DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY

• Developmental biology - Recent extended term of embryology

which includes biochemical, genetic, physiological and
morphological studies of the developing embryo
• In other words it includes the events such as growth, repair,
maintenance of pattern, aging and death.

• According to Berrill in 1971, it includes two important phenomena

i.e. cytodifferentiation and ontogenetic development

• Thus the science of development includes all the events which

begin from the initiation of germ cell to the death of the individual.
 Gametogenesis
• Process of formation of gamete
• Two types of cells somatic cells and reproductive cells
• The somatic cells related to the particular organs of the
body
• Help in the maturation and development of germinal
cells
• Mitotic division takes place in somatic cells
• The germinal cells are responsible for the production of
gametes
• These cells are produced by successive mitotic and
meiotic cell division
• Gametogenesis is of two types
• Spermatogenesis and oogenesis
 Spermatogenesis
• Process of the formation of sperm
• Formed from the germinal epithelium
• Cells which form the sperms called primary germinal
cells
• Each primary germinal cell undergoes
1. Multiplication phase
2. Growth phase and
3. maturation phase
 Multiplication phase
• Primary germinal cells multiply by repeated
mitotic division
• Produce cells called spermatogonia
• Spermatogonial cell produce secondary
spermatogonia cell
• Each cell has 2 set of chromosome
• These cells undergo growth phase
 Growth phase
• The spermatogonial cells store food and
increase in size and attaining maturity
• The mature spermatogonial cell called primary
spermatocyte
• Undergoes maturation phase
 Maturation phase
• The primary spermatocyte undergoes first
meiosis division
• Produces two haploid secondary spermatocytes
• The division is termed as first maturation division
• Which undergo second maturation division and
produce 4 spermatids
• Non functional male gametes
• To become functional they undergo
spermiogenesis
 Sperm
• It is small, motile
• Consist of three parts ie head middle pieceand
tail
• Head contain small cap like structure called
acrosome
• Help in penetration of viteline membrane of
ova
• Contain hydrolytic enzyme which dissolve the
vitalline membrane and large size nucleus
• Middle piece –
• It is short which contain contain centrioles and
mitochondria
• Centriole initiate cell division of zygote
• mitochondria helps in releasing energy for the
movement of sperm
• Tail –
• Long, flagella like
 Oogenesis
• The process of the production ovum or egg
• Takes place in the cells of the germinal
epithelium of the ovary called premordial
germinal cells
• It consist following stages
1. Multiplication phase
2. Growth phase and
3. Maturation phase
 Multiplication phase
• Ovary is lining by germinal epithelial cells
• Premordial germinal cells undergo repeated
mitotic division
• Produce large no of cells called oogonia
• Each cell has 2 set of chromosome
 Growth phase
• Oogonial cells become fully grown and form primary
oocyte
• Large amount of fat and protein deposited in the form
of yolk
• Forms vegetal pole
• Cytoplasmic portion having pronucleus
• Forms animal pole
• Cytoplasm contains RNA, DNA, enzymes, mitochondria,
golgibodies, etc
• Nucleus enlarge
• Primary oocyte undergo next phase
 Maturation phase
• Primary oocyte undergo two sucessive division
• First successive division or first maturation division and second
maturation division
• In first maturation division primary oocytes divide by meiosis and
forms 2 unequal haploid cells
• Smaller called first polar body having very small amount of
cytoplasm
• Larger called secondary oocyteshaving large amount of cytoplasm
• Secondary oocyte undergo meiosis II
• Form two unequal haploid cells
• Smaller called second polar body having small amount of cytoplasm
• Larger called ootid having large amount of cytoplasm
• It develop into an ovum
• First polar body divides to form two polar
bodies
• Lastly three polar bodies are formed
• Which becomes degenerate
 Structure of Ova
• It is spherical and covered by double membrane
• Outer thin and transparent membrane is viteline
membrane and inner layer is plasma membrane
• It has two parts ie upper pigmented part is
known as lnimal pole and lower pigmented half is
known as vegetal pole
• Frog egg is telolecithal ie concentration of yolk is
more in vegetal pole
 Copulation
• During breading season frog produce croaking
sound to attract femalefrog
• After that the male frog embrace the female frog
tightly with the help of adhesive pad in shallow
water and then female frog reease eggs
• Male frog also release sperms near that and
external fertilization occur this kind of copulation
is known as amplexus false copulation
 Fertilization
• fertilization takes place out side the body so fertilization is external
• Eggs are laid in the form of secondary oocyte
• Sperm approaches towards the animal pole
• Acrosome penetrate the vitelline membrane of ova
• In ova there develops swelling structure known asreception cone
• Sperm enters through reception cone in the ova
• Acrosome contain spermlysin which dissolve the vitelline
membrane and plasma membrane
• Liquid oozes out from cytoplasm and filled the space between
plasma membrane and vitelline membrane to form a thick layer
known as fertilization membrane
• Fertilization membrane prevent the entry of other sperm
• Monospermic
• When sperm enter inside ova, only head and middle part of sperm enter
inside ova
• Tail remains out side
• After entry of sperm, ova undergoes second maturation division
• As a result of second maturation division polar body are seen between the
vitalline membrane membrane
• Ova nucleus is female pronucleus
• Male pronucleus and female pronucleus completely fuse to form zygote
nucleus
• Nucleus membrane of zygote nucleus dissolve and chromosome appear
clearly
• Two centriole move apart and become spindle shaped
• Then initiate cell division and undergoes other process
 Cleavage
• The early mitotic cell division of zygote is called
cleavage
