CH-2: HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Q.1. List the following events observed in human reproduction in chronological order.
Fertilization, gametogenesis, insemination, gestation, parturition, implantation.

A.1. Following is the sequence of events occurring in the process of human reproduction:

1. Gametogenesis
2. Insemination
3. Fertilization
4. Implantation
5. Gestation
6. Parturition

Q.2. Fill in the missing boxes exhibiting the route of sperm transport.

A.2. Following is the pathway followed by a sperm.

Q.3. State the significance of cervix in the female reproductive system.

A.3. The cervix is a narrow opening through which the uterus opens up to the vagina. The
cervical canal is the cavity of the cervix which alongside the vagina goes on to form the birth
canal.

Q.4. What is the reason for the absence of menstrual cycles during conception or
pregnancy?

A.4. During pregnancy, all the events of the menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation.
Menstruation occurs only when the egg that is released is not fertilized. But in pregnancy, the
released egg is fertilized and hence the uterus lining does not shed, instead nourishes the fetus.
However, a woman may experience uterine bleeding during pregnancy due to various reasons.
It is not due to the period.

Q.5. Fill up the missing data in the table where Column A shows female reproductive
organs and Column B shows its respective functions.

Column A Column B
(Organs) (Corresponding Functions)

Ovaries Ovulation
Oviduct

Pregnancy

Vagina Birth

A.5. Following are the female reproductive organs and their associated functions.

Column A Column B
(Organs) (Corresponding Functions)

Ovaries Ovulation

Oviduct Fertilization

Uterus Pregnancy

Vagina Birth

Q.6. Name the hormone crucial in parturition. Does the parturition signal originate from
the mother or the fetus?

A.6. The hormone is Oxytocin. The signal originates from the placenta and fully developed fetus
which initiate the foetal ejection reflex triggering the release of the hormone, oxytocin.

Q.7. State the role of the epididymis in male fertility.

A.7. It is situated along the posterior surface of each testis where spermatozoa acquire motility
and the capacity to fertilize the egg. The surface of the sperm is altered in response to
secretions of the epididymis, which is key to achieve the ability to fertilize an egg.

Q.8. List the names of the hormones, endocrine glands along with functions of the
hormones that are crucial in causing spermatogenesis.

A.8. The table below provides the required data:

Endocrine glands
Name of the
where the hormone Functions of the hormone
hormone
is released

Gonadotropin- Increase in secretion of GnRH initiates spermatogenesis at

releasing Hypothalamus puberty age After acting on the anterior pituitary gland –
hormone(GnRH) triggers the secretion of LH and FSH

Luteinising Anterior pituitary Triggers the production and secretion of androgens

hormone(LH) gland
Follicle Stimulating
Pituitary gland Acts on Sertoli cells and stimulates the secretion
Hormone (FSH)

Q.9. Fill in the missing boxes for the levels in the transformation of mother germ cells
into a mature follicle.

A.9. The various steps in the formation of the mature follicle are as follows:

Q.10. What are the events that cause the chromosome number of gametes to go from 2n,
n, and again back to 2n during reproduction?

A.10. Chromosomes replicate once but divide twice. They undergo mitosis, first meiotic cell
division and second meiotic cell division, the outcome of which is n number of chromosomes.
They fuse with the haploid(n) sex gamete of the opposite sex to form a diploid(2n) cell during
reproduction.

Q.11. How is a primary oocyte different from a secondary oocyte?

A.11. The primary oocyte is a diploid cell whereas secondary oocyte is a haploid cell. The
primary oocyte is formed when oogonia are at the prophase-I of the meiotic division in the foetal
ovary whereas secondary oocyte is formed from primary oocyte after meiosis – I division to
produce ova in females during the stage of puberty.

Q.12. State the role of the ampullary-isthmic junction in the female reproductive tract.

A.12. In the ampullary-isthmic junction, fertilization of the ovum takes place.

Q.13. How is polyspermy checked by the zona pellucida of the ovum?

A.13. The zona pellucida is a thick layer that is girdled by corona radiata cells. During
fertilization, cortical granules are released from the egg which blocks fusing of multiple sperms
with an egg.

