, and
high Na+ levels outside the cell. Diffusion of K+ ions
to the outside contributes to the RMP of -70 mV
 Opening of ligand-gated channels can depolarize or
hyperpolarize the membrane, causing a graded
potential

28
 ACTION POTENTIALS

 Result when depolarization reaches the threshold

potential (−55 mV)
 Depolarizations (increase the positivity of the membrane potential)
bring a neuron closer to the threshold
 Hyperpolarizations (increase the negativity of the membrane
potential) move the neuron farther away from the threshold

 Caused by voltage-gated ion channels

• Voltage-gated Na+ channels.
• Voltage-gated K+ channels.

29
 VOLTAGE-GATED CHANNELS

 Voltage-gated Na+ channels

• Activation gate and inactivation gate.
• At rest, activation gate closed, inactivation gate open.
• Transient influx of Na+ causes the membrane to
depolarize.
 Voltage-gated K+ channels
• Single activation gate that is closed in the resting state.
• K+ channel opens slowly.
• Efflux of K+ repolarizes the membrane.

30
PHASES OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL

 The action potential has 3 phases

• Rising, falling, and undershoot.
 Action potentials are always separate, all-or-none
events with the same amplitude
 Do not add up or interfere with each other
 Intensity of a stimulus is coded by the frequency, not
amplitude, of action potentials

31
THE ACTION POTENTIAL

At the end of each AP, the cytoplasm contains a bit more Na+ and a bit
32 closed
less K+ than it did at rest. Voltage-gated Na+ channels are still
(ensuring signal directionality). Active transport helps restore balance.
 NERVE IMPULSE PROPAGATION

 Propagation of action potentials

• Each action potential, in its rising phase, reflects
a reversal in membrane polarity.
• Positive charges due to influx of Na+ can
depolarize the adjacent region to threshold.
• And so the next region produces its own action
potential.
• Meanwhile, the previous region repolarizes
back to the resting membrane potential.
• Signal does not go back toward cell
body because the Na+ channels that
have just “fired” are still in an
inactivated state and are refractory
(resistant) to stimulation.

33
CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION IN UNMYELINATED FIBERS

[Link]
lay=0&player=arpeggio&secret=90576092&lo
op=0&nologo=0&hd=0
34
 VELOCITY OF CONDUCTION
 Two ways to increase velocity of conduction
• Axon has a large diameter
• Less resistance to current flow (Electrical resistance is inversely proportional
to cross-sectional area)
• Found primarily in invertebrates.
• Example squid (phylum Mollusca) giant axon (D=0.5 and sometimes up to 1.5 mm)

• Axon is myelinated.
• Action potential is only produced at the nodes of Ranvier.
• Impulse jumps from node to node.
• Saltatory conduction.

35
 SALTATORY CONDUCTION IN A MYELINATED AXON
Action potentials are produced only at the nodes of Ranvier in a
myelinated axon.
One node depolarizes the next node so that the action potentials can skip
between nodes. As a result, saltatory (“jumping”) conduction in a myelinated
axon is more rapid than conduction in an unmyelinated axon.

36
 SUMMARY
 Action potentials are triggered when membrane
potential exceeds a threshold value
 The 3 phases of an action potential are:
depolarization, repolarization , and hyperpolarization
 Opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels leads to
depolarization, and subsequent opening of K+
channels leads to repolarization
 Saltatory conduction occurs in a myelinated axon

37
 CHAPTER OUTLINE

 Nervous System Organization

 The Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Transmission
 Synapses: Where Neurons Communicate with Other Cells
 The Central Nervous system: Brain and Spinal Cord
 The Peripheral Nervous System: Spinal and Cranial
nerves

38
 SYNAPSES
 Specialized intercellular junctions with the other
neurons, with muscle cells, or with gland cells
 Presynaptic cell transmits action potential
 Postsynaptic cell receives it
 2 basic types: electrical and chemical

39
ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL SYNAPSES

Electrical synapses
• Involve direct cytoplasmic connections between the
two cells formed by gap junctions.
• Relatively rare in vertebrates.

