Chopter 4

Excess Carriers in Semiconductors

124 125
of
because of their high mobility; for example, InSb has an electron mobility in Carricrs in a semiconductor diffuse
about 10 cm²/V-s and thereforc is used as a sensitive infrarcd detcctor thermal motionand scattering from the latticea carrier gradient by random
a pulse of excess electrons injected at x = and irnpurities. For example,
many applications. 0
The time response of a photoconductive cell is limited by the recombi time as shown in Fig, 4-12. Initially, the excessat time t =0 will spread out in
required for carri electrons are concentrated at
nation times, the degree of carrier trapping, and the time x= 0; as time passes, however, electrons
diffuse to regjons of low electron
properties can concentration until finally n(x) is constant.
ers to drift through the device in an electric field. Often these
but in some
be adjustedby proper choice of material and devicc geometry, We can calculate the rate at which the
electrons
expense of sensitivity.
cases improvements in response time are made at thethe device short, but this dimensional problem by considering an arbitrary distributiondiffuse in a one
n(z) such as Fig,
For example, the drift time can be reduced by making 4-13a. Since the mean free path l between collisions is a small
addition, it is often incremental
substantially reduces the responsive area of the device. In distance, we can divide x into segments wide, with n(z) evaluated at the
desirable that the device have a large dark resistance, and for
this rcason, center of each segment (Fig. 4-13b).
compromise be
shortening the length may not be practical. There is usually a requirements in
tween sensitivity, response time, dark resistance, and other
choosing a device for a particular application.

=0
semiconductor, the elec
4.4 When excess carriers are created nonuniformly in a
DIFFUSIONOF tron and hole concentrations vary with position in the sample. Any such spa
CARRIERS tial variation (gradient) in nand pcalls for anet motion of the carriers from
concentration.
regions of high carrier concentration to regions of low carrier
This type of motion is called diffusion and represents an important charge
current con
transport process in semiconductors. The two basic processes of
duction are difusion due to a carrier gradient and drift in an electric field.

4.4.1 Diffusion Processes Figure 4-12

When abotle of perfume is opened in one corner of a closed room, the scent Spreading of a
is soon detected throughout the room. If there is no convection or other net
pulse of electrons
by diffusion.
motion of air, the scent spreads by diffusion. The diffusion is the natural re
sult of the random motion of the individual molecules. Consider, for exam
ple, a volume of arbitrary shape with scented air molecules inside and n (x) Figure 4-13
unscented molecules outside the volume. Allthe molecules undergo random n )
Xo

An arbitrary elec
thermal motion and collisions with other molecules. Thus cach molecule n,-n