Q.14. What is the significance of LH surge through the menstrual cycle?

A.14. It triggers the rupture of Graafian follicle and causes the release of the ovum in the
fallopian tube.
Q.15. During which stage of cell division are spermatids formed from the secondary
spermatocytes?

A.15. The second meiotic division.

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. State the significance of the following stages during the lifetime of a female.

1. Menarche
2. Menopause

A.1. The first menstruation or onset of menstruation at puberty is referred to as menarche. It

indicates the attainment of sexual maturity and the commencement of the fertile period.
Menstruation cycle is the cycle of events from one up till the next menstruation and is repeated
for about 28 days on an average wherein one ovum is released. Menopause, on the other hand,
is when the menstruation cycle comes to a halt, indicating the end of the fertile period as the
process of ovulation stops. Cyclic menstruation denotes a regular reproductive phase stretching
from menarche to menopause.

Q.2.

a. How many spermatozoa does one secondary spermatocyte produce?

b. Where in zygote does the first cleavage division occur?

A.2. a. The secondary spermatocytes undergo meiotic division – II to generate four haploid
spermatids which through the process of spermiogenesis are transformed into spermatozoa.

A.2. b. Cleavage occurs within the fallopian tube and is holoblastic, dividing the zygote
completely into blastomeres. The first cleavage divides the zygote longitudinally into two
blastomeres wherein one is slightly larger than the other.

Q.3. Why does corpus luteum stay active throughout pregnancy and in the absence of
fertilization, is active only for 10-12 days?
A.3. During the luteal phase, the leftover parts of Graafian follicle transform into the corpus
luteum. It discharges large quantities of progesterone hormone which is required for the
maintenance of the endometrium. The endometrium is important for implantation of the fertilized
egg and various other stages of pregnancy. Hence, corpus luteum has a long life in pregnancy.
In the absence of fertilization, upholding of the corpus luteum is not required and thus it declines
within 10-12 days, which causes the lining of the endometrium to menstruate and hence the
onset of the new menstrual cycle.

Q.4. What is foetal ejection reflex? How does it cause parturition?

A.4. Foetal ejection reflex is the mild uterine contractions that arise from the parturition signals
from the fully developed fetus and the placenta. This reflex stimulates the release of oxytocin,
which causes uterine contractions, in turn, stimulating the increased secretion of oxytocin. This
action of uterine contractions and oxytocin secretion further results in stronger contractions
leading to the dilation and hence expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the cervical
canal, expelling placenta along, thus the parturition or childbirth.

Q.5. What are the functions of placenta other than its endocrine function?

A.5. The placenta promotes the supply of nutrients and oxygen to the embryo. It also facilitates
the elimination of excretory wastes and carbon dioxide produced by the embryo. Placenta aids
in the transportation of substances to and from the embryo as it is connected to the embryo
through the umbilical cord.

Q.6. Why is breastfeeding recommended during the initial stages of infant growth?

A.6. The mammary glands in females start producing milk towards the end of pregnancy
through the process of lactation which helps the mother feed the newborn. Colostrum is the milk
produced during the initial few days. Colostrum contains antibodies which are crucial in
developing resistance in the newborns, hence it is recommended by doctors to bring up a
healthy baby.

Q.7. What are the different stages of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle taking
place in ovary and uterus?

A.7. In this phase, primary follicles transform into the fully mature Graafian follicle in the ovary.
The endometrium of the uterus simultaneously regenerates through proliferation. Changes in
the levels of ovarian and pituitary hormones induce changes in the uterus and ovaries. During
this stage, the secretion of FSH and LH eventually increases and triggers the secretion and
follicular development of estrogen by the growing follicles. In the middle of the cycle, both LH
and FSH reach the peak level. This speedy secretion of LH at the maximum level during the
mid-cycle causes rupture of Graafian follicle and hence ovulation.

Q.8. Mention the names of the hormones responsible for ovarian changes during the
menstrual cycle in the boxes provided.

A.8. Hormones responsible for the various stages of the menstrual cycle are:

Q.9. Draw a schematic diagram depicting oogenesis. (Label without description)

A.9.
Q.10. Mention the changes taking place during the transition of a primary follicle to
Graafian follicle in the oogonia.