Chemical synapses
• Have a synaptic cleft between the two cells.
• End of presynaptic cell contains synaptic vesicles
packed with neurotransmitters.

40
 ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies.

 Nerve impulses pass through the

membrane of the axon as an
electrical signal
 Adjacent cells are joined by gap
junctions and ions diffuse
directly from one cell into the next
 Have the advantage of quick
transmission because there is
no delay for the release and Structure of an electrical synapse
binding of neurotransmitter

41
 CHEMICAL SYNAPSES
1. Action potential triggers influx of Ca2+
2. Synaptic vesicles fuse with cell membrane
3. Neurotransmitter is released by exocytosis
4. Diffuses to other side of cleft and binds to chemical- or ligand-gated receptor
proteins
5. Produces graded potentials in the postsynaptic membrane
6. Neurotransmitter action is terminated by enzymatic digestion or cellular uptake

Example of Acetylcholine (ACh) 42

 A SYNAPTIC CLEFT IN A CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
An electron micrograph showing a neuromuscular synapse. Synaptic vesicles have been
colored green.

43
(aka adrenaline)

44
NEUROTRANSMITTERS: ACETYLCHOLINE
Axons branching to make contact
with several individual muscle fibers
 Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Crosses the synapse between
a motor neuron and a muscle
fiber.
• This synapse is called
neuromuscular junction.

45
 ACETYLCHOLINE

 Binds to receptor in the postsynaptic membrane

 Causes ligand-gated ion channels to open
 Produces a depolarization called an excitatory
postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
 Stimulates muscle contraction
 Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) degrades ACh
• Causes muscle relaxation.

46
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS: AMINO ACIDS

Glutamate
• Major excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate CNS.

Glycine and GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid)

• Inhibitory neurotransmitters.
• Open ligand-gated channels for Cl−.
• Produce a hyperpolarization called an inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP).

47
DIFFERENT NEUROTRANSMITTERS CAN HAVE DIFFERENT
EFFECTS: EPSP VS IPSP

48
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS: BIOGENIC AMINES

 Epinephrine (aka adrenaline; released in the blood) and

norepinephrine (released at synapses of neurons in the
sympathetic nervous system) are responsible for the “fight or
flight” response
 Dopamine is used in some areas of the brain that control body
movements
• Degeneration of particular dopamine-releasing neurons
produces the resting muscle tremors of Parkinson disease,
and people with this condition are treated with L-dopa (a
precursor for dopamine)
 Serotonin is involved in the regulation of sleep

49
 OTHER NEUROTRANSMITTERS
 Neuropeptides (also called neuromodulators)
• Substance P is released from sensory neurons activated by
painful stimuli.
• Intensity of pain perception depends on
• Enkephalins (released by axons descending from the brain into the spinal cord to
inhibit the passage of pain information back up to the brain)
• Endorphins (released by neurons in the brain stem, also block the perception of pain)

Opium and its derivatives, morphine and heroin, have an analgesic (pain-
reducing) effect because they are similar enough in chemical structure to
bind to the receptors normally used by enkephalins and endorphins.
=> Enkephalins and the endorphins are referred to as endogenous opiates

50
 OTHER NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Gases such as Nitric oxide (NO)
• NO is produced as needed from arginine and is released by
diffusion (not by exocytosis) from the pre-synaptic neuron.
• Causes smooth muscle relaxation.

51
 SYNAPTIC INTEGRATION
Integration of EPSPs (depolarization) and IPSPs (hyperpolarization) occurs
on the neuronal cell body

• Small EPSPs add together to bring the membrane potential closer to

the threshold.
• IPSPs subtract from the depolarizing effect of EPSPs.
• Deter the membrane potential from reaching threshold.

52
 SYNAPTIC INTEGRATION AND THRESHOLD VOLTAGE
There are 2 ways that the membrane can reach the threshold voltage

1. Spatial summation
• Many different dendrites produce EPSPs.
2. Temporal summation
• One dendrite produces repeated EPSPs.