• It is holoblastic
• First in regular manner but after 32 cells stage
follows irregular division due to large amount of
yolk
• First cleavage is vertical from animal pole to the
vegetal pole
• Two blastomere are formed
• First cleavage is holoblastic
• 2nd cleavage is also vertical but right angle to 1st
• As the result of 2nd cleavage 4 blastomeres are formed
• It is holoblastic
• 3rd cleavage is horizontal just above the equatorial line
• As a result of it 8 cells are formed
• The cells which lies in animal pole are small in size are called
micromeres
• The cells lies at vegetal pole in large size are called macromeres
• In 4th cleavage 2 more vertical division occur the result of it, 16 cells
are formed
• In 5th cleavage 2 more horizontal division as a result of it 32 cells
are formed up to 32 cell division is in regular manner
• After 32 cell divide irregularly due to rapid division of micromere
 Morula stage
• Micromeres divide rapidly
• Zygote become ball like structure like mulberry fruit
• This stage called morula stage
• Morula follows blastula
• Process is known as blastulation
• In blastula stage excessive growth takes place formed
segmental cavity
• This segmental cavity is filled with fluid called blastocoel
• The cell of roof of blastocoel are smaller called micromere
• in the floor of blastocoel the cell are larger called
macromeres
• During the blastula stage, presumptive areas are seen
• Micromere from ectoderm
• Ectoderm divide into epidermis and neural plate
• The cell near the grey crescent formed Notochord and
mesoderm
• Macromere form endoderm
• Blastula follow the gastrula
• Gastrula means rearrangement and migration of cell
• Final stage of gastrulation forms 3 germinal layer i.e.
ectoderm mesoderm and endoderm
• Gastrulation is completed in 4 step
1. Epiboly
2. Imboly
3. Concetraction of lips of blastopore
4. Rotation of embryo
 Epiboly
• The rapid and continuous division of
micromere
• This micromere move from animal pole
towards the vegetal pole
• It is completely enclosed the magamere at
vegetal pole except the regions of yolk plug
• The process of over growth of micromere is
called epiboly
 Imboly
• Process of invigilation of outer cells of blastula
• In the beginning of epiboly, the small groove is formed called
incipient archenteron
• Which extend further to form large cavity known as archenteron
• The opening end of archenteron is called blastopore
• It is the furture anus and its anterior margin form dorsal lip of
blastopore
• As the increase of archenteron, reduce the size of blastocoel and
ultimately disappear
• At the end of invagination, blastopore is surrounded by dorsal lip,
ventral lip and two lateral lips.
• After forming lip blastopore become complete circle
 Contraction of lip of blastopore
• Due to this some megameres comes out from the
blastopore to form cork like structure which is
known as yolk plug
• During the gastrulation, roof forming cells of
archenteron differentiated in chordamesoderm
• The floor and side of archenteron differentiation
into ectoderm
• Upper and covering cells differented into
ectoderm
• Lateral and venteral side differentiated into
mesoderm
 Rotation of embryo
• Embryo remain covered by vitelline membrane
• This gastrula rotate at right angle with in the vitelline
membrane due shifting of heavy megamere
• As a result of this blastopore come to lie at dorso-
posterior position
• As the result of early gastrula, two germinal layer are
formed
• They are ectoderm and endoderm
• And at the final stage three layers ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm
 Fate of ectoderm
• Formation of skin/epidermis of skin
• Brain / spinal cord
• Dorsal root of ganglia
• Enamel of teeth
 Fate of mesoderm
• Coelom
• Muscles
• Skeleton
• Dermis layer of skin
• Dentine of teeth
• Notochord
• Reproductive organ
• Excretory organ
 Fate of endoderm
• Mucosa layer of alimentary canal
• Digestive glands like
• liver,
• pancreas,
• intestinal gland,
• throid gland
• thymous gland
• urethra,
• urinary bladder
 Neurulation/formation of neural tube
• Process of formation of neural tube
• Ectodermal in origin
• At the end of gastrulation the mid dorsal line of ectoderm become
thickening and forming pear shaped medullary neural plate
• Which sink down to form groove known as neural groove
• At the same time lacteal margins of neural groove rise up as a pairs
of ridge known as neural fold
• As development continue neural fold grow, meet and fused
• And eventually separated from the ectoderm to form neural tube
this cavity of neural tube is called neural pore
• Posterior neural tube is connected with archenteron by neurentic
canal later, anterior broad part is developed into brain and posterior
narrow part develops into spinal cord
 Notogenesis
• The process of formation of notochord is called
notogenesis
• Which occur simultaneously with neurulation
• It is mesodermal in origin
• At the end of gastrulation , some cells of roof of
archenteron differentiate into chordamesoderm
• The chorda cells of roof of archenteron separate from
the adjacent mesoderm and form solid cylindrical
broad like organ known as notocord
• This notochord is surrounded by notochordal sheath
• Later this notochord is replaced by vertebral column
 Formation of coelom
• Coelom is mesodermal in origin
• Mesodermal layer split into somites called epimeresmesomeres and
hypomeres
• Epimeres differentiate into dermatome, Myotome and scleritome
• Dermetome gives rise to dermis layer of skin
• Myotome gives rise to muscles and sclerotome gives rise to skeleton
• Mesomere differentiate into nephrotome and this nephrotome gives rise
to excretory organs and reproductive organs hypomere is also called
lateral plate which move down in embryo and split into two layer
• Outer layer is called somatic or parietal layer
• Inner layer is called viscetral or splanchinic layer
• In between these two layer form cavity known as splenchnocoel
• Somatic/pariental layer united with ectoderm to form body wall and
visceral / splanchnic layer unite with endoderm to form gut wall
• Splanchnocoel extend further and to form body cavity called coelom