Module 2

Introduction to Surveying and Mapping

After the learners have gone through the lessons contained in this module, they are
expected to:

1. Define surveying as part of the science of Geomatics;

2. Identify the jobs of a surveyor;
3. Gain knowledge on the history of surveying;
4. Enumerate the surveying operations, its uses, types and recent technologies;
5. Be familiar with the different surveying terms;
6. Identify different types of maps; and
7. Discuss and describe the characteristics and uses of each type of maps.

2.1 Geomatics and Its Disciplines

One of the oldest arts practiced by

man is surveying. Surveying, which
has recently also been
interchangeably called geomatics. In a
more general sense, however,
surveying (geomatics) can be
regarded as that discipline which
Fig.4 Land Surveying Practice
(Retrieved in June 23, 2020) encompasses all methods for
measuring and collecting information about the physical earth and our environment,
processing that information, and disseminating a variety of resulting products to a wide
range of clients. Surveying has been important since the beginning of civilization. From
the earliest times it has been necessary to mark boundaries and divide tracts of land.
 Throughout the years its importance has steadily increased with the growing
demand for a variety of maps and other spatially related types of information and the
expanding need for establishing accurate line and grade to guide construction operations.
Today, it is difficult to undertake any type of engineering construction that does not involve
some type of surveying. Planning and design are based on the results of surveys and
construction is controlled in surveying.

Today the importance of measuring and monitoring our environment is becoming

increasingly critical as our population expands,land values appreciate,our natural
resources dwindle, and human activities continue to stress the quality of our land, water,
and air.

2.1.1 Geomatics

 It is the science concerned with the measurement,

representation, analysis, management, retrieval and
display of spatial information describing both the
Earth’s physical features and the built environment.
 It is a collective term where "Geo" refers to the land
and "matics" refers to the mathematics and science
used to study the land.
 includes disciplines such as: Fig.5 Geomatics and Its Discipline
(Retrieved in June 23, 2020)
• Surveying
• Geodesy
• Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry
• Cartography
• Geographic Information Systems
• Global Positioning System
2.1.2 Aspects on the Field of Geomatics

1. Geomatics as a Technological Field

The technological artifacts used in the social practice of geomatics – the
transformation of the surface of the earth into spatial data – are computer systems and
other “technological means for the collection, storage, analysis, and representation of
geo-coded data”.

2. Geomatics as a Scientific Field

During the last ten years, the scientific field of geomatics has emerged alongside
terms like geographic information science, geocomputation and telegeoprocessing.
These terms cover some of the same intellectual terrain and represent the overlapping
and convergence of several disciplines like computer science, geography, information
science, mathematics and statistics.

3. Geomatics as a Business Field

In a day to day operation, organization of all sorts use and process large amount
of geodata. The information they derive from those data becomes one of the main
components of their operational and financial outcomes. The great majority of these data
are spatial in nature, that is, they refer to a particular geographic point or sector. The
needs among organizations to acquire, manage and process geographic information are
among the factors fuelling the growth of the geomatics industry.

4. Geomatics as an Infrastructural Field

Field of geomatics can be seen to have an infrastructure dimension that relates to
the fact that much information refers to specific places. Geographic information or spatial
data is increasingly seen as an important resource for surveillance, control and
management of society in ways that are more efficient than before.
2.1.3 Components of Geomatics
a. Surveying
b. Cartography
c. Geodesy
d. Hydrography and Ocean Mapping
e. Photogrammetry
f. Remote Sensing
g. Global Positioning System (GPS)
h. Geographic Information System (GIS)
i. Automated Mapping/Facilities Management (AM/FM)
j. Computer and communication Services

2.2 Surveying, Uses of Surveys and Types of Surveys

2.2.1 Surveying
- The art of making measurements of the relative positions of natural and man-made
features on the earth’s surface, and the presentation of this information either both
graphically and numerically. (Traditional Definition)
- The art of determining the positions of points on or near the earth’s surface by
means of measurements in the three elements of space; namely: distance,
direction, and elevation. (Rayner and Schmidt)
- The science and art of determining relative positions of points above, on, or
beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points. (Brinker and Wolf)
- The art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to establish
the form, extent, and relative position of points, lines, and areas on or near the
surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through applied mathematics
and the use of specialized equipment and techniques. ( La Putt)
2.2.2 History of Surveying
a. Surveying had it’s beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC
• Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation. Divisions were washed away
by annual floods.
• “ROPE-STRETCHERS” Egyptian surveyors were created to relocate the land
divisions (measurement were made with ropes having knots at unit distances).

b. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry

• Developed one of the earliest surveying instrument - Diopter

c. Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the Roman roads,

aqueducts, and land division systems.
• Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional organization.
• Developed several instruments:
 Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles
 Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling.
 Chorobates – 20’ straight edge with oil in notch for leveling.

d. Middle Ages : land division of Romans continued in Europe

• Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning angles up to 90° and has a
graduated scale developed by an Italian names Von Piso

e. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for mapping and marking land
claims caused extensive surveying, especially by the English
• 1785: United States began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile
square sections
• 1807: United States Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate control
network and mapping.
• Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George
Rogers Clark and many more.
 f. 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced, population increased,
and land value caused development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
• Educational requirements for licensure began in the early 1990’s
• Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning using global
positioning systems, construction machine control, and Lidar mapping.

2.2.3 The Surveyor

- They are professionals with academic qualifications,

technical expertise, interpretative ability and management
skills to practice the discipline of surveying for the benefit
of society.
- Assess the surrounding terrain and landscape for the
purpose of development. They commonly use specialized
technology and equipment to do this as many of today’s
development, subdivision, building and tunneling projects
are so complex. This complexity combined with the sheer
scale of some projects means that extremely accurate
surveying data is required to ensure no mistakes are made.
Fig. 6 Land Surveyor
(Retrieved in June 23, 2020)

2.2.4 Land Surveys and Uses

 Land Surveying encompasses just some of the following activities, with surveyors
involved in one or more of these (within some in conjunction with other professionals)

a. Providing the spatial infrastructure needed to support an effective cadastral and

land tenure system;
 b. Determining, locating and defining the boundaries of public and private land
(including national boundaries), interpreting anomalies in the cadastre, and
arbitrating on disputes over boundary location;
c. Designing and establishing spatial reference systems to provide a
homogeneous framework for geographic and land information systems;
d. Collecting, analysing and managing geographic data and designing,
establishing and administering land and geographic information systems;
e. Providing information and advice, pertinent to property and its environment, to
assist in determining the best sustainable land use and development;
f. Assessing the potential benefits or disadvantages that could accrue from
property development and advising clients and governments accordingly;
g. Contributing to the development and management of urban and rural properties
by planning, advising, negotiating, and implementing procedures;
h. Planning, estimating, designing, measuring, and managing construction works
and applying prudent financial control
i. Producing plans, maps, files, databases, models, charts and reports for clients.
j. Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land, and at sea; and
k. Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity, and magnetic fields of the earth.

2.2.5 Primary Division of Surveying

1. Plane Surveying
• It is the type of surveying where the mean surface of the earth is considered as
a plane. All angles are considered to be plane angles
• In such surveying a line joining any two stations is considered to be straight.
• Plane surveying is carried out for a small area of less than 250 sq.km.
2. Geodetic Surveying
• The Geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in which the curvature of the
earth is taken into account. It is generally extended over larger areas.
• Geodetic Surveying is carried out for a larger area exceeding 250 sq.km.
 Fig. 7 Primary Division of Surveying
(Retrieved in June 23, 2020)

2.2.6 Types of Surveys

 Surveying is classified based on various criteria including the instruments used,
purposed, the area to be surveyed and the method used.

1. Based on Instrument Used

a) Chain Tape Surveys: taking linear measurement using a chain or tape with no
angular measurements made.
b) Compass Surveys: horizontal angular measurements are made using magnetic
compass with the linear measurements made using the chain or tape.
c) Plane Table: quick survey carried out in the field with the measurements and
drawings made at the same time using a plane table.
d) Theodolite Surveys: survey takes a vertical and horizontal angles in order to
establish controls.
e) Leveling: measurement and mapping of the relative heights of points on the
earth’s surface showing them in maps, plane and charts as vertical sections or
with conventional symbols.
2. Based on the Surface and the Area Surveyed
1. Land Surveys – done for objects on the surface of the earth.
a. Topograhic Surveys: Are those surveys made for determining the shape of
the ground, and the location and elevation of natural and artificial features
upon it.
b. Cadastral Survey/ Land or Property Surveys: used in determining property
boundaries including those of fields, houses, plots of land, etc.
c. Engineering Surveys: used to acquire the required data for the planning,
design and execution of engineering projects like roads, canals, dams,
railways, buildings, etc.
d. City Surveys: These are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the
purpose of planning and expansions or improvements, locating property
lines, fixing reference monuments, determining the physical features and
configuration of the land, and preparing maps.
e. Construction Surveys: Undertaken at a construction site to provide data
regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and
location and elevation of structures which are of concern to engineers,
architects, and builders.
f. Forestry Surveys: Executed in connection with forest management and
mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.
g. Mine Surveys: surveys which are performed to determine the position of all
underground excavations and surface mine structures.