53
 DRUG ADDICTION

Habituation
• Prolonged exposure to a stimulus may cause cells
to lose the ability to respond to it.
• Cell decreases the number of receptors because
there is an abundance of neurotransmitters.
• In long-term drug use, habituations leads to more of
the drug being needed to obtain the same effect.

54
 DRUG ADDICTION: NICOTINE

Nicotine
• Binds to a specific acetylcholine receptor on
postsynaptic neurons of the brain.
• The neuron adjusts to prolonged exposure by
“turning down the volume” by:
• Making fewer receptors to which nicotine binds.
• Altering the pattern of activation of the nicotine
receptors.

55
 DRUG ADDICTION: COCAINE

Cocaine
• Affects neurons in the brain’s
“pleasure pathways” (limbic system,
consisting of the hypothalamus, hippocampus,
and amygdala, and responsible for emotional
states).
• Binds dopamine transporters and
prevents the reuptake of dopamine.
• Dopamine survives longer in the
synapse and fires pleasure
pathways more and more.

56
 SUMMARY
 Electrical synapses involve direct cytoplasmic
connections between two neurons
 Chemical synapses involve chemicals that cross the
synaptic cleft, which separates neurons
 Neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, epinephrine,
glycine, GABA, biogenic amines, substance P and
nitric oxide
 Many addictive drugs , such as nicotine and cocaine,
bind to sites that normally bind neurotransmitters or to
membrane transport proteins in synapses

57
 CHAPTER OUTLINE

 Nervous System Organization

 The Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Transmission
 Synapses: Where Neurons Communicate with Other Cells
 The Central Nervous system: Brain and Spinal Cord
 The Peripheral Nervous System: Spinal and Cranial
nerves

58
 Evolution of the Central Nervous
System
 Sponges are only major phylum without nerves
 Cnidarians have the simplest nervous system
• Neurons linked to each other in a nerve net.
• No associative activity.
 Free-living flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) are simplest
animals with associative activity
• Two nerve cords run down the body.
• Permit complex muscle control.
 All of the subsequent evolutionary changes in nervous
systems can be viewed as a series of elaborations on the
characteristics already present in flatworms

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-59

 Diversity of nervous systems
Nervous systems in animals range from:
• simple nerve nets
• to paired nerve cords with primitive brains
• to elaborate brains and sensory systems.
Bilateral symmetry correlates with the concentration of nervous tissue and sensory structures
in the front end of the nerve cord. This evolutionary process is called cephalization.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-60

 Vertebrate Brains
 All vertebrate brains have 3 basic divisions:
• Hindbrain or rhombencephalon.
• Midbrain or mesencephalon.
• Forebrain or prosencephalon (In terrestrial vertebrates, plays a far more
dominant role in neural processing than it does in fishes)
 In fishes,
• Hindbrain – largest portion.
• Midbrain – processes visual information.
• Forebrain – processes olfactory information.

The basic organization of the vertebrate brain can be seen in the brains of primitive fishes

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-61

 Major Divisions of the Brain

 Hindbrain (rhombencephalon)
• Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Cerebellum
 Midbrain (mesencephalon)
• Visual information
• Dopaminergic neurons
 Forebrain (prosencephalon)
• Diencephalon (thalamus,
hypothalamus)
• Telencephalon (Cerebrum),
Basal nuclei, corpus callosum,
hippocampus, cerebral cortex

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-62

 Subdivisions of the Central Nervous System
Major Subdivision Function

SPINAL CORD Spinal reflexes; relays sensory and motor information

BRAIN

Hindbrain (rhombencephalon)

Medulla oblongata Sensory nuclei; reticular-activating system; autonomic functions

Pons Reticular-activating system; autonomic functions

Cerebellum Coordination of movements; balance

Midbrain (mesencephalon) Reflexes involving eyes and ears

Forebrain (prosencephalon)

Diencephalon

Thalamus Relay station for ascending sensory and descending motor tracts; autonomic functions