tron concentration
moves in an arbitrary direction until it collides with another air molecule, gradient in one di
after which it moves in a new direction. If the motion is truly random, a mol mension: (o) divi
ecule at the edge of the volume has equal probabilities of moving into or out sion of nl) into
of the volume on its next step (assuming the curvature of the surface is neg segments of
ligible on the molecular scale). Therefore, after a mean free time i, half the length equal to a
molecules at the edge will have moved into the volume and half will have mean free path
moved out of the volume. The net effect is that the volume containing scent for the electrons;
ed molecules has increased. This process willcontinue until the molecules (b) expanded
are uniformly distributed in the [Link] then will a given volume gain as view of wo of the
many molecules as it loses in a given time. In other words, net diffusion will segments centered
continue as long as gradients exist in the distribution of scented molecules. (a) (b) at Xo
 elelin
Excess Corriers in Semiconductors 127
126 Chapter 4
x, in Fig,4-13b have eaual
The electrons in segment (1) tothe left of dift.) =-(+q)D,dolx)-= -qD, dplx)
mean free time ione-half of them (4-22b)
chances of moving left or right, and in a dx
electrons within one mean free
will move into segment (2).The same is true of will move through from It is important to note that eleçtrons and holes move together in a car
path of xn to the right; one-half of these electrons number of electrons pass rier gradient (Eqs. (4-21)], but the resulting currents are in opposite directions
right to left n a mean free time. Therefore, the net
(n,lA)-n,lA), where the [Eqs (4-22)] because of the opposite charge of electrons and holes.
ing x, from left to right in one mean free time is flow in the +x-direction per
area perpendicular to x is A. The rate of electron
unit area (the electron flux density ,) is given by 4.4.2 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers; Built-in Fields
4,(r) = -) (4-18) If an electric field is present in addition to the carrier gadient, the current
densities will each have a drift component and a diffusion component
difference
Since the mean free path l is a small differential length, the
in electron concentration (n, -n) can be written as dn(x) (423a)
,() =qnle() + qD, dx
n(a) - n(x + ar); (4-19) drift diffusion
where x is taken at the center of segment (1) and Ax =l. In the limit of
Small ,)= qe,p)8(:) - qD, dplx)
dx
(4-23b)
Ax (i.e., small mean free path lbetween scattering collisions), Eq. (4-18) can
be written in terms of the carrier gradient dn(x)/dx:
and the total current density is the sum of the contributions due to elec
nx)- n + Ar) -j? dn(x)
27 dx
(4-20) trons and holes:
Ax
J(a) =J,() + ,() (424)
The quantity 7/2+ is called the electron diffusion coefficient D, with We can best visualize the relation between the particle flow and the cur
units cm/s. The minus sign in Eq. (4-20) arises from the definition of the de
rivative; it simply indicates that the net motion of electrons due to diffusion rent of Eqs. (4-23)by considering a diagram such as shown in Fig. 4-14. In this
is in the direction of decreasing electron concentration. This is the result we figure an electric field is assumed to be in the r-direction, along with carrier
expect, since net diffusion occursfrom regions of high particle concentra distributions n(x) and p(x) which decrease with increasing x Thus the deriva
tion to regions of lowparticle concentration. By identical arguments, we can tives in Eqs. (4-21) are negative, and diffusion takes place in the +r-direction.
show that holes in a hole concentration gradient move with a diffusion co The resulting electron and hole diffusion currents , (diff.) and J, (diff.)] are in
direction of the
efficient D,. Thus opposite directions, according to Eqs. (4-22). Holes drift in the
because
electric field [, (drift)l, whereas electrons drift in the opposite direction
in the +x-direction in
d,(e) =-D,dn(x) (4-21a) of their negative charge. The resulting drift current is
the current are ad
dx each case, Note that the drift and diffusion components of Figure 4-14
hole concentra
ditive for holes when the field is in the direction of decreasing Drift and diffusion
,(e) =-D, dp(:)
dx (4-21b) tion, whereas the two components are
subtractive for electrons under similar
the flow of electrons or
directions for elec
conditions. The total current may be due primarily to Irons and holes in
The diffusion current crossing a unit area (the current density) is the acarrier gradient
particle flux density multiplied by the charge of the carrier: ,(diff.) and b,, (drit) and an electric
field. Particle low
J, (dift.) andJ,, (drit)
J(diff.) =--q)D, dn(x) +qD, dx
dn(x)
(4-22a) , (dift.)
directions are in
dicated by
n (x) dashed arrows,
b, (drill.) and the resulting
7if molion in three dimensions were included, the diffusion would be smaller in the xdirection. p (x) currents are indi
diffusion coeficient Actually, the J,(dift.)
should be calculaled from the Irue energy distribulions cated by solid
fusion coefficienls ore usually delermined experimentally for o particulor ond scatering mechanisms. Di
4.4.5.
material, os described in Section J,(drilt.) arrowS.
128 Chapter 4 Excoss Carriers in Semiconductors 129
holes, depending on the relative concentrations and the relative magnitudes
and directions of clectric ficld and carrier gradients 8(x) =
E
(4-26)
An important result of Eqs (4-23) is that minority carriers can contribute dx q dx
significantly to the current through diffusion, Since the drift terms aro pro
portional to carrier concentration, minority carriers seldom provide much drift Thercfore, the variation of band energies with 8(*) as drawn in Fig, 4-15
current. On the other hand, diffusion current is proportional to the gradient of is correct. The direction of the slope in the bands relative to% is simple to re
concentration. For example, in n-type material the minority hole concentration member: Since the diagram indicates electron energjes, we know the slope in
pmay be many orders of magnitude smaller than the electron concentration the bands must be such that electrons drift "downhil" in the field. Therefore,&
points "uphill" in the band diagram.
n, but the gradient dpldx may be significant. As a result, minority carrier cur
rents through diffusion can sometimes be as large as majority carrier currents. Atequilibrium, no net current flows in a semiconductor. Thus any fluc
In discussing the motion of carriers in an electric field, we should in tuation which would begin a diffusion current also sets up an electric field
dicate the influence of the field on the energies of electrons in the band di which redistributes carriers by drift. An examination of the requirements for
agrams. Assuming an clectric field $(x) in the x-direction, we can draw the equilibrium indicates that the diffusion coefficient and mobility must be re
energy bands as in Fig. 4-15, to include the change in potential energy of [Link] Eq. (4-23b) equal to zero for equilibrium, we have
clectrons in the field. Since electrons drift in a direction opposite to the B(3)el dplr)
field, we expect the potential energy for electrons to increase in the direc (4-27)
tion of the field, as in Fig. 4-15. The electrostatic potential V)varies in
the opposite direction, since it is defined in terms of positive charges and is Using Eq. (3-25b) for p(r),
therefore related to the electron potential energy E(x) displayed in the fig (4-28)
ure by V(r) = E(r)/(-).
From the definition of electric field,
and the derivative of
84) ) The equilibrium Fermi level does not vary with x,
(4-25) E, is given by Eq. (4-26). Thus Eq. (4-28) reduces
to
dx
kT
we can relate E(r) to the electron potential energy in the banddiagram by (++29)
choosing some reference in the band for the electrostatic potential. We are important equation
interested only in the spatial variation V(r) for Eq. (4-25). Choosing E, as a This result is obtained for either carrier type. Thiseither D or u from a
to calculate
convenient reference, we can relate the electric field to this reference by is called the Einstein relation. It allows typical values of D and u for sev
measurement of the other. Table 41 lists that
temperature. It is clear from these values
eral semiconductors at room
Dlu 0.026 V. equilibri
balance of drift and diffusion at
An important result of the (4-26)]). Such
accompany gradients in E [see Eq.
um is that built-in fields when the band
equilibrium (E_ constant) can arise
gradients in the bands at commonly, built-in
in alloy composition. More distribution N(r)
gap varies due to changesgradients
E, For example, a donor
fields result from doping
holes for intrinsic
and mobiliy ofelectrons and
Table 4-] Difusion coefficient 3-23 for doped
semiconductors.
semiconduclorsat 300 K, Note: Use Fig.
Figure 4-15 D, lom/s
Energy band dio D, lom/s) 1900
grom of a semi 50 3900
Ge 100 480
conductor in on 12.5 1350
SI 35 400
10 8500
electric field (x). GaAs 220