Definition & Explanation

RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is a computer

architecture design that focuses on using a small and simplified set of
instructions. These instructions are typically of fixed length, uniform format,
and are designed to execute very quickly—usually in one clock cycle.
The main goal of RISC architecture is to reduce the complexity of hardware and
control logic, which results in faster instruction execution, easier pipelining,
and better performance.
Unlike traditional Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC) which have
hundreds of complex instructions, RISC systems include only the most
frequently used and essential instructions. These instructions perform simple,
low-level operations such as addition, subtraction, load, store, and logical
operations.
In RISC systems, most instructions operate on registers rather than memory.
The architecture follows the Load/Store model, where:
• Only LOAD and STORE instructions access memory.
• All other operations (ADD, SUB, AND, OR, etc.) are performed between
registers.
Another important feature of RISC is its support for instruction-level
parallelism. Since instructions are simple and execute in uniform time, the CPU
can fetch, decode, and execute different instructions simultaneously through
pipelining. This significantly improves the instruction throughput of the
processor.
RISC architectures are widely used today in devices that require high speed,
low power consumption, and efficient execution, such as smartphones,
tablets, IoT devices, embedded systems, and even high-performance servers.
Overall, RISC simplifies instruction handling, speeds up processing, and makes
the processor design scalable and modular.
RISC Instruction Set – Expanded Definition
A RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) instruction set refers to the
collection of simple, hardware-level instructions that are supported by a RISC
processor. These instructions are carefully selected to perform only the most
essential and frequently used operations, allowing the processor to execute
them very quickly — usually in a single clock cycle.
Each instruction in a RISC instruction set is typically of fixed length, uses a
simple and uniform format, and operates primarily on registers. The design is
based on the load/store architecture, meaning:
• Only LOAD and STORE instructions are used to access memory.
• All other instructions (like arithmetic and logic operations) work with
data in the registers.
This minimalistic approach makes the instruction set easier to decode, faster
to execute, and more compatible with pipelined execution. The instruction set
usually includes:
• Arithmetic instructions: ADD, SUB, MUL
• Logical instructions: AND, OR, XOR
• Data movement: LOAD, STORE
• Branching instructions: JUMP, BEQ, BNE
The simplicity and regularity of the RISC instruction set allow compilers to
generate efficient machine code and enable the CPU to maintain high
throughput with minimal control logic.
In summary, a RISC instruction set is optimized for speed, efficiency, and
simplicity, which is why it is widely adopted in modern CPU architectures like
ARM and RISC-V.

Advantages of RISC Architecture:

1. Simpler instruction set – Easier to decode and execute.

2. Faster execution – Most instructions take just one clock cycle.

3. Efficient pipelining – Regular instruction format improves

performance.

Disadvantages of RISC Architecture:

 1. More instructions required to perform complex tasks.

2. Larger program size – Due to splitting complex operations into

multiple simple ones.

3. More memory bandwidth usage – Because of increased instruction

count.

4. Compiler must be smarter to optimize instruction usage effectively.

Conclusion (Optional):
RISC architecture plays a major role in modern processor design due to its
simplicity, speed, and scalability. Architectures like ARM and RISC-V are based
on the RISC model and are used widely in smartphones, tablets, IoT devices,
and even supercomputers.

CISC
Definition & Explanation of CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is a computer
architecture designed to support a large and varied set of instructions, many of
which perform complex operations within a single instruction. Unlike RISC,
which uses a small set of simple instructions, CISC aims to reduce the number
of instructions per program by making each instruction more powerful.
CISC instructions vary in length and complexity. They can perform multiple
tasks such as loading from memory, arithmetic operations, and storing results
in a single instruction, which reduces program size and simplifies programming.
Key Features of CISC:
• Instructions can execute multiple low-level operations (e.g., memory
access, arithmetic, control flow).
• Instructions vary in length and format.
• Many instructions can directly access memory operands, not just
registers.
• More complex hardware and control logic are required to decode and
execute instructions.
 • Typically, instructions take multiple clock cycles to complete.
• Uses microprogramming to break complex instructions into simpler
internal steps.
• Provides backward compatibility and supports complex software
efficiently.
CISC processors are widely used in desktop and server CPUs, such as the
popular x86 architecture. They are favored for their rich instruction set and
ability to handle complex operations with fewer instructions, though this
comes at the cost of increased hardware complexity and sometimes slower
execution speed per instruction.
In summary, CISC focuses on powerful, multi-step instructions to reduce
program length and simplify software development, contrasting with the
simplicity and speed of RISC.
CISC Instruction Set – Expanded Definition
A CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) instruction set refers to a large
and diverse collection of machine-level instructions designed to perform
complex tasks using a single instruction. These instructions can vary in length,
use multiple addressing modes, and often perform multi-step operations (such
as memory access + arithmetic + store) in one go.
The core idea of CISC is to make hardware more capable so that each
instruction can do more, thus reducing the number of instructions per
program. For example, a single CISC instruction may include:
• An arithmetic operation
• A memory fetch
• And a register update — all combined
Unlike RISC, which relies heavily on register operations, the CISC instruction set
allows direct memory access within instructions and supports a wide variety
of addressing modes (immediate, direct, indirect, indexed, etc.).
CISC instruction sets are generally variable-length (some are 1 byte, others 5 or
6 bytes), which adds to the complexity of decoding them but allows for more
compact programs.
Typical instructions in a CISC instruction set include:
 • MOV A, B – Move data between memory and registers
• ADD A, [B] – Add a register and memory location directly
• MUL A – Multiply accumulator by a memory operand
The x86 architecture (used in most desktops and laptops) is a prime example of
a CISC instruction set.
In summary, a CISC instruction set is designed to reduce the number of
instructions per program by using powerful, multi-functional instructions at
the cost of increased hardware complexity and variable instruction timing.
Advantages of CISC Architecture:

Rich instruction set – Can perform complex tasks with fewer instructions.

Smaller program size – Complex operations done in single instructions

reduce code length.

Easier programming – More powerful instructions simplify software

development.

Direct memory access – Many instructions operate directly on memory

operands.

Disadvantages of CISC Architecture:

Complex instructions – Harder and slower to decode and execute.

Larger and more complex control unit – Increases CPU design complexity
and power consumption.

Less energy efficient – Not ideal for low-power or embedded devices.

Harder to optimize – Compiler and CPU optimizations are more

complicated.

Conclusion (Optional):
CISC architecture remains dominant in traditional desktop and server
processors due to its powerful and flexible instruction set, which helps reduce
program size and simplify coding. However, the complexity of its instructions
can limit execution speed and energy efficiency compared to RISC. Popular
examples include the x86 family of processors widely used in PCs and laptops.