ECT 202 Analog Circuits

Module 5

Joseph George K N
Power amplifiers:
Classification:
Transformer coupled class A power amplifier,
Push pull class B and class AB power amplifiers,
Complementary-symmetry class B and Class AB power amplifiers,
Efficiency and distortion (no analysis required)

Regulated power supplies:

Shunt voltage regulator,
Series voltage regulator,
Short circuit protection and fold back protection,
Output current boosting.
Objectives

• To classify Power amplifiers based on the angle of conduction

• To understand the differences between classes A, AB and B power amplifiers
• To perform power calculations of various power amplifiers
• To find the power efficiency levels of various power amplifiers
• To understand the amplifier distortion

• To classify voltage regulators

• To understand the working of voltage Regulator
• To design a discrete voltage regulator
• To study different protection circuits
• To understand the current boosting technique used in voltage regulator
 Power amplifiers:
 Amplifiers with a high-power output stage.

 Primarily provide sufficient power to an output load(for example, to

drive a speaker), typically a few watts to tens of watts.

 Used to handle large-voltage signals at moderate to high current

levels.
 Also called large signal amplifiers
Case study:

It is required to deliver 1 W to an 8Ω speaker.

Approximating the signal with a sinusoid of peak amplitude VP, the

power absorbed by the speaker is
 Observations

• The resistance that must be • The power drawn from the

driven by the amplifier (in supply voltage(at least 1 W) is
Ohms) is much lower than the much higher than the typical
typical values values.

• The voltage swing delivered by • The current levels involved (in

the amplifier(in Volts) can be Amperes) are much greater than
viewed as “large signal ”. the typical currents.

Other parameters of interest in the design of power stages:

Distortion
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) - The rms of Power efficiency
the harmonic components of the output,
excluding the fundamental
 THD -a measure of the goodness of the
output) of the amplifier should be as low
as possible. Power efficiency should be
high.
A good quality power amplifier offers a
THD, of the order of a fraction of a
percent
Classification:

Output stages are classified according to the collector current waveform that
results when an input signal is applied.
Classes D, E, F, G, S, T etc. (Switching Amplifiers)
Table: Amplifier classes and Efficiency

Around 90%

Fig: Classification of Power amplifiers based on conduction

Amplifier Efficiency

 Efficiency - the ratio of power output to power input

 Improves from class A to class D.

 Class A operation - with a direct or series-fed load connection. the

maximum efficiency is only 25% and with a transformer connection to the
load it is 50%.

 Class B operation - with no dc bias power for no input signal, can be shown
to provide a maximum efficiency that reaches 78.5%.

 Class AB operation – since it’s operation falls between class A and class B
in bias, it also falls between their efficiency ratings—between 25% (or
50%) and 78.5%.

 Class D operation - can achieve power efficiency over 90% and provides
the most efficient operation of all the operating classes
Class A Power Amplifier
(a) Series fed

• The signals handled by the large signal

circuit are in the range of volts

• The transistor used is a power transistor

that is capable of operating in the range
of a few to tens of watts.

The beta (β) of a power transistor is generally less than 100

Drawback
DC bias uses a good amount of power to maintain bias,
even with no input signal applied - results in very poor
efficiency, especially with small input signals
DC Bias Operation
Fig: Output characteristics
 AC Operation
A small input signal will cause
the base current to vary above
and below the dc bias point,
which will then cause the
collector current (output) to
vary from the dc bias point set
as well as the collector–emitter
voltage to vary around its dc
bias value.

As the input signal is made larger, the

output will vary further around the
established dc bias point until either the
current or the voltage reaches a limiting
condition.
Output power and Efficiency
The ac power delivered to the load (RC) can be expressed in a number of
ways.

The efficiency (η) of an amplifier represents the amount of ac power delivered

(transferred) from the dc source.
Efficiency

,
So,
Class A Power Amplifier
(b) Transformer Coupled
A transformer can increase or decrease
voltage or current levels according to the
turns ratio.
Voltage transformation is

Current transformation is

Impedance transformation is given by

Output power and Efficiency η
The input dc power obtained from the supply dc voltage

The power dissipated by the transformer is small (due to the small dc

resistance of a coil)

The only power loss is that dissipated by the power transistor, calculated
using

Based on the signals obtained using the amplifier, the efficiency can be
expressed as
Class B Power Amplifier

Operation
The one half circuit
conducts current for only
one-half of the signal
cycle.