A.10. Oogonia or the gamete mother cells are formed within each fetal ovary. No more oogonia
are formed after birth. They enter into the prophase-I stage of meiotic division when they
start cell division to approach the primary oocyte stage. These primary oocytes are girdled by a
layer of granulosa cells to form the primary follicle which degenerates during the stages of birth
to puberty. The primary follicles are encircled by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca
known as secondary follicles. The theca is subdivided into other theca externa and an
inner theca interna which secretes estrogen. The secondary follicle is then transformed into a
tertiary follicle characterized by antrum, which is a fluid-filled cavity. At this phase, the primary
oocyte grows in size inside the tertiary follicle to complete the first meiotic division. The tertiary
follicle finally transitions to form the Graafian follicle.

Q.10. Define Parturition.

A.10. Parturition refers to a process of delivering a baby from the uterus to the vagina to the
outside world. There are three stages of Parturition:

1. Dilation.
2. Expulsion.
3. Placental.

Q.11. Define Fertilization.

A.11. Fertilization refers to the biological process of fusion of male and female gametes
resulting in the formation of a zygote. In humans, the fertilization process takes place in the
fallopian tube.

Q.12. Write the main functions each of testis and ovary?

A.12. Testis also called the Testicles. It is a pair of oval-shaped organs masked in a pouch
called the scrotum. They are responsible for the production of sperms and the male hormone
testosterone.

The ovary is a ductless reproductive gland, which functions by producing a female sex
hormone called estrogen and also involved in producing and storing the ovum or the egg cell.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q.1. Explain the role of pituitary gonadotropins during the follicular and ovulatory phases
of the menstrual cycle. Describe the shifts in steroidal secretions.

A.1. The menstrual flow is due to the breakdown of the lining of the uterine endometrium and
blood vessels which forms the liquid discharged from the vagina. The menstrual cycle is
controlled through the pituitary gland by the hypothalamus. Changes in the ovary and uterus
during the menstrual cycle is due to the fluctuation in the levels of ovarian and pituitary
hormones. Towards the end of the menstrual phase, the pituitary FSH eventually increases
which causes the development of the follicles inside the ovaries. Both the FSH and LH attain a
peak level during the mid of the cycle. This speedy secretion of LH leads to LH surge which
induces rupture of the Graafian follicle and hence the ovulation. During the maturation of
follicles, more of estrogen is secreted causing a surge in FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary.
The LH surge causes ovulation. The LH also induces luteinisation. The LH hormone causes the
conversion of the empty follicle into the corpus luteum. The Corpus luteum produces steroidal
hormones – progesterone and estrogen. These hormones govern the growth and maintenance
of the uterine endometrium for probable implantation.

Q.2. Explain in detail the difference between the meiotic division of oogenesis and
spermatogenesis.

A.2. Spermatogenesis is the production process of sperm from the male germ cell whereas
oogenesis is the production process of the eggs from the oogonia in females. Meiosis is
different in spermatogenesis and oogenesis in the quantity of the end product. This unequal
division is necessary to maintain the essential part of the cytoplasm. One minor part is detached
as the polar body where a single daughter cell called the ovum is formed which is functional.
But in spermatogenesis, four spermatids are produced which are functional and that later
develops into spermatozoa.

Oogenesis Spermatogenesis

Production of eggs from oogonia Production of sperm from spermatogonia

Takes place inside the ovary in females Takes place inside the testes in males

All except the last phase takes place inside the ovary All phases occur inside the testis

Early stages observed during the fetal period. Rest A continuous process that is initiated from puberty
stages observed between puberty and menopause and lasts until death

Developed from the germinal epithelial lining of the

Matured from germinal epithelium overlying the ovary
seminiferous tubules

Sertoli cells not found in germinal cell epithelium Sertoli cells found in germinal cell epithelium
 Spermatogonia are divided by meiosis to produce
Few oogonia divide to produce eggs, one at a time
sperms

Lengthy growth phase in oogonia The growth phase of spermatogonia is short

Generates non-motile gametes Produces motile gametes

Primary oocyte divides to form a secondary oocyte and During meiosis-I, primary spermatocyte divides to
polar body during meiosis-I form two secondary spermatocytes

Q.3. Explain in detail the various developmental stages of the zygote until implantation
with suitable diagrams.