Hypothalamus Autonomic functions; neuroendocrine control

Telencephalon (cerebrum)

Basal nuclei Motor control

Corpus callosum Connects and relays information between the two hemispheres

Hippocampus Memory; emotion

(limbic system) Cerebral cortex Higher cognitive functions; integrates and interprets sensory information; organizes motor output

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-63

Relative Sizes of Vertebrate Brains
Relative sizes of different brain regions have changed as
vertebrates evolved
Forebrain became the dominant feature

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-64

 Forebrain
Forebrain is composed of 2 elements
• Diencephalon.
• Thalamus – integration and relay center for ascending sensory and
descending motor tracts (visual, auditory, and somatosensory
information)
• Hypothalamus – participates in basic drives and emotions,
controls pituitary gland, integrates visceral activities

• Telencephalon (or “end brain”).

• Devoted largely to associative
activity.
• Called the cerebrum in mammals.

© 2003-2022 Chegg Inc.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-65

Cerebrum
 The increase in brain size in mammals reflects the great
enlargement of the cerebrum
 Split into right and left cerebral hemispheres, which
are connected by a tract called the corpus callosum.
 Each hemisphere receives sensory input from the
opposite side
 Hemispheres are divided into:
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Occipital

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-66

 A section through the human brain
fiber tract connecting the two
cerebral hemispheres

conduct signals from

brain down to cerebellum
& medulla, and sensory
where the contralateral optic nerves meet
signals up into
the thalamus

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-67

Cerebrum: Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral cortex
• a layer of gray matter only a few millimeters
thick on the outer surface of the cerebrum
• Contains about 10% of all neurons in the brain.
• Highly convoluted surface.
• Increases threefold the surface area of the human
brain.
• Activities are motor, sensory, or associative.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-68

 The Cerebral Cortex contains:
o Primary motor cortex – movement control
o Primary somatosensory cortex – sensory control
o Association cortex – the site of higher mental
activities; reaches its greatest extent in primates,
especially humans, where it makes up 95% of the
surface of the cerebral cortex.
o Basal nuclei
• Aggregates of neuron cell bodies and dendrites that produce
islets of gray matter buried deep within the white matter
• Participate in the control of body movements.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-69

Lobes of the cerebrum with some of
the known regions of specialization

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-70

The primary somatosensory cortex
(left) and the primary motor cortex
(right)

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-71

Other Brain Structures
Limbic system
• Major components include the
hypothalamus, hippocampus,
and amygdala
• Linked structures deep within
the cerebrum that are
responsible for emotional © Copyright 2002, 2009, C. George Boeree

responses (pain, anger, sex,

thirst, pleasure, etc.)

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-72

 Complex Functions of the Brain
Sleep and arousal

• One section of reticular formation (a diffuse collection of neurons) is the

reticular-activating system (in the pons) which controls consciousness
and alertness (controls sleep and the waking state)
Example: It is easier to sleep in a dark room than in a lighted one because there
are fewer visual stimuli to stimulate the reticular-activating system.

• Neural pathways from the reticular formation to the cortex and other brain
regions are depressed by anesthetics and barbiturates (drugs used for
anesthesia and treating extreme insomnia and seizures)
• Brain state can be monitored with an electroencephalogram (EEG).
• Records electrical activity.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-73

Complex Functions of the Brain:
Language
Language
o Left hemisphere is usually “dominant” hemisphere.
• Different regions control various language activities.
• Adept at sequential reasoning.
• Wernicke’s area involved in language comprehension (in the parietal
lobe)
• Broca’s area involved in language communication (near the part of
the motor cortex controlling the face)

o Right hemisphere (usually non-dominant) is adept at spatial reasoning.