Output for the full cycle of signal is obtained by

using two transistors, each conducting on opposite
half-cycles and combining the two half cycles.

Since one part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one half-cycle and
the other part pulls the signal during the other half-cycle, the circuit is referred
to as a push– pull circuit.
Fig: Connection of push–pull amplifier to load: (a) using two voltage supplies; (b) using
one voltage supply.
Output for the full cycle of signal is obtained by using two transistors, each
conducting on opposite half-cycles and combining the two half cycles.

Q-point is at cutoff.

Fig: (a) Connection of push–pull amplifier to load: (b) operating curve

When the transistors are not conducting, there is no current

flowing either through the load or through the transistors and
hence much more efficient than class A Amplifier
The larger the rms or peak output voltage, the larger is the power
delivered to the load.
 Maximum Efficiency and Peak voltage

The larger the peak voltage, the higher is the circuit efficiency, up to a maximum
value when VL(p) = VCC.

The maximum efficiency

Power dissipated by Transistors

The power dissipated by the transistors is the difference between the input
power delivered by the supplies and the output power delivered to the load

The power dissipated by single transistor is

Note:
Efficiency increases as peak voltage increases.
(a) Class B Amplifier Circuit 1
Transformer Coupled Push pull Class B Power Amplifier
Uses a center-tapped input transformer to produce opposite-polarity signals to the two
transistor inputs and an output transformer to drive the load in a push–pull mode of
operation.
 Note:
Transformer

Functions:
•to step up or step down time-varying
voltages and currents
(a)
•to provide electrical isolation

Lm - Magnetizing
inductance reflected
at the primary side

(b)
Fig: (a)Transformer representation
Input-output relationships (b) Equivalent circuit
When the voltage at the dotted terminal on one winding is
positive, the voltage at the dotted terminal on the other winding is
also positive.

 When current leaves/enters the dotted terminal on one winding,

current enters/leaves the dotted terminal on the other winding
 The center-tapped transformer
provides opposite-phase signals.

If the transformer is exactly

center-tapped, the two signals are
exactly opposite in phase and of
the same magnitude.
During the first half-cycle of operation, transistor Q1 is driven into conduction,
whereas transistor Q2 is driven off. The current I1 through the transformer results in the
first half cycle of signal to the load.
During the second half-cycle of the input signal, Q2 conducts, whereas Q1 stays off,
the current I2 through the transformer resulting in the second half cycle to the load.
During the first half-cycle of operation, transistor Q1 is driven into conduction, whereas
transistor Q2 is driven off. The current I1 through the transformer results in the first half
cycle of signal to the load.

During the second half-cycle of the input signal, Q2 conducts, whereas Q1 stays off, the
current I2 through the transformer resulting in the second half cycle to the load.

The overall signal developed across the load then varies over the full cycle of signal
operation.
(b) Class B Amplifier Circuit 1
Complementary Symmetry Class B Power Amplifier
Complementary transistors (npn
and pnp) are used to obtain a full
cycle output across a load using
half-cycles of operation from each
transistor

The transistors, being of opposite

type, will conduct on opposite
half-cycles of the input.

During the positive half-cycle of input signal, the npn transistor will be biased
into conduction, with a resulting half cycle of signal across the load.

During the negative half-cycle of signal, the pnp transistor is biased into
conduction
 Output signal

During the positive half-cycle of input signal, the npn transistor will be biased
into conduction, with a resulting half cycle of signal across the load.

During the negative half-cycle of signal, the pnp transistor is biased into
conduction
Fig: Input and Output waveforms and Transfer characteristics of Class B
amplifier
Class B- Single supply operation
Class AB Power Amplifier
Crossover distortion can be virtually eliminated by making the other
transistor into conduction before the conducting transistor is turned
into cut off
 biasing the complementary output transistors at a small nonzero current.

The result is the class AB output stage

Q-point is slightly above cutoff

Cross over distortion eliminating Circuit

Crossover distortion can be

eliminated by making the other
transistor into conduction before the
conducting transistor is turned into
cut off
 bias the complementary
output transistors at a small
nonzero current.

A bias voltage VBB is applied

between the bases of Q1 and Q2.

