CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLE

GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Growth
- QUANTITATIVE changes in size, weight number, etc.
- Observable
- continues throughout life but stops with the attainment of maturity
- one of the parts of development
- may or may not bring about development
Development
- QUALITATIVE changes in the quality
- cannot be measured
- continuous process - from womb to tomb
- growth is one of its parts
- possible without growth

Factors Influencing Growth and Development

1. Maturation/Nature - the natural growth resulting from heredity
2. Environmental Influences/Nurture - in and through which the growing takes place

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
There are seven principles of development that have been put forth from the scientific knowledge gained from observing
children.
1. Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.
Patterns of Physical Development
a. Cephalocaudal Pattern - during infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top
b. Proximodistal Pattern - muscular control of the trunk and arms comes earlier as compared to the hands
and finger
2. The rate of development is unique in each individual.
3. Development involves change
4. Early development is more critical than later development.
5. Development is the product of maturation and learning
6. Principle of inter-related development
7. There are social expectations for every developmental period which are often referred to as DEVELOPMENTAL
TASKS.

DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
- also referred to as areas of development which include:
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
• gross motor development - the LARGE muscles in the body such as legs, arms, and the chest
• fine motor development - the SMALL muscles such as those in the hand, fingers, lips and tongue.
SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
- refers to the development of self-concept and self-esteem as well as the ability to express feelings and form
relationships with other people
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
• speech - production of sounds (articulation) and voice quality
• language development - understanding or comprehending (receptive language) and being able to communicate
using language (expressive language)
COGNITIVE (INTELLECTUAL) DEVELOPMENT
- thinking processes such as concentrating, imagining, problem-solving, using logic, organizing information, and
using symbols. Language and cognitive development are closely linked.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS (ROBERT HAVIGHURST, 1972)

A Developmental Task is a task that arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later
tasks.
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
I. PRE-NATAL STAGE (CONCEPTION TO BIRTH)
- Involves tremendous growth - from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities
- Age when heredity endowments and sex are fixed and all body features, both external and internal, are
developed.
Pre-natal stage
- Relating to pregnant woman and her unborn baby.
- before birth; during or relating to pregnancy.
THREE PERIODS OF PRENATAL STAGE
1. GERMINAL PERIOD
- prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception.
- It includes the creation of the ZYGOTE, continued cell division and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine
wall.
Inner and Outer layers of the organism
A. BLASTOCYST
- inner layer of cells.
- develops later into the embryo
B. TROPHOBLAST
- outer layer of cells.
- provides nutrition and support for the embryo
2. EMBRYONIC PERIOD
- prenatal development occurs 2 to 8 weeks after conception.
- the zygote will become EMBRYO
• Life-support systems for the embryo develop
Three life-support systems:
PLACENTA
- a life support system that consists of disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother
and the offspring intertwine but do not join.
UMBILICAL CORD
- contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta.
AMNION
- is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats.
• Organs appear
ORGANOGENESIS
- It is the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development.
3. FETAL PERIOD
- last from about 2 months after conception until 9 months when the infant is born.
- dramatic course and organ systems mature to the point at which life can be sustained outside of the womb.

II. INFANCY - birth to 2 weeks

Note
• Shortest of all developmental periods
• Infant - suggests extreme helplessness
Subdivisions of Infancy
a. Period of the Partunate or from the time the fetal body has emerged from the mother's body and lasts
until the umbilical cord has been cut and tied.
b. Period of the Neonate or from the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to the end of second week of
the postnatal life.

III. BABYHOOD STAGE - 2 weeks to 2 years

- Characterized by decreasing dependency for the reason that this is the time when babies achieve enough body
control to become independent.
- Babyhood skills: hand skills and leg skills
- Crying cooing, babbling, gesturing, and emotional expressions are examples of pre-speech forms of
communication.
- Babies are capable of establishing friendships

IV. EARLY CHILDHOOD (3 to 5 years old)

- "the "preschooler years"
 - Years before formal schooling begins
- Pre-gang, exploratory, and questioning age, when language and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial
socialization is experienced.
Developmental Tasks for Infancy & Early childhood
• Learning to walk.
• Learning to crawl.
• Learning to take solid food.
• Learning to talk.
• Learning to control the elimination of body wastes.
• Learning sex differences and sexual modesty.
• Getting ready to read.
• Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.

V. MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD (6-12 years)

- Gang and creativity age when self-help skills, social skills, school skills and play skills are developed.
- The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered.
- The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture.
- Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child's world and self-control increases.
Developmental Tasks for Middle and Late childhood
• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
• Learning to get along with age mates.
• Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
• Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role.
• Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
• Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values.
• Achieving personal independence.
• Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions.

VI. ADOLESCENCE (13-18 yrs)

- Transition age from childhood to adulthood
- Begins with rapid physical changes-dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the
development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, and
deepening voice.
- Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent
- Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time spent outside of the family.
Developmental Tasks for Adolescence Stage
• Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
• Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively.
• Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults.
• Preparing for marriage and family life.
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior.
• Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.

VII. EARLY ADULTHOOD (19-29 yrs)

- Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse, parent, and bread winner.
- It is a time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning
to live with someone in intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.
Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood
• Selecting a mate.
• Learning to live with a partner.
• Starting family. ✓ Rearing children.
• Managing home.
• Getting started in occupation.
• Taking on civic responsibility.
• Finding a congenial social group.
VIII. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (30-60 yrs)
- Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are experienced.
- It is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in
becoming competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in career.
Developmental Tasks of Middle Age
• Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults.
• Achieving adult social and civic responsibility.
• Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one's occupational career.
• Developing adult leisure time activities.
• Relating oneself to one's spouse as a person.
• To accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age.
• Adjusting to aging parents.

IX. LATE ADULTHOOD (61 yrs and above)

- It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new
social roles.
- Retirement age when increasingly rapid physical and mental decline are experienced.
Developmental Tasks of Later maturity or Old Age
• Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health.
• Adjusting to retirement and reduced income.
• Adjusting to death of a spouse.
• Establishing an explicit affiliation with one's age group.
• Adopting and adapting social roles in a flexible way.
• Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements.

ERIK ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

• Psycho - relating to the mind, brain and personality
• Social - external relationships and environment
Epigenetic Principle
• Explains that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages.
• Erikson's theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier stages served as a
foundation for later stages.
• It highlighted the influence of one's environment, particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build upon
the next and result into one's personality
Psychosocial Crisis
- Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces (contrary dispositions)
- Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges.
Syntonic-positive disposition in each crisis (eg. Trust)
Dystonic-negative disposition (eg. Mistrust)

If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain VIRTUE or PSYCHOSOCIAL STRENGTH.

Malignancy - involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task
Ex. A person who can't trust others
Maladaptation - is not quite as bad; involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative
Ex. A person who trusts too much

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS VIRTUE MALADAPATION MALIGNANCY

Trust vs. Mistrust Hope Sensory Maladjustment Withdrawal
- The belief that, - Overly trusting, - Characterized by
even when things gullible, cannot depression,
are not going well. believe that anyone paranoia, possibly
they will work out would mean them psychosis
well in the end harm
Autonomy vs. Shame and Willpower or Impulsiveness Compulsiveness
Doubt Determination - Shameless - Feels as if
- "can do" attitude willfulness leads to everything must be
jumping into things done perfectly;
without proper mistakes must be
consideration avoided at all costs
Initiative vs. Guilt Courage or Ability to take Ruthlessness Inhibition
Risks - heartless, unfeeling - The fear that if
- The capacity for - They don't care they fail, they will
action despite a who they step on be blamed.
clear "Nothing ventured,
understanding of nothing lost."
your limitations
and past failings

Industry vs. Inferiority Competency Narrow Virtuosity Inertia

- Those who aren't - Those who suffer
allowed to be inferiority
children. Pushed complexes. “If at
into one area of first you don’t
competency succeed, don’t ever
try again.”

Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity Fanaticism Repudiation

- Ability to live by - His way is the only - To reject They
society’s standard way reject their
- It means you have - Gather around membership in the
found a place in others there and world of adults and
the community promote their they reject their
beliefs and need for an identity
lifestyles without
regards to other’s
rights to disagree

Intimacy vs. Isolation Love Promiscuity Exclusion

- Includes not only - Tendency to - Tendency to isolate
the love we find in become intimate oneself from one
a good marriage, too freely, too love, friendship,
but the love easily, and without and community
between friends any depth to your and develop a
and the love one’s intimacy certain hatefulness
neighbor, co- in compensation
worker and for one's loneliness
compatriot as well

Generativity vs. Stagnation Caring Overextension Rejectivity

- No longer allow - No longer
time for participate in
themselves activities or
contribute to
society

Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Presumption Disdain

- This is what - A contempt of life,
happens when a ones own or
person presumes anyone's" The
ego integrity person becomes
without actually very negative and
facing the appears to hate life
difficulties of old
age
- Believes that he
alone is right
FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Sigmund Freud
- Considered to be the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory about the unconscious
and also about sexual development
FREUD'S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Oral stage (birth to 18 moths)
2. Anal stage (18 months to 3 years)
3. Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6 years)
4. Latency stage (age 6 to puberty)
5. Genital stage (puberty onwards)

Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)

• Erogenous zone (pleasure area) - a specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure or needs. These may be the
arms, mouth, and the genitals
• Erogenous zone is the mouth.
• Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to Oral Fixation or Oral Personality as shown in increased focus on
oral activities.
• Oral receptive - a type of personality which has a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, and
overeat
• Oral aggressive - a tendency to bite his or her nails or use curse words or even gossip
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
• The child's focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus.
• The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces.
• The child needs to work on toilet training.
• Anal retentive - an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control
• Anal expulsive - the person becomes messy and disorganized.
Phallic stage (ages 3-6)
• The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.
• During preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different.
• Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals.
 Oedipus Complex - boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys see their father as a
rival for their mother's affection.
 Electra Complex - girls may develop an unconscious sexual attraction towards their father.
• According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to strong competition of their father, boys eventually decide
to identify with them rather than fight them.
• By identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and identify themselves as males and
repress their sexual feelings towards their mother.
• A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviances and weak or confused sexual identity.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty)
• It is during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed.
• The children's focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills.
• Boys relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
Genital stage (puberty onwards)
• Begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are again awakened.
• Adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex with pleasures centered on the genitals.

FREUD'S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS

1. Id
2. Ego
3. Superego

The Id
- Operates on the pleasure principle
- It focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs.
- So, whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality in
the situation
The Ego
- Emerges during toddler and preschooler years
- Operates using the reality principle
 - It is aware that others have also needs to be met.
- It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it
reasons and considers the best response to situations.
The Superego
- Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the superego develops.
- It embodies a person's moral aspect; operates on the morality principle
- It is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right or wrong.

TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
1. The Unconscious
2. The Conscious
3. The Subconscious

The Unconscious
- Freud believes that most of what influences us is our unconscious.
- The Oedipus and Electra Complex are both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the
extreme anxiety they caused.
- But they still influence our thinking, feeling, and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
The Conscious
- All that we are aware of are stored in our conscious mind.
- However, our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are
only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality.
- Most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
The Subconscious
- This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted but is not in our active conscious.
- It is right below the surface, but still "hidden" somewhat unless we search for it.
- Telephone number, childhood memories, name of your childhood friend
Nonconscious
 All that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that have not been made part of our personalities,

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

 Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental
psychology. He was a child prodigy who published his first article in a refereed journal at the age of 11.
 While working in Binet's test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how children think. He noticed that young
children's answers were qualitatively different than older children. This suggested to him that the younger
children were not less knowledgeable but, instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers
because they thought differently. -This implies that human development is qualitative (changes in kind) rather
than quantitative (changes in amount). Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways
compared to adults.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

• Schema - the cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment
• Assimilation - the process of fitting new experience into an existing created schema
• Accommodation - the process of creating a new schema
• Equilibration - achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years)
- Stage when a child initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching becomes more organized in his movement
and activity. Focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to
learn about himself and the world. In working with children in the sensorimotor stage, they should aim to
provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.
 Object Permanence - ability attained in this stage where he knows that an object still exists even when
out of sight

2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)

- Preschoolers represent the world symbolically
 Symbolic Function
- the ability to represent objects and events
  Egocentrism
- the tendency of a child to only see his point of view and assume that everyone else also has his
same point of view
 Centration
- the tendency of the child to only focus on one thing or event and exclude other aspects
 Lack of Conservation
- the inability to realize that some things remain unchanged despite looking different
 Irreversibility
- Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
 Animism
- the tendency of the child to attribute human like traits to inanimate objects.
 Realism
- believing that psychological events, such as dreams, are real
 Artificialism
- the belief that natural events are man-made
 Transductive Reasoning
- errors in cause-effect relationship

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

- This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects;
covers the elementary school years.
 Decentering
- the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations
 Reversibility
- the ability of the child to follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
 Conservation
- the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume or area do not
change even if there is a change in appearance.
 Seriation
- the ability to arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume, size,
etc.
 Classification
- the ability to group or classify things according to one dimension/aspect
 Inductive Reasoning
- from specific to general

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and above)

- Thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize.
 Hypothetical Reasoning
- ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and weigh data to make
judgement.
 Analogical reasoning
- ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that relationship to narrow down
possible answers in similar problems.
 Deductive reasoning
- ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular situation.