• Primarily involved in musical ability.
• Also important for consolidating memories of nonverbal
experiences.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-74

 Wernicke’s and Broca’s area
 Wernicke’s area (in the parietal
lobe) is important for language
comprehension and the formulation
of thoughts into speech
=> if damaged: Wernicke's aphasia
(aphasia: language disorder)
[Link]

 Broca’s area (near the part of the

motor cortex controlling the face) is
responsible for the generation of
motor output needed for language
communication.
=> if damaged: Broca's aphasia
[Link]

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-75

Complex Functions of the Brain: Memory

 Appears dispersed across the brain

 Short-term memory is stored in the form of transient
neural excitations
 Long-term memory appears to involve structural
changes in neural connections

 2 parts within the temporal lobes–the hippocampus

and the amygdala–are involved in both short-term
memory and its consolidation into long-term memory

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-76

 SUMMARY
 The vertebrate brain has three primary regions; the hindbrain ,
midbrain and forebrain
 The cerebrum, part of the forebrain , is composed of two
cerebral hemispheres
 Gray matter of the cerebral cortex overlays white matter and
islands of gray matter (nuclei) called the basal nuclei
 The primary motor cortex is located in the frontal lobe while the
primary somatosensory cortex is located in the parietal lobe

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-77

 Synaptic Plasticity
Cellular basis of learning and memory:
Long-term changes in the strength of synaptic connection:
- Long-term potentiation (LTP)
- Long-term depression (LTD)
These 2 mechanisms can make a synapse more or less sensitive to future stimulation.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-78

 Synaptic Plasticity: LTP
1. When either the same synapse is stimulated
repeatedly by Glu (the neurotransmiter
glutamate), or neighboring synapses are
stimulated, the postsynaptic membrane
becomes significantly depolarized.

2. Glu binds to its receptor NMDAR (N-methyl-d-

aspartic acid receptor) and releases its block by Mg2+
thus causing an influx of Ca2+ that stimulates
a signal transduction pathway involving
CaMKII (calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II).

3. This pathway leads to the insertion of another

type of receptor for Glu, AMPAR (α-amino-3-hydroxyl-
5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate receptor), into the
postsynaptic membrane.

Result: Synapse more sensitive to future

stimulation.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-79

 Synaptic Plasticity: LTD
1. If the stimulation of an NMDAR is less intense,
the postsynaptic membrane is less depolarized.

2. A different Ca2+-dependent signaling pathway

(involving Calcineurin and PPI (protein phosphatase 1)
instead of CaMKII) results in the loss of
AMPAR from the membrane.

Result: Synapse less sensitive to future

stimulation.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-80

 Alzheimer Disease
Condition where memory and thought become
dysfunctional
Two causes have been proposed
1. Nerve cells are killed from the outside in.
• External proteins called β-amyloid exist in an abnormal form, which
then forms aggregates, or plaques.
• Counter-evidence: amyloid plaques have been found in autopsies
of people who did not exhibit Alzheimer disease.
2. Nerve cells are killed from the inside out.
• Abnormal form of an internal protein called tau (τ) kills the cells.
Abnormal tau proteins assemble into helical segments that form
tangles, which interfere with the normal functioning of the nerve
cells.
• The association of tangles with actual neuronal death is stronger.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-81

 Spinal Cord
Cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbone
Enclosed and protected by the vertebral column and the meninges

Pairs of spinal nerves extending from the spinal cord

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-82

 Composition of the Spinal Cord
2 zones
• Inner zone is gray matter.
• Primarily consists of the cell bodies of interneurons, motor
neurons, and neuroglia.
• Outer zone is white matter.
• Contains cables of sensory axons in the dorsal columns and motor
axons in the ventral columns.
Dorsal

Ventral

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-83

 Role of the Spinal Cord
It serves as the body’s “information highway”
• Relays messages between the body and the brain.
It also functions in reflexes
• The knee-jerk reflex is monosynaptic.
• However, most reflexes in vertebrates involve a single interneuron.
Dorsal

Ventral

The knee-jerk reflex

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-84

A cutaneous spinal reflex

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-85

 CHAPTER OUTLINE

 Nervous System Organization

 The Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Transmission
 Synapses: Where Neurons Communicate with Other Cells
 The Central Nervous system: Brain and Spinal Cord
 The Peripheral Nervous System: Spinal and Cranial
nerves

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-86

Composition of the Peripheral Nervous System

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-87

Composition of the Peripheral Nervous System
Consists of nerves and ganglia

• Nerves are bundles of axons bound by connective tissue.