A voltage of appears across the base emitter

junctions of both Q1 and Q2
 Class AB Amplifier Circuit 1
(a) Transformer Coupled Push pull circuit
Uses a center-tapped input transformer to produce opposite-polarity signals to the two
transistor inputs and an output transformer to drive the load in a push–pull mode of
operation.
The biasing network biases both transistors Q1 and Q2
During the first half-cycle of operation, transistor Q1 is driven into conduction, whereas
transistor Q2 is driven off. The current I1 through the transformer results in the first half
cycle of signal to the load.
During the second half-cycle of the input signal, Q2 conducts, whereas Q1 stays off, the
current I2 through the transformer resulting in the second half cycle to the load.
During the first half-cycle of operation, transistor Q1 is driven into conduction, whereas
transistor Q2 is driven off. The current I1 through the transformer results in the first half
cycle of signal to the load.

During the second half-cycle of the input signal, Q2 conducts, whereas Q1 stays off, the
current I2 through the transformer resulting in the second half cycle to the load.

The overall signal developed across the load then varies over the full cycle of signal
operation.
`
Class AB Amplifier Circuit 2
(b) Complementary Symmetry circuit

A fixed bias voltage of 1.4 V is provided using potential divider network.

During the positive half-cycle of input signal,

• the pnp transistor will be turned off

• the npn transistor will be biased into conduction,
• resulting in one half cycle of signal across the load.
During the negative half-cycle of input signal,

• the npn transistor will be turned off

• the pnp transistor will be biased into conduction,
• resulting in the next half cycle of signal across the load.
During the positive half-cycle of input signal, the npn transistor will be biased
into conduction, resulting in one half cycle of signal across the load.

During the negative half-cycle of signal, the pnp transistor is biased into
conduction resulting in the next half cycle of signal across the load
` Stability against temperature variations can be achieved by
connecting two diodes in series instead of R2

Two diodes placed in series can provide the required voltage drop
`
Distortion in Amplifiers

Distortion can occur because

 the device characteristic is not linear - amplitude distortion

 This can occur with all classes of amplifier operation.

 the circuit elements and devices respond to the input signal differently at
various frequencies - frequency distortion.

Using Fourier analysis, any periodic waveform can be described in terms

of its
 fundamental frequency component and

 frequency components at integer multiples

• these components are called harmonic components or
harmonics.
 Harmonic Distortion
 A signal that is originally 1 kHz, after distortion could result in
 frequency components at 1 kHz - fundamental frequency and
 harmonic components at 2 kHz, 3 kHz, 4 kHz and so on - harmonics

 A signal is considered to have harmonic distortion when there are

harmonic frequency components

 If the fundamental frequency component has an amplitude A1 and

the nth frequency component has an amplitude An, harmonic
distortion can be defined as

Total harmonic distortion (THD)

Voltage Regulator
 Regulated Power Supply
• To keep the power supply voltage constant (within the specified tolerance)
against variations in line voltage and/or load current.

• To reduce the ripple content in the output

 Performance Parameters

Change in Vo can be expressed as

Voltage Regulator –Types

A.
Note:
SMPS

Fig: Switched Mode Power supply

Note:

Fig: Switched Mode Power supply

B.
 Line Regulation

Aim: To keep the output voltage constant (within the

specified tolerance) against variations in line voltage.

Line Regulation
and

RS – Current limiting resistor

and RL – Load resistor

IS = IZ + IL
Vs => Is => IZ => IL remains constant

Vs => Is => IZ => IL remains constant

 Line Regulation
Shows the ability of the voltage regulator to maintain constant output voltage independent
of the fluctuations in input voltage

The percentage change in output voltage due to variation of the input

voltage with all other factors held constant.

The value is calculated from the ratio of the change in the output voltage to
the change in the input voltage.
Load Regulation

Aim: To keep the output voltage constant (within the specified tolerance) against
variations in load current.
RS – current limiting resistor
Fixed for a given RS
IS = IZ + IL

RL => IL => IZ
Load Regulation

RL => IL => IZ
 Load regulation
A measure of the ability of a power supply to maintain a constant output
voltage despite changes in output current or load

where,
VNL - output voltage at zero load current
VFL - output voltage at rated full load current

The smaller the load regulation, the stable and reliable is the power supply.