A.3. When the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct, the mitotic division is initiated
and is called the cleavage towards the uterus to form 2,4,8,16 daughter cells called
blastomeres. It is an embryo containing 8 to 16 blastomeres from the morula. It continues to
transform and divide into blastocysts as it further approaches the uterus. In the blastocyst, the
blastomeres are organized into an outer layer referred to as the trophoblast and the inner cell
mass, which is an inner collection of cells attached to the trophoblast. This layer gets attached
to the endometrium and the inner cell mass transforms into the embryo. After attachment, the
cells of the uterus rapidly divide and covers up the entire blastocyst. This causes the blastocyst
to implant in the endometrium of the uterus which leads to conception.

Q.4. With the help of a neat labelled diagram of the female reproductive system, depict
the following sites:

(a)production of gamete
(b)site of fertilization
(c)site of implantation
(d)birth canal

A.4.
Q.5. Explain the organization of the mammary gland with the help of a diagram.

A.5. One of the characteristics of the female mammals is that they possess functional mammary
glands. They have paired structures, containing glandular tissues and fat that varies in
individuals. The glandular tissue is organized into 15-20 mammary lobes in each breast, which
possess alveoli which are a cluster of cells. These alveolar cells secrete milk that is stored in the
lumens or cavities of the alveoli. The alveoli open into the mammary tubules. These tubules in
each of the lobes combine to form the mammary duct. Many such mammary ducts join to form a
mammary ampulla that is connected to the lactiferous ducts. Through these structures, milk is
sucked.

Q.6. What is Reproduction? Explain how humans reproduce their young ones?

A.6. Reproduction is a biological process of producing young ones or offspring, which are
identical to their parents. There are two different modes of reproduction and are classified
mainly based on the involvement of the parents.

The two different modes of reproduction are:

Asexual Reproduction: This mode of reproduction involves only one parent and the new
offspring produced is genetically similar to the parent.
Sexual Reproduction: This mode of reproduction involves the formation and transfer of
gametes, followed by fertilization, the formation of the zygote and embryogenesis. It is very
complex.

Humans reproduce their young ones through the sexual mode of reproduction.

Q.7. How many eggs does a woman have?

A.7. As a fetus early in development, a female produces about 6 million to 7 million eggs.

At birth, there are approximately 1 million eggs. By the time of puberty, only about 300,000
remains. Out of these, only 200 to 300 will be ovulated during a woman’s reproductive lifetime.
Fertility can drop as a woman ages due to decreasing number and quality of the remaining
eggs.

Q.8. What is the female reproductive system?

A.8.

The female reproductive system includes both the internal and external organs. These organs
are mainly involved with the reproduction process.

 Internal Reproductive Organs

The internal reproductive organs of females include the vagina, uterus (womb), cervix, fallopian
tubes and ovaries.

 External Reproductive Organs

The vulva consists of all of the external parts of females reproductive organs.

Q.9.What is Menopause?

A.9. Menopause is defined as the final stage or the end of a woman’s menstrual cycle, fertility
and the different types of changes a woman experiences. This is a natural process in all
females and happens in all older women, between the age of 40 and 50, though it may also
vary. The main cause for menopause is the female sex hormone levels, which naturally reduces
along with age and eventually the ovaries stop releasing the eggs. Therefore, women in this
phase no longer have periods and are not able to get pregnant.

Q.10.What is the menstrual cycle? Name the Hormones which control the menstrual
cycle.

A.10.The menstrual cycle is defined as the natural process, which occurs in all females after
reaching the age of their puberty. During this period, an ovary releases a mature egg, which
travels to the uterus, if the egg is not fertilized, the uterine lining sheds and a new cycle begins.
Overall a menstrual cycle lasts for 28 days. This cycles may either last for 21 days or as long as
35 days in some individuals.
The entire process of the menstrual cycle is controlled by the endocrine system and the
hormones involved are FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone. Both FSH and LH hormones are
produced by the gonadotropic cells and progesterone hormones are produced by the ovaries.