LEV VYGOTSKY'S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Lev Vgostsky
- Born in Russia in 1896
- His work began when he was studying learning and development to improve his own teaching.
- He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development, and educating students with
special needs.

Socio-Cultural Theory
- Key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development.
- Social interaction and culture are two central factors in cognitive development.
- Language is also another factor in the cognitive development. It opens the door for learners to acquire
knowledge that others already have. It serves a social function, but it also has an important individual function.
 - Private speech - a form of self-talk that guides the child's thinking and action.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - is the difference between what a child can accomplish ALONE and what she can
accomplish with the GUIDANCE of another.
- The ZONE represents a learning opportunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more
advanced peer can assist the child's development.

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

- Competent adult or a more advanced peer
Scaffolding
- The SUPPORT or ASSISTANCE that lets the child accomplish a task he CANNOT accomplish independently
- Scaffolding should involve JUDICIOUS assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the
zone of actual development to the the zone of proximal development.
When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:
1. I do, you watch.
2. I do, you help
3. You do, I help
4. You do, I watch

KOHLBERG'S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)
- Kohlberg studied moral reasoning & development with much of his work based on that of Jean Piaget and John
Dewey.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
LEVEL I - Pre-Conventional
• Stage 1 - Punishment-Obedience Orientation
• Stage 2 - Instrumental Relativist Orientation
LEVEL II – Conventional
• Stage 3 - Good Boy - Nice Girl Orientation
• Stage 4 - Law and Order Orientation
LEVEL III - Post-Conventional
• Stage 5 - Social Contract Orientation
• Stage 6 - Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

Level I - Pre-conventional Morality

- People at this stage do not really understand the conventions/rules of a society.
Stage 1 - Punishment - Obedience Orientation
Consequences of acts determine whether they're good or bad.
Stage 2 - Instrumental Relativist Orientation
The ethics of "What's in it for me?" Obeying rules and exchanging favors are judged in terms of the
benefit to the individual.
LEVEL II - Conventional
- People at this stage conform to the conventions/rules of a society.
Stage 3 - Good Boy - Nice Girl Orientation
Ethical decisions are based on concern for or the opinions of others.
Stage 4 – Law and Order Orientation
Right behavior consists in doing one's duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given
social order for its own sake.
LEVEL III - Post-Conventional
- The moral principles that underlie the conventions of a society are understood.
Stage 5 - Social Contract Orientation
Rules and laws represent agreements among people about behavior that benefits society. Rules can be
changed when they no longer meet society's needs.
Stage 6 - Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to
logical comprehensiveness universality, and consistency.
METACOGNITION
John Flavell
- Thinking about thinking
- Learning how to learn
Three Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge
1. Person Variables - refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as
individual knowledge of one's own learning processes.
2. Task Variables - include knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it
will place upon the individual
3. Strategy Variables - Involve awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this
strategy is effective
a. Meta-attention - the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on
the topic or task
b. Meta-memory- your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you

BEHAVIORISM
- Emphasizes conditioning behavior and altering the environment to elicit selected responses from the learner.
- This dominated much of the 20th century psychology
John Watson (1878-1958)
- Father of Behaviorism
- He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy infants, he can
make them into anything you want them to be through a stimulus-response connections through conditioning.
Experiment on Albert
• Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child, and a white rat.
• In the beginning Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert
touched the rat.
• Because Albert was frightened by a loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat.

I. CONNECTIONISM - EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE (FOUNDER OF BEHAVIOR PSYCHOLOGY)

- Defined teaching as arranging the classroom to enhance desirable connections and associations conditioning)
- Focused on testing the relationship between a stimulus and a response (classical
- Defined learning as habit formation

II. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

- Also known as respondent conditioning refers to a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association
of 2 or more different stimuli.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
- Russian psychologist
- Nobel Prize winner 1904 for work on digestion
- First to study classical conditioning
- In his famous experiments with dogs, he showed that a desired response can be elicited when paired repeatedly
with a stimulus
There are 4 key elements that are used to describe the process of classical conditioning:
1. Unconditioned Stimulus
2. Unconditioned Response
3. Conditioned Stimulus
4. Conditioned Response