2. Marine Or Hydrographic Surveys: refers to surveying of bodies of water, offshore

and onshore.

3. Photogrammetric Surveys: type of survey which makes use of photographs taken

with specially designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.

4. Astronomical Survey: Uses the observations of the heavenly bodies to fix the
absolute locations of places on the surface of the earth.
3. Basis of Purpose
a. Engineering Survey
b. Control Survey – vertical and horizontal control points
c. Geological Survey – structure and arrangement of rock strata
d. Military or Defense Survey – map places of military importance
e. Archeological Survey – discover and map ancient / relies of antiquity

4. Based on the Methods Used

a. Triangulation
- Entire area to be surveyed is converted
into framework of triangles.
- If the length and bearing of one side and
three angles of a triangle are measured
precisely, the lengths and directions of other
two sides can be computed
- This method of surveying was first
introduced by a Dutchman called Snell
Fig. 8 Triangulation
(Retrieved in June 23, 2020)

b. Traverse Survey
- A traverse surveying is one in which the framework consists of connected lines
whose lengths are measured with a chain or tape and the directions are
determined with an angular instrument.
- Closed Traverse – forms closed circuit
- Open Traverse – sequence of connected lines extends along a general
direction and does not return to the starting point.

Fig. 9 Closed and Open Traverse (Retrieved in June 23, 2020)

2.2.7 Process of Surveying
1. Reconnaissance – This is a pre-field work and measurement phase. It requires
taking an overall inspection of the area to be surveyed to obtain a general picture
before commencement of any serious survey.
2. Fieldwork and Measurement – It is the actual measurements in the field and the
recordings in the field notebook.
3. Office Work – It is the post work stage in which data collected and recordings in
the field notebooks are encoded and used to prepare the charts, plans and maps
for presentation to the clients and the target audience.

2.3 Definition of Basic Surveying Terms

Azimuth
- The angle to a line of sight, measured clockwise from (usually) a north/south
meridian.
Backsight
- It is a reading taken on a position of known coordinate(s). Since a survey
progresses from a point of known position to points of unknown position, a
backsight is a reading looking "backward" along the line of progress.
Bearings
- Bearings are used to indicate angular orientation with respect to the earth.
Bearings consist of three components: The cardinal direction of the nearest end of
the meridian (N or S);
 The angle measured from the nearest end of the meridian;
 The cardinal point indicating the direction of deflection from the meridian (E or
W).
 The angular measure is always within the range of 0-90 degrees.
Benchmarks
- A benchmark (BM) is permanent marker at a point of determined location
(elevation and possibly horizontal coordinates).
Control Points
- Are fixed points of known coordinates. Such information can give only elevation or
can include all coordinates. Control points are determined by high-accuracy
surveys.
Datum
- A datum is a fixed starting point of a scale. For example, the datum-level for
elevation is typically taken as mean sea level. The datum for latitude is the prime
meridian (through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England).
Electronic Distance Measurement
- EDM is a relatively new technique that is still evolving and improving. It was first
introduced in 1948 by Swedish physicist Erik Bergstrand. His device used visible
light and could accurately measure distances up to 25 miles at night. First
introduced in 1957, microwave instruments can be used day or night.
Fieldbooks
- Field books are standard forms for recording of survey data as it is collected.
Fieldnotes
- It is a permanent record of field procedures and the data collected in those
procedures. Field notes should be made carefully.
Foresight
- Reading taken on a position of unknown coordinate(s), are sometimes called
sideshots or intermediate foresights to distinguish them from the readings that
form the main circuit of the survey.
Magnetic Declination
- Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle between true north and magnetic
north. There are two conventions for specifying the angle.
Meridian
- A north-south reference line. It may be taken through the position of the instrument,
or, in special cases, through a reference point (such as the Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, England, which designates the Prime Meridian - 0o longitude).
Occupied Point
- The physical point over which the instrument (level, transit, total station, etc.) is set
up. It is the point from which any measurements taken while at that point are
reckoned.
Orders of Survey
- The order of a survey is a way of expressing the accuracy of the work.
Pacing
- Pacing is a "quick and dirty" method for estimating distances. One simply walks
from one point to another, counting steps. Knowing the length of one's step allows
a quick estimation of the distance.
Plumb Bob
- Plumb bobs are commonly used for locating an instrument precisely over a fixed
point or to project a vertical line between a tape and a point on the ground.
Staking
- The placement of markers on a site to identify certain locations.
Stations
- It refers to a point on a baseline that is at a known distance from a
starting/reference point.
Tapes/Taping
- A tape is a flexible device used for measuring linear distances.
Traverse
- It is a series of consecutive line segments whose lengths and directions are
determined by field measurements.
Turning Point
- It is a station, either temporary or permanent, that is used as a pivot between
sequential instrument positions.
Error of Closure
- The error of closure of a leveling survey refers to the cumulative error of the entire
circuit. In actual practice, errors are made in measurements that result in a
discrepancy between the two values.
2.4 Mapping