Typical well-regulated power supplies have load regulations of less than

1%, meaning that the output voltage will change by a maximum of 1%
over the load current range.
 BJT Shunt Regulator
The control element Q1 is in shunt
with the load

As the load current changes, the

conduction of Q1 changes so as to
make output voltage constant.
 Series Voltage Regulator

The control element controls the

amount of the input voltage that
gets to the output.

The sampling circuit samples

output voltage and provides a
feedback voltage

The comparator circuit compares Fig: Block diagram of series voltage regulator
this feedback voltage to a reference
voltage and provides a control
voltage

If the output voltage increases,

the control signal causes the series control element to decrease the output
voltage by the same amount—thereby maintaining the output voltage

If the output voltage decreases,

The control signal causes the series control element to increase the
output voltage by the same amount.
 Fig: Circuit diagram of Series
voltage regulator

Working
1. If VL decreases, the increased VBE causes transistor Q1 to conduct more,
thereby raising the output voltage—maintaining the output constant.

2. If VL increases, the decreased VBE causes transistor Q1 to conduct less, thereby

reducing the output voltage—maintaining the output constant.
Transistor Q1 (series control element) is connected in series with the load and
carries the load current.

Zener diode DZ provides the reference voltage.

DZ
 Feedback Voltage Regulator
 Series pass transistor Q1
is connected in series with
the load.

 Internal impedance (and

hence the internal voltage
drop) of Q1 is adjusted to
make VL constant.

 Q2 functions both as
comparator and DC
amplifier.

 Any change in the output voltage either due to input voltage

variation or change in load results in a corresponding change in βVO
(i.e., VBE2 of Q2 changes).
 Suppose VL increases.

 βVL (and hence VBE2 ) increases.

Hence,
 IC2 increases, VCE2 decreases

 VBE1 decreases, i.e., Forward biasing of Q1 decreases

 VCE1 increases.
 Therefore, VO decreases
 Short Circuit Protection - Series Regulator

• Used to protect the circuit against

a short circuit

D1 D2
• The diodes, D1 and D2 remain off in
normal operation.

• In case of short circuit, conduction of Q1 increases, drop across RSC

increases and it is sufficient to turn on both D1 and D2.

• Hence Q1 is protected against short circuit.

 Short Circuit Protection Feedback Regulator
• Consists of a current limiting transistor Q3 and a series resistor RSC.

Under normal operation,

drop across RSC is not
sufficient to turn on Q3
• If excess current flows
through load (in case of
short circuit), the drop
across RSC also
increases and in case of
overload, it is sufficient
to turn on Q3..
• Once Q3 is turned on, the excess current will be diverted away from
the base of Q1 (through Q3) and IB1 reduces, conduction of Q1
decreases, the load current decrease and thus Q1 will be protected
against short circuit.

• ISC RSC = 0.65V

 Fig: VL VS. IL graph – short circuit protection

Disadvantage
Under short circuit condition, VL reduces to zero, but maximum IL flows.
Fold back Protection

• Consists of transistor Q3 and resistors RSC ,R4 and R5.

• As the load current

increases, the drop across
RSC also increases and in
case of overload, it is
sufficient to turn on Q3 .

• The rate at which Q3 is

turned on is different
- The increase in VB3 is
small (only a fractional increase due to voltage divider resistors R4 and R5 )
compared to the increase in VE3.
i.e., Q3 is turned on slowly.
- The increase in VB3 is small
𝑅5
o only fractional increase (=𝑅 )
4 +𝑅5

- The increase in VE3 more

• Thus, as the load current

increases, Q3 is turned on at a
slower rate due to which both VL Fig: Current fold back protection
and IL decrease circuit consisting of Q3 ,R4 and R5

• It can be shown mathematically that both VL and IL decrease under short

circuit condition and ISC will be less than the rated current Imax , thus the
circuit will be protected
 Fig: VL VS. IL graph - current fold back protection

• Under normal operation, required current is obtained at rated

voltage.
• In case of a short circuit, Both VL and IL are reduced to
protect the circuit
• ISC will be less than the rated current Imax
Output Current Boosting

If the output current of the regulator is not sufficient to meet the

requirement, a current boosting transistor Q4 with current gain β4 may be
used to amplify the out put current.

IL = β4 x IL

A Darlington transistor pair can also be used in place of Q4 to obtain

much higher output current
Thank you