1. Unconditioned Stimulus
- The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring,
automatic response.
- In Pavlov's experiment, the UCS was the food (meat powder).
2. Unconditioned Response
- The unconditioned response (UCR) is the response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented.
- A UCR is a reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably caused by a UCS.
- In Pavlov's experiments, the UCR was the salivation.
3. Conditioned Stimulus
 - The conditioned stimulus (CS) is the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not
normally produce the UCR.
- Yet, through repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers a very similar response to that caused by the
UCS.
4. Conditioned Response
- The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response that is produced by the CS.
- The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS

Key Processes in Classical Conditioning

Pavlov distinguished several key processes that are involved in classical conditioning. These are
known as:
1. Acquisition
2. Extinction
3. Stimulus generalisation
4. Stimulus discrimination
5. Spontaneous recovery
1. Acquisition is the overall process during which the organism learns to associate 2 events.
2. Extinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is
no longer presented.
3. Spontaneous Recovery - In CC, spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following
a rest period after the CR appears to have been extinguished.
4. Stimulus Generalisation - This is known as stimulus generalisation which is the tendency for another stimulus to
produce a response that is similar to the CR. The greater the similarity between the stimuli, the greater the possibility
that a generalisation will occur.
5. Stimulus Discrimination - Stimulus discrimination occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to
any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.

III. OPERANT CONDITIONING - B.F. SKINNER (1904-1990)

- The term "operant conditioning" originated by the behaviorist B.F. Skinner, who believed that one should
focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and
motivations).
REINFORCEMENT
1. Positive Reinforcement
- For positive reinforcement, think of it as ADDING something POSITIVE to INCREASE a response.
- EXAMPLE: A mother gives her son praise (positive stimulus) for doing homework (behavior).
2. Negative Reinforcement
- For negative reinforcement, think of it as TAKING/REMOVING something NEGATIVE away to INCREASE a
response.
- EXAMPLE: Bob does the dishes (behavior) in order to AVOID his mother NAGGING (negative stimulus)
Note: Negative reinforcement should not be thought of as a punishment procedure. With NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT,
you are increasing a behavior, whereas with PUNISHMENT, you are decreasing a behavior.

PUNISHMENT
1. Positive Punishment
- Positive punishment involves ADDING a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is emitted to
decrease future responses.
- EXAMPLE: A child grabs a toy from another child (behavior) and is sent to time out (negative stimulus)
2. Negative Punishment
- Negative punishment includes TAKING AWAY/REMOVING a certain desired item after the undesired
behavior happens to decrease future responses.
- EXAMPLE: Siblings get in a fight (behavior) over who gets to play with a new toy, the parent takes the
game/toy away (desired stimulus).

IV. ALBERT BANDURA: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

- Bandura believes that people acquire behaviours through observation of others, then imitate what they have
observed
- Vicarious consequences (Model and imitate others)
- Albert Bandura believed television was a source of behavior modeling.
Phases of Observational Learning
 1. Attention - Mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior. Observer must attend to recognize the
distinctive features of the model's response
2. Retention - reproduction of the desired behavior implies that student symbolically retains that observed
behavior
3. Motor Reproduction - after observation, physical skills and coordination are needed for reproduction of the
behavior learned
4. Motivational Process - although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled behavior, there
will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable
Models are classified as:
1. Real Life - exemplified by teachers, parents and significant others
2. Symbolic - presented through oral or written symbols
3. Representational - presented through audio-visual measures

COGNITIVISM
- The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the "black box" of the mind should be opened and understood.
The learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer).
I. URIE BRONFENBRENNER'S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
- This theory looks at a child's development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her
environment.
- It defines complex "layers" of environment, each having an effect on a child's development.
- Renamed as Bioecological Systems Theory
- Emphasizes that a child's own biology is a primary environment fueling her development
- The interaction between factors in the child's maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment,
and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.

SOCIAL LEVELS OR SYSTEMS

1. Microsystem
- is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct contact.
- family, child care services, school, local neighborhood, memberships of organizations or clubs, or child care
environments.
2. Mesosystem
- this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child's microsystem
- Examples: the connection between the child's teacher and his parents, between his church and his
neighborhood, etc.
3. Exosystem
- This layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly.
- It is one step removed from the child.
- The exosystem has an indirect impact on the child's development because of the connection with the family
unit.
- The structures in this layer impact the child's development by interacting with some
- structure in her microsystem.
- For example, a parent's place of employment, and access to family and community services.
4. Macrosystem
- may be considered the outermost layer in the child's environment
- This layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000).
- The effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence throughout the
interactions of all other layers.
5. Chronosystem
- encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child's environments
- the social and historical time frame in which the child's life is set - this reflects how children change over time.
- Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent's death, or internal, such as
the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child.
- As children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes and may be more able to determine
more how that change will influence them.