2.4.1 Maps
- A map is a drawing that give us information about a place at a particular time.
- It is a picture or representation of the Earth's surface, showing how things are
related to each other by distance, direction, and size.
- A graphic representation of the real world.

People use or read maps for different reasons

• we often use them to villages, towns or cities that we are not familiar with
• land surveyors to solve land ownership issues using maps/plan

The art of map construction is called CARTOGRAPHY. People who work in this
field of knowledge are called CARTOGRAPHER.

2.4.2 Types of Map

1. Physical Maps
- A physical map is a map that highlights the physical features of a region or area
- Normally shows mountain ranges, major lakes and rivers
2. Political Maps
- Maps showing cities, towns and villages, and different countries and states of the
world with their boundaries are called political maps.
3. Planimetric Maps
- is a representation of the earth’s surface in two horizontal dimensions only.
4. Topographic Maps
- is a representation of the earth’s surface in three dimensions.
- Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area.
5. Photo Maps
- a reproduction of an aerial photograph or a mosaic on which grid lines, contours,
boundaries, placenames, and marginal information have been added or
overprinted.
6. Thematic Maps
- is one which is made to deal with a specific theme or subject, usually against some
skeletal topographic background.
7. Computer Generated Maps
- electronic computers are now used to store cartographic information in digital form
that can be processed and retrieved in graphic form using automated graphic
systems.
- Cartographic jobs are done much faster and accurately than those undertaken
using conventional methods.

2.4.3 Components of Maps

a. Title – what the map is about
b. Compass Rose – directions (orientation of maps)
c. Symbols – pictures used instead of words
d. Legend or Key – Explains meaning of symbols and color
e. Color – highlights important or different information to help interpret maps
f. Scale – shows the proportion of map to real life
g. Grid reference – intersecting lines to help locate specific places on the map.

Figure 10. Map Symbols (Retrieved in June 23, 2020)

Key Points

1. Geomatics is a special branch of Information Technology (IT) which

integrates acquisition/collection, management, analysis, modelling and
presentation of spatially referenced data related to land features.
2. The measurement and collection of data related to land features, both
natural and man-made based on the location and position of features, as
well as their dimensions, and changes over time is called Land Surveying.
3. Land Surveyor is a licensed professional who conducts land surveys to
measure and define real property and its boundaries.
4. One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. Surveying has been
important since the beginning of civilization. From the earliest times it has
been necessary to mark boundaries and divide tracts of land.
5. The two primary divisions of surveying are plane surveying where the
curvature of the earth is not considered and geodetic surveying where the
curvature of the earth is taken into account.
6. Mapping is the act or process of making a map.
References and Supplementary Materials

Books

1. Ghilani and Wolf. (2012). Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics.

Thirteenth Edition, Prentice Hall, ISBN-13: 978-0-13-255434-3.
www.pearsonhighered.com
2. Juny Pilapil La Putt. (1987). Elementary Surveying. Third Edition. Baguio
Research and Publishing Center. Philippines
3. Mario A. Gomarasca. (2004). Basics of Geomatics. First Edition. Associazione
Italiana di Telerilevamento. Italy

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

1. Lecture Note Course Code – BCE 206. Engineering Surveying; Retrieved

June 23, 2020.