• Ganglia are aggregates of neuron cell bodies.

Function is to receive the information from the environment, to convey it

to the CNS, and to carry responses to effectors such as muscle cells

Colored scanning electron micrograph of

a section through a nerve fiber containing
myelinated axon (Axon; Myelin)
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-88
Neurons of the Peripheral Nervous System
Sensory neurons
• Axons enter the dorsal surface of the spinal cord and form dorsal root of
spinal nerve.
• Cell bodies of sensory neurons are grouped outside the spinal cord in
dorsal root ganglia.
Motor neurons
• Axons leave from the ventral surface and form ventral root of spinal nerve.
• Cell bodies are located in the spinal cord.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-89

 The Somatic Nervous System
Somatic motor neurons release ACh (acetylcholine) which
binds to nicotinic receptors on the muscle and stimulate the
skeletal muscles to contract
• In response to conscious command or reflex actions.
• When a muscle is contracting, its antagonist muscle is
inhibited by hyperpolarization (IPSPs) of the spinal motor
neurons which innervate it.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-90

 The Autonomic Nervous System
 Is part of the peripheral nervous system.
 Controls the conditions inside the body. It is
sometimes called the 'visceral nervous system' or
'involuntary nervous system'.
 Controls all automatic actions including all reflexes
and actions during sleep
 Composed of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions, plus the medulla
oblongata
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-91
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-92
An autonomic neural path

In the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

of the autonomic nervous system, the efferent
motor pathway has 2 neurons

o Preganglionic neuron – exits the CNS and

synapses at an autonomic ganglion.
o Postganglionic neuron – exits the ganglion
and regulates visceral effectors.
• Smooth or cardiac muscle or glands.
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-93
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic division
• Preganglionic neurons originate in the thoracic and
lumbar regions of spinal cord.
• Ganglia right outside the spinal cord.

Parasympathetic division
• Preganglionic neurons originate in the cervical (brain)
and sacral regions of spinal cord.
• Ganglia near or even within internal organs.

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-94

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system

Figure 42.30
Cervical region

Thoracic region

Lumbar region

Sacral region

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-95

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-96
ACh in the parasympathetic division has an inhibitory effects (e.g. slowing down the
heart rate) but it has excitatory effects elsewhere (e.g. skeletal muscle contraction).

How?

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-97

G proteins mediate cell responses to autonomic signals
The parasympathetic effects of ACh require the action of G proteins:
1. ACh binds to muscarinic receptor
2. Muscarinic receptor activation causes disassociation of the G protein complex
3. Some components of the G protein complex move to activate an effector protein, the K+ channel.
4. Opening of K+ channels results in the outward diffusion of K+ => hyperpolarizing the membrane

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-98

 Cranial Nerves
12 pairs of cranial nerves arise from the underside of the brain.
They carry sensory neurons for the special and general senses as well as
somatic and autonomic motor neurons.
Old Opie occasionally tries trigonometry and feels very gloomy, vague, and hypoactive

Base of the brain showing the 12 McGraw-Hill

© 2020 pairs of cranial nerves by name and number.
Education. 42-99
 SUMMARY
• The spinal cord relays messages to and from the brain; a reflex
occurs when the spinal cord processes sensory information
directly and initiates a response
• Sensory axons form the dorsal root of the spinal nerve; cell
bodies are in the dorsal root ganglia
• Motor axons form the ventral root of the spinal nerve; cell bodies
are in the spinal cord
• Sympathetic neurons originate in the thoracic and lumbar
regions of the spinal cord; parasympathetic neurons originate in
the cervical and sacral regions
• Binding of ACh to muscarinic receptors activates a G protein
that in turn activates K+ channels and create a hyperpolarization

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42-100

The End

101