II. DAVID AUSUBEL'S MEANINGFUL LEARNING OR SUBSUMPTION THEORY

David Ausubel
 - was a cognitive learning theorist who focused on the learning of school subjects and who placed considerable
interest on what the student already knows as being the primary determiner of whether and what he/she learns
next.
- He viewed learning as an active process, not simply responding to your environment.
- Learners make sense of their surroundings by integrating new knowledge with that which they have already
learned.
Advance Organizer
- Presents an overview of the information to be covered in detail during the exposition that follows

Ausubel's Meaningful Learning/Subsumption Theory

- Ausubel proposed four processes by which meaningful learning can occur:
• Derivative subsumption
• Correlative subsumption
• Superordinate learning
• Combinatorial learning

Derivative subsumption
- Describes the situation in which the new information pupils learn is an instance or example of a concept that
pupils have already learned
- meaningful learning takes place when new material or relationships can be derived from the existing structure.
Correlative subsumption
- To accommodate new information, you have to alter or expand your concept
- more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher- level concept
Superordinate learning
- In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but you did not know the concept itself until it
was taught to you
Combinatorial learning
- It describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that comes from his previous
knowledge (in a different, but related, "branch") Students could think of this as learning by analogy

III. RICHARD ATKINSON'S AND RICHARD SHIFFRIN'S INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

- The individual learns when the human mind takes in information (encoding), performs operation in it, stores the
information (storage) and retrieves it when needed (retrieval).
Memory - is the ability to store information so that it can be used at a later time.
Stages of Human Memory
A. SENSORY MEMORY
- information store that holds an exact copy of stimuli for a very short period of time.
- Ex. color, shape, blowing of horn
B. SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)
- the information store that retains the information as we consciously work on it.
C. LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM)
- information story that is permanent
• minutes to lifetime
• information on the LTM, if not rehearsed, can be forgotten

Forgetting - the inability to recall (previously known) to the mind

Causes of Forgetting
a. Retrieval Failure - forgetting is due to inability to recall information
b. Decay Theory - information stored in LTM gradually fades when not in used.
c. Interference Theory - forgetting LTM is due to the influence of other learning
Retention - the ability to recall or recognize what has been learned or experienced.
Interference - the act or an instance of hindering, obstructing, or impeding
Transfer - when something previously learned influences the new material

Types of Transfer
a. Lateral Transfer - occurs when the individual is able to perform a new task about the same level.
b. Vertical Transfer- occurs when the individual is able to learn more advanced or complex skills.
c. Specific Transfer - when a specific skill, fact or rule is applied in similar situation.
d. General Transfer - applying principles previously learned to dissimilar situations.
IV. ROBERT GAGNE'S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
- In his view, effective instruction must reach beyond traditional learning theories (behaviorism, cognitivism, and
constructivism) and provide support to transition from simple to complex skills, thus using a hierarchical model
for learning.
The Nine Events of Instruction
1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

HUMANISTIC THEORY
I. ABRAHAM MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Abraham Maslow
- was a leading humanistic psychologist (Third Force)
- developed the Hierarchy of Needs
- promoted the concept of self-actualization
- According to Maslow's theory, there are four types of needs that must be satisfied before a person can act
unselfishly.
- The needs are arranged in a hierarchical order. The upward climb is made by satisfying one set of needs at a
time.
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
1. Physiological Needs - Physiological needs are basic. The body craves food, liquid, sleep, oxygen, sex, freedom of
movement, and a moderate temperature.
2. Safety Needs - safety from physical attack, emotional attack, fatal disease, invasion, extreme losses (job, family
members, home, friends)
3. Love & Belonging Needs - The love or belongingness needs come into play after the physiological and security
drives are satisfied. Gratification is a matter of degree rather than an either-or accomplishment.
• Inclusion - part of a group colleagues, peers, family, clubs
• Affection - love and be loved
• Control - influence over others and self
4. Esteem Needs - The esteem needs are of two types. There's self-esteem, which is the result of competence or
mastery of tasks. There's also the attention and recognition that come from others. Wanting this admiration is
part of what McClelland labels "need for power."
5. Self-Actualization - Maslow described the need for self-actualization as "the desire to become more and more
